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For the past ½ year we have gone over the basic concepts of
environmental science
For the rest of the time we look how those concepts have been
applied (or not)
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Sustainable living for humans
What main tasks do humans need to accomplish in order to live sustainably on the Earth?
Tasks Zone(s) of the Earth effected
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Food, Soil, and Pest Management
Chapter 12
May have additional readings in other chapters
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Poverty and Lack of Food
Not surprisingly, people who are poor do not the mains to obtain enough food for a nutritionally diet
Not enough protein and essential vitiamins, including vitamin A
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Core Case Study: Grains of Hope or an Illusion?
Vitamin A deficiency in some developing countries (140 million children)
leads to• Blindness (250,00 to 500,000 under 6)• Susceptible to common childhood infecticous
disease
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1999: Porrykus and Beyer• Genetically engineered rice with beta-carotene and
more iron
Worked out agreements with poor farmers to try new strain for free
Is this the answer for malnutrition in these countries?
Challenge of increased food production
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Golden Rice: Genetically Engineered Strain of Rice Containing Beta-Carotene
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Goals
Reduce poverty
Grow and distribute more food than ever
Reduce environmental harm caused by the impact of such food production
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12-1 What Is Food Security and Why Is It Difficult to Attain?
Concept 12-1A Many of the poor suffer health problems from chronic lack of food and poor nutrition, while many people in developed countries have health problems from eating too much food.
Concept 12-1B The greatest obstacles to providing enough food for everyone are poverty, political upheaval, corruption, war, and the harmful environmental effects of food production.
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Many of the Poor Have Health Problems Because They Do Not Get Enough to Eat
Food security: each person in a given area has daily access to enough nutritious food to have an active and healthy life
Food insecurity• Root cause: poverty
• Since 1990, India has produced enough grain to feed entire population, but 1/5th of population are malnourished (can not afford to buy or grow food)
• Reasons why?
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Problems to obtaining food security
Land, climate variation Political upheaval Corruption War Harmful environmental effects of food production
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Many People Suffer from Chronic Hunger and Malnutrition (1)
Macronutrients• Carbohydrates (provide short term energy)• Found in Wheat, rice, corn
• Proteins (help build and repair tissue)• Found in animals and some plants)
• Fats (lipids) (help build membranes, hormones)• Found in animal fats, nuts, oils
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Woman with Goiter in Bangladesh
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Micronutrients• Vitamins, minerals like• Iron: anemia 1 in 5 people, fatigue• Vitamin A: rice vs pills• Iodine: proper functioning of thyroid gland,
produces hormones and controls metabolism• Found in seafood, iodine rich soils• Lack results in stunted growth, goiter, retardation,
brain damage
Calcium, vitamin C, E are also important
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Many People Suffer from Chronic Hunger and Malnutrition (2)
Chronic undernutrition, hunger• Can not meet basic needs • Mental retardation, stunted growth, falling
infectious diseases, unlike developed world
Chronic malnutrition:• Can only live on low protein, high carbohydrate
consisting of just grains
What progress in being made? • Such population fell from 1970-2006 by 50 million
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War and the Environment: Starving Children in Famine-Stricken Sudan, Africa
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Acute Food Shortages Can Lead to Famines
Famine• A severe shortage of food, accompanied by mass
starvation, social disruption, death
• Usually caused by crop failures from• Drought• Flooding• War• Other catastrophic events
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Many People Have Health Problems from Eating Too Much
Overnutrition
Similar health problems to those who are underfed• Lower life expectancy • Greater susceptibility to disease and illness• Lower productivity and life quality
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We live in a world
Where
1 billion have health problems from eating too little
1.6 billion have health problems from eating too much
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In US
In 2005: • study suggests that 66% of Americans are
overweight, 33% are obese
• 50 billion dollars a year is spent by people trying to lose weight (twice as much as is needed to end under nutrition and malnourishment in the world)
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Exit Questions for 12-1
1. What is the difference between food security and food insecurity?
2. Describe the effects of diet deficiencies of vitamin A, iron and iodine.
3. What steps/actions would you take to solve the over-nutrition problem in the US?
4. What actions would you take to reduce chronic hunger and malnutrition?A. In the US
B. In the world
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12-2 How Is Food Produced?
Concept 12-2A We have sharply increased crop production using a mix of industrialized and traditional agriculture.
Concept 12-2B We have used industrialized and traditional methods to greatly increase supplies of meat, fish, and shellfish.
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Food Production Has Increased Dramatically
Three systems produce most of our food• Croplands: 77%• Rangelands, pastures, and feedlots: 16%• Ocean fisheries, Aquaculture: 7%
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What you eat
Food systems depend on a small number o f plant and animal species
14 of 50,000 plant species eaten by humans supply 90% of world% calories
# types of grain, wheat, rice, corn provide 47% of calories/ 42% of protein
2/3rds of world’s people survive primarily on these grains
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Why- what are the problems
Why do humans specialize in their food crops?
Why would specialization put people in a vulnerable position?
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Answer
Crops can fail because• Disease• Environmental degradation• Climate change
Ex: how would the loss of bees effect crops?
Ex: Banana wilt: Panama disease is now found in all banana-producing regions except islands in the South Pacific, the Mediterranean, Melanesia, and Somalia
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Tremendous increase in global food production
Why?• Technological advances• Tractors, farm machinery• High tech fishing equipment• Inorganic chemical fertilizers• Irrigation• Pesticides• High yield grain varieties• Factory like stockyards, fish ponds
Increasing reliance on fairly small number of crops
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Industrialized Crop Production Relies on High-Input Monocultures
Industrialized agriculture, high-input agriculture• Heavy machinery, large amounts of cash, water,
fuel, fertilizers, pesticides
• Focus on producing large amounts of a single crop (monoculture) Why?
• Goal is to steadily increase crop yield• Plantation agriculture: cash crops
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Use of Greenhouses
Increased use of greenhouses to raise crops
Why?
What would be advantages of using greenhouses instead of fields?
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Answer
Makes arid lands productive (see coast of spain in pictures on following slides)
On small scale, greenhouses are water efficient, water is recycled
• Hydroponics (using no soils, just water)• 1/5th to 1/10th as much water compared to
conventional farming uses
• Problems, Uses a lot of electricity,
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Satellite Images of Greenhouse Land Used in the Production of Food Crops
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Problems with intense monocultures?
Water, Energy needs Environmental degradation (fertilizers,
pesticides, topsoil erosion) Weather Disease Others?
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Traditional Agriculture Often Relies on Low-Input Polycultures
Practiced by 2.7 billion people, 1/5th crops on ¾ th cultivated land
Two types: Traditional subsistence agriculture:• Relies on human labor, draft animals• Meant to satisfy family needs
Traditional intensive agriculture• Adds more labor, water, fertilizers• Hopes to have extra to sell
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Polyculture
Polyculture• Growing several crops in the same space• Reduces chance of losing all of crop• Keeps soil covered (erosion)• Crops mature at different times • Raised beds• Legumes among the corn• Crop-eating insects, and weeds have a harder
time to survive
• Study suggest that low input-poly produces more food than high input-mono
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Slash and burn method
• Slash-and-burn agriculture• On small scale, it is sustainable• Ashes provide nutrients• Grow crops(up to 20 types) until soil is depleted of
nutrients• Ground is allow to lie fallow (tress, medicinal
crops)• Able to grow crops again in 10-30 years
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Science Focus: Soil Is the Base of Life on Land
Soil composition: • mixture of eroded rock, mineral nutrients,
decaying organic matter, water, air, and a host of living organisms
Soil formation• Bedrock is slowly broken down into fragments by • Physical (freezing, thawing of water)• Chemical (acids created in air or groundwater
runnoff • biological processes (creatures in search of
nutrients (roots)
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Layers and age of soil
Immature, young and mature soil
Layers (horizons) of mature soils• O horizon: leaf litter• A horizon: topsoil• Roots of most plants are concentrated in these top
2 layers. Teem with bacteria, worms, insects• Humus- porous mixture, partially decomposed
bodies of plants, clay, sand- nutrients• B horizon: subsoil (mostly inorganic broken down
rock)• C horizon: parent material, often bedrock
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Soil Formation and Generalized Soil Profile
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Questions about soil
Which is the most valuable horizon?, Why?
Is it renewable?
What roles does a tree do in the soil environment?
What happens if you remove the tree?
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Fig. 12-A, p. 281
Wood sorrelOak tree Earthworm
Grasses and small shrubs
Organic debris builds up
FernHoney fungus
Moss and lichen
MoleRock fragments
O horizon Leaf litter
A horizon Topsoil
B horizon Subsoil
BedrockImmature soil
Young soilC horizon
Parent material
Mite
Nematode
Root systemRed earth mite Bacteria
FungusMature soil
Millipede
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A Closer Look at Industrialized Crop Production
Green Revolution: increase crop yields (50’s-60’s)• Monocultures of high-yield key crops
• E.g., rice, wheat, and corn• Use large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, and water
• Multiple cropping: multiple crops grown on same land over 1 year
Second Green Revolution: (70’s and 80’s)• dwarf varieties, more food on less land, saves forest,
wetlands, mountain terrains
World grain has tripled in production
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Global Outlook: Total Worldwide Grain Production (Wheat, Corn, and Rice)
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Fig. 12-5a, p. 282
2,000
1,500
1,000
Gra
in p
rod
uct
ion
(m
illi
on
s o
f m
etri
c to
ns)
500
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Total World Grain Production
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Fig. 12-5b, p. 282
400
350
300
250
Per
cap
ita
gra
in p
rod
uct
ion
(k
ilo
gra
ms
per
per
son
)
200
150
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
World Grain Production per Capita
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Questions
• What grain production per capita mean?
• Why do you think grain production per capita has stopped growing grown less consistently than total grain production?
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Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States
Agribusiness: small number of giant multinational corp in control of growing, processing, distribution and sale of food
Annual sales for ag is bigger auto, steel, housing combined. US is bread basket of world
Food production: very efficient
Percent of income spent on food : 2% compared to 40% in developing , 1.2 bill of poorest spend 70%
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Costs of agribusiness
High direct market sales Subsidies Environmental damage costs as a result of
agribusiness (runoff of nutrient and pesticides, diseases)
Health and insurance bills related to agriculture
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Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Can Produce New Crop Varieties (1)
Gene Revolution• Cross-breeding through artificial selection• Slow process
Genetic engineering• Genetic modified organisms (GMOs):
transgenic organisms
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Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Can Produce New Crop Varieties (2)
Age of Genetic Engineering: developing crops that are resistant to• Heat and cold• Herbicides• Insect pests• Parasites• Viral diseases• Drought• Salty or acidic soil
Advanced tissue culture techniques
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Advantages of gene-splicing over cross-breeding
Rate of genetic change Less random Genes from different species can be used
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Advanced tissue culture
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Genetic Engineering: Steps in Genetically Modifying a Plant
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Fig. 12-6, p. 283
Phase 1 Gene Transfer Preparations
A. tumefaciens
Plant cell
Extract plasmidExtract DNA
Foreign gene if interest
plasmidForeign gene integrated into plasmid DNA.
Phase 2 Make Transgenic Cell
Agrobacterium takes up plasmid
A. tumefaciens (agrobacterium)
Enzymes integrate plasmid into host cell DNA.
Host cell Host DNAForeign DNA
Nucleus Transgenic plant cellPhase 3 Grow Genetically Engineered Plant
Cell division of transgenic cells
Cultured cells divide and grow into plantlets (otherwise teleological)
Transgenic plants with desired trait
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Meat Production and Consumption Have Grown Steadily
Animals for meat raised in• Pastures• Feedlots• Sheds
Meat production increased fourfold between 1961 and 2007• Chickens, fish, goats instead of pork, beef
Demand is expected to go higher
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Industrialized Meat Production
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Fish and Shellfish Production Have Increased Dramatically
Aquaculture, blue revolution• World’s fastest-growing type of food production• Dominated by operations that raise herbivorous
species
Polyaquaculture
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World Fish Catch, Including Both Wild Catch and Aquaculture
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Fig. 12-8a, p. 285
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Fig. 12-8a, p. 285
140
120
100
80Wild catch
Cat
ch
(mil
lio
ns
of
met
ric
ton
s)
60
40
20 Aquaculture
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Total World Fish Catch
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Fig. 12-8b, p. 285
25
20
15
10
Per
cap
ita
catc
h
(kil
og
ram
s p
er p
erso
n)
5
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
World Fish Catch per Person
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12-3 What Environmental Problems Arise from Food Production?
Concept 12-3 Food production in the future may be limited by its serious environmental impacts, including soil erosion and degradation, desertification, water and air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and degradation and destruction of biodiversity.
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Producing Food Has Major Environmental Impacts
Harmful effects of agriculture on• Biodiversity• Soil• Water• Air• Human health
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Major Harmful Environmental Effects on Food Production
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Fig. 12-9, p. 286
NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION
Food Production
Biodiversity Loss Soil Water Air Pollution Human Health
Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands
Erosion Water waste Greenhouse gas emissions (CO2) from fossil fuel use
Nitrates in drinking water (blue baby)Loss of fertility Aquifer depletion
Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air
Fish kills from pesticide runoff
SalinizationIncreased runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land
Greenhouse gas emissions (N2O) from use of inorganic fertilizersWaterlogging
Killing wild predators to protect livestock
Contamination of drinking and swimming water from livestock wastes
Desertification Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers
Greenhouse gas emissions of methane (CH4) by cattle (mostly belching)
Loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains replaced by monoculture strains
Algal blooms and fish kills in lakes and rivers caused by runoff of fertilizers and agricultural wastes
Bacterial contamination of meat
Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use and pesticide sprays
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Topsoil Erosion Is a Serious Problem in Parts of the World
Soil erosion • Natural causes• Human causes
Two major harmful effects of soil erosion• Loss of soil fertility• Water pollution
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Natural Capital Degradation: Severe Gully Erosion on Cropland in Bolivia
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Natural Capital Degradation: Global Soil Erosion
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Fig. 12-11, p. 287
Stepped Art
Stable or nonvegetative
Serious concern
Some concern
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Drought and Human Activities Are Degrading Drylands
Desertification: productive potential of land (topsoil) drops because of draought or human activities• Moderate: 10-25% drop in productivity• Severe: 25-50%• Very severe : more than 50% (dunes and gullies)
Effect of global warming on desertification• Prolong drought
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Severe Desertification
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Natural Capital Degradation: Desertification of Arid and Semiarid Lands
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Excessive Irrigation Has Serious Consequences
Irrigation problems • Salinization
• Waterlogging
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Natural Capital Degradation: Severe Salinization on Heavily Irrigated Land
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There May Be Limits to Expanding the Green Revolutions
Can we expand the green revolution by• Irrigating more cropland?• Improving the efficiency of irrigation?• Cultivating more land? Marginal land?• Using GMOs?• Multicropping?
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Industrialized Food Production Requires Huge Inputs of Energy
Industrialized food production and consumption have a large net energy loss
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Industrialized Agriculture uses ~17% of All Commercial Energy Used in the U.S.
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Fig. 12-15, p. 290
4% 2% 6% 5%
Crops Livestock Food processing Food distribution and preparation
Food production
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There Is Controversy over Genetically Engineered Foods
Pros and cons (answers on next pages)
What about chimeraplasty?
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Trade-Offs: Genetically Modified Crops and Foods
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Fig. 12-16, p. 291
TRADE-OFFSGenetically Modified Crops and Foods
Projected Advantages
Projected DisadvantagesIrreversible and unpredictable genetic and ecological effects
Need less fertilizer
Need less water
More resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought
Harmful toxins in food from possible plant cell mutations
Grow faster New allergens in foodCan grow in slightly salty soils
Lower nutrition
Increase in pesticide- resistant insects, herbicide- resistant weeds, and plant diseases
May need less pesticides
Tolerate higher levels of herbicides
Higher yieldsCan harm beneficial insects
Less spoilage Lower genetic diversity
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Food and Biofuel Production Systems Have Caused Major Biodiversity Losses
Biodiversity threatened when• Forest and grasslands are replaced with
croplands
Agrobiodiversity threatened when• Human-engineered monocultures are used
Importance of seed banks • Newest: underground vault in the Norwegian
Arctic
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Industrialized Meat Production Has Harmful Environmental Consequences
Advantages
Disadvantages
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Trade-Offs: Animal Feedlots
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Fig. 12-17, p. 292
TRADE-OFFSAnimal Feedlots
Advantages Disadvantages
Increased meat production
Large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuelsHigher profits
Greenhouse gas (CO2 and CH4) emissions
Less land use
Reduced overgrazing Concentration of animal wastes that can pollute waterReduced soil
erosion
Protection of biodiversity
Use of antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans
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Producing Fish through Aquaculture Can Harm Aquatic Ecosystems
Advantages
Disadvantages
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Trade-Offs: Aquaculture
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Fig. 12-18, p. 293
TRADE-OFFS
Aquaculture
Advantages Disadvantages
Needs large inputs of land, feed, and water
High efficiency
High yield in small volume of water
Large waste output
Can destroy mangrove forests and estuaries
Can reduce overharvesting of fisheries
Uses grain to feed some speciesLow fuel use
High profitsDense populations vulnerable to disease
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Animation: Land use
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12-4 How Can We Protect Crops from Pests More Sustainably?
Concept 12-4 We can sharply cut pesticide use without decreasing crop yields by using a mix of cultivation techniques, biological pest controls, and small amounts of selected chemical pesticides as a last resort (integrated pest management).
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Nature Controls the Populations of Most Pests
What is a pest?
Natural enemies—predators, parasites, disease organisms—control pests• In natural ecosystems • In many polyculture agroecosystems
What will happen if we kill the pests?
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Natural Capital: Spiders are Important Insect Predators
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We Use Pesticides to Try to Control Pest Populations (1)
Pesticides • Insecticides• Herbicides• Fungicides• Rodenticides
Herbivores overcome plant defenses through natural selection: coevolution
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We Use Pesticides to Try to Control Pest Populations (2)
First-generation pesticides: natural chemicals borrowed from plants (nicotine sulfate from tobacco)
Second-generation pesticides• Synthetic chemical created in labs• Paul Muller: DDT• Benefits versus harm• 100 times more toxic
Broad-spectrum agents
Persistence
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Individuals Matter: Rachel Carson
Biologist
Silent Spring
Potential threats of uncontrolled use of pesticides
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Rachel Carson, Biologist
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Modern Synthetic Pesticides Have Several Advantages
Save human lives
Increases food supplies and profits for farmers
Work quickly
Health risks are very low relative to their benefits
New pest control methods: safer and more effective
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Modern Synthetic Pesticides Have Several Disadvantages (1) Accelerate the development of genetic resistance to
pesticides by pest organisms
Expensive for farmers (not all farmers can use them)
Some insecticides kill natural predators and parasites
that help control the pest population
Pollution in the environment
Some harm wildlife (birds, amphibians)
Some are human health hazards
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Modern Synthetic Pesticides Have Several Disadvantages (2)
David Pimentel: Pesticide use has not reduced U.S. crop loss to pests• Loss of crops is about 31%, even with 33-fold
increase in pesticide use• High environmental, health, and social costs with
use• Use alternative pest management practices
Pesticide industry refutes these findings
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Trade-Offs: Conventional Chemical Pesticides
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Fig. 12-20, p. 295
TRADE-OFFS
Conventional Chemical Pesticides
Save lives Promote genetic resistance
Advantages Disadvantages
Increase food supplies Kill natural pest
enemiesProfitable Pollute the
environmentCan harm wildlife and people
Work fast
Safe if used properly Are expensive for
farmers
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Science Focus: Glyphosate-Resistant Crop Weed Management System: A Dilemma
Best-selling herbicide (Roundup)
Advantages
Disadvantages
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Exposure to pesticides
Effects of pesticides in small amounts on the growth of children
EPA
EPA limitations • Money• Testing and enforcement
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Case Study: Ecological Surprises
1955: Dieldrin sprayed to control mosquitoes
Malaria was controlled
Dieldrin didn’t leave the food chain
Domino effect of the spraying
Happy ending
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Laws and Treaties Can Help to Protect Us from the Harmful Effects of Pesticides
U.S. federal agencies• EPA• USDA• FDA
Effects of active and inactive pesticide ingredients are poorly documented
Circle of poison, boomerang effect
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There Are Alternatives to Using Pesticides (1)
Fool the pest
Provide homes for pest enemies
Implant genetic resistance
Bring in natural enemies
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There Are Alternatives to Using Pesticides (2)
Use insect perfumes• E.g., pheromones
Bring in hormones
Scald them with hot water
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Solutions: An Example of Genetic Engineering to Reduce Pest Damage
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Natural Capital: Biological Pest Control
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Integrated Pest Management Is a Component of Sustainable Agriculture
Integrated pest management (IPM) • Coordinate: cultivation, biological controls, and
chemical tools to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level
Disadvantages• Success in one ecosystem, biome may not
translate to success in others• Initial higher cost• Requires expert knowledge
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Governmental support
Add tax to sale of pesticides Set of demonstration farms in each county Train USDA personnel in IPM practices
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What Can You Do? Reducing Exposure to Pesticides
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12-5 How Can We Improve Food Security?
Concept 12-5 We can improve food security by creating programs to reduce poverty and chronic malnutrition, relying more on locally grown food, and cutting food waste.
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Use Government Policies to Improve Food Production and Security (1)
Control prices (make sure food is affordable)
whose happy, whose not?
Provide subsidies• Keeps farmers in business, increase food
production• 31% of farm income, surplus depress prices
Let the marketplace decide, but help the poor/needy buy food
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Change how subsidies are given
Payments used to promote more sustainable farming and aquaculture practices• Organic growing• Polycultures• IPM implementation
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Use Government Policies to Improve Food Production and Security (2)
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) suggests these measures to limit nutrition related childhood deaths
• Immunizing children against childhood diseases• Encourage breast-feeding • Prevent dehydration in infants and children• Provide family planning services• Increase education for women
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Why?
Why would limiting health problems in children by an important step toward global food security?
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Government organizations and their role in food production
USDA
EPA
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Laws and the Environment
There are a number of laws passed by the legislature meant to protect the environment during food production
How would you rate the success of the laws? Compared to Europe? China? Africa?
What limitations exist that hinder success of these laws
Can you think of reasons why anyone would not want these laws enacted or enforced?
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12-6 How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? (1)
Concept 12-6A Sustainable food production will require reducing topsoil erosion, eliminating overgrazing and overfishing, irrigating more efficiently, using integrated pest management, promoting agrobiodiversity, and providing government subsidies for more sustainable farming, fishing, and aquaculture.
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12-6 How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? (2)
Concept 12-6B Producing enough food to feed the rapidly growing human population will require growing crops in a mix of monocultures and polycultures and decreasing the enormous environmental impacts of industrialized food production.
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How can we produce more food sustainably?
Soil conservation (protect the topsoil) Restore soil fertility Reduce desertification and salinization Practice more sustainable aquaculture Produce and use meat more efficiently Practice more organic sustainable farming
methods
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Reduce Soil Erosion
Soil conservation, some methods• Terracing• Contour planting• Strip cropping with cover crop• Alley cropping, agroforestry• Windbreaks or shelterbeds• Conservation-tillage farming • No-till• Minimum tillage
Identify erosion hotspots, reduce farming there
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Soil Conservation Methods
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Fig. 12-24a, p. 302
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Fig. 12-24a, p. 302(a) Terracing
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Fig. 12-24b, p. 302
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Fig. 12-24b, p. 302(b) Contour planting and strip cropping
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Fig. 12-24c, p. 302
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Fig. 12-24c, p. 302(c) Alley cropping
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Fig. 12-24d, p. 302
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Fig. 12-24d, p. 302(d) Windbreaks
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(a) Terracing (b) Contour planting and strip cropping
(c) Alley cropping(d) Windbreaks Fig. 12-24, p. 302
Stepped Art
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Solutions: Mixture of Monoculture Crops Planted in Strips on a Farm
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Case Study: Soil Erosion in the United States—Learning from the Past
What happened in the Dust Bowl in the 1930s?
Migrations to the East, West, and Midwest
1935: Soil Erosion Act
More soil conservation needed
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Natural Capital Degradation: Dust Storm, Driven by Wind Blowing across Eroded Soil
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Natural Capital Degradation: The Dust Bowl of the Great Plains, U.S.
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Restore Soil Fertility
Organic fertilizer• Animal manure• Green manure• Compost
Commercial inorganic fertilizer active ingredients • Nitrogen• Phosphorous• Potassium
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Reduce Soil Salinization and Desertification
Soil salinization• Prevention• Clean-up
Desertification, reduce• Population growth• Overgrazing• Deforestation• Destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and
mining
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Solutions: Soil Salinization
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Fig. 12-28, p. 305
SOLUTIONSSoil Salinization
Prevention Cleanup
Flush soil (expensive and wastes water)
Reduce irrigation
Stop growing crops for 2–5 years
Switch to salt-tolerant crops (such as barley, cotton, and sugar beet)
Install underground drainage systems (expensive)
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Practice More Sustainable Aquaculture
Open-ocean aquaculture• Choose herbivorous fish
Polyculture
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Solutions: More Sustainable Aquaculture
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Produce Meat More Efficiently and Humanely
Shift to more grain-efficient forms of protein
Shift to farmed herbivorous fish
Develop meat substitutes; eat less meat
Whole Food Markets: more humane treatment of animals
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Efficiency of Converting Grain into Animal Protein
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Fig. 12-30, p. 306
Beef cattle 7
Pigs 4
Chicken 2.2
Fish (catfish or carp) 2
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Shift to More Sustainable Agriculture (1)
Paul Mader and David Dubois • 22-year study• Compared organic and conventional farming
Benefits of organic farming
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Shift to More Sustainable Agriculture (2)
Strategies for more sustainable agriculture• Research on organic agriculture with human
nutrition in mind• Show farmers how organic agricultural systems
work• Subsidies and foreign aid• Training programs; college curricula
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Solutions: Sustainable Organic Agriculture
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Fig. 12-31, p. 307
SOLUTIONS
Sustainable Organic Agriculture
More LessHigh-yield polyculture
Soil erosion
Organic fertilizers
Aquifer depletion
Biological pest control
Overgrazing
OverfishingIntegrated pest management
Loss of biodiversity
Efficient irrigation
Perennial crops Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing
Food waste
Crop rotationWater-efficient crops
Soil salinizationSoil conservationSubsidies for sustainable farming and fishing
Population growth
Poverty
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Solutions: Organic Farming
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Fig. 12-32, p. 308
SOLUTIONS
Organic Farming
Improves soil fertilityReduces soil erosionRetains more water in soil during drought years
Uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield
Lowers CO2 emissionsReduces water pollution by recycling livestock wastes
Eliminates pollution from pesticidesIncreases biodiversity above and below ground
Benefits wildlife such as birds and bats
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Science Focus: Scientists Are Studying Benefits and Costs of Organic Farming
Effect of different fertilizers on nitrate leaching in apple trees
Less nitrate leached into the soil after organic fertilizers were used
Significance?
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Science Focus: Sustainable Polycultures of Perennial Crops
Polycultures of perennial crops
Wes Jackson: natural systems agriculture benefits• No need to plow soil and replant each year• Reduces soil erosion and water pollution• Deeper roots – less irrigation needed• Less fertilizer and pesticides needed
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Comparison of the Roots between an Annual Plant and a Perennial Plant
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Buy Locally Grown Food
Supports local economies
Reduces environmental impact on food production
Community-supported agriculture
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What Can You Do? Sustainable Organic Agriculture