Food Technology(OCR)

BARBARA DINICOLIMERYL SIMPSONVAL FEHNERSEDITOR: BOB WHITE

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978 0 340 981 979

First Edition Published 2009Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2Year 2012 2011 2010 2009

Copyright 2009 Barbara DiNicoli, Meryl Simpson and Val Fehners

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CHAPTER 1 DESIGN PROCESS 1

1.1 Developing and writing a design brief 11.2 Drawing up a design specification 51.3 Generating, recording and modelling ideas 71.4 Product development 151.5 Product planning 181.6 Critical evaluation skills 22

CHAPTER 2 DIET AND NUTRITION 24

2.1 Protein 252.2 Fats and oils 272.3 Carbohydrates 302.4 Vitamins 342.5 Minerals 372.6 Water 392.7 Diet 412.8 Modifying recipes 472.9 Food choice 502.10 Special dietary needs 65

CHAPTER 3 NUTRIENTS FOUND IN AND STRUCTURE OF ACOMMON RANGE OF FOODS 75

3.1 Cereals 753.2 Fruit 793.3 Vegetables 803.4 Meat 823.5 Fish 853.6 Milk 863.7 Cheese 913.8 Eggs 923.9 Fats and oils 933.10 Alternative protein foods 96

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4 FUNCTION OF INGREDIENTS 98

4.1 Function of ingredients 984.2 Raising agents 1034.3 Use of additives 1044.4 Food components 111

CHAPTER 5 PROCESSES AND SKILLS 114

5.1 Heat transference 1145.2 Effects of heat on different foods 1235.3 Baked products 1285.4 Sauce making for sweet and savoury products 1335.5 Fruit and vegetable preparation 1355.6 Preparation of meat 1365.7 Preparation of fish 1375.8 Preparation of alternative protein foods 1385.9 Finishing techniques 139

CHAPTER 6 USING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 144

6.1 Equipment 1446.2 Food preparation 146

CHAPTER 7 PRESERVATION AND EXTENDING SHELF LIFE 151

7.1 Deterioration of food food spoilage 1517.2 Storage of food 1557.3 Preservation 1577.4 Packaging food 165

CHAPTER 8 HEALTH AND SAFETY 170

8.1 Using tools and equipment safely and effectively 1708.2 The importance of safe and hygienic practices in the

preparing, cooking, transportation and storage of food 1728.3 What is risk assessment? 1768.4 Environmental Health Officers 191

CHAPTER 9 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION 192

9.1 Computer Aided Design (CAD) 1929.2 Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) 1939.3 Commercial production methods 1969.4 Quality assurance 1989.5 Quality control 1989.6 Nano-technology 199

CHAPTER 10 PRODUCT ANALYSIS 204

10.1 Determine the suitability of a product for an intended market 204

10.2 Understand the choice of ingredients and components in a rangeof products 205

10.3 Understand the processes used to make the product 20710.4 Evaluate commercially manufactured food products against

moral, cultural, environmental and sustainability issues 207

CHAPTER 11 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 210

11.1 Recycle 21011.2 Reuse 21211.3 Reduce 21411.4 Refuse 21711.5 Rethink 21911.6 Repair 222

CHAPTER 12 CONTROLLED ASSESSMENT UNIT A521 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGNING AND MAKING 223

12.1 GCSE controlled assessment 22312.2 Controlled assessment unit A521 introduction to designing

and making 225

CHAPTER 13 UNIT A522 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 239

13.1 Introduction to sustainable design 23913.2 The 6Rs 24113.3 Product analysis and the design of products 24913.4 Summary 257

CHAPTER 14 CONTROLLED ASSESSMENT UNIT A523 MAKING QUALITY PRODUCTS 259

CHAPTER 15 UNIT A524 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF DESIGNINGAND MAKING 273

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Queens Printer for Scotland; Figure 2.19Maximilian Stock Ltd/Photolibrary Group;Figure 2.21 Majoros Laszlo/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.22www.purestockX.com; Figure 2.27 ClaudiaDewald/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.32Stockbyte/Photolibrary.com; Figure 2.33 iofoto/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.34 DigitalVision; Figure 2.37 Food Collection; Figure2.38 Tomas Bercic/iStockphoto.com; Figure2.42 The Fairtrade Foundation; Figure 2.43printed with kind permission of Traidcraft;Figure 2.44 printed with kind permission ofTraidcraft; Figure 2.45 The Soil Association;Figure 2.47 Ferran Traite/iStockphoto.com;Figure 2.49 Carme Balcells/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.50 LszlRkoskerti/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.51Courtesy of Coeliac UK; Figure 2.52 diegocervo/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.53 TovaTeitelbaum/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.55 Joe Biafore/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.57 Mikhail Kokhanchikov/iStockphoto.com;Figure 2.59 Tom Marvin/iStockphoto.com;Figure 3.5 MP Fotolia.com; Figure 3.9 Jack Puccio/iStockphoto.com; photos in Table3.3 (from left to right) ClaudiaHung/iStockphoto.com, purplevine Fotolia.com, muddy Fotolia.com; Figure3.15 Igor Dutina/iStockphoto.com; Figure4.2 JMD Fotolia.com; Figure 4.3a Jovan Nikolic/iStockphoto.com; Figure 4.3bIngram; photos in Table 5.1 (from left to right) Kelpsh Fotolia.com, Ingram, SteveLovegrove Fotolia.com; Figure 5.1 Studioshots/Alamy, Figure 5.4 Jason

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors would like to thank the following:Nisbets Next Day Catering Equipment; GCSEstudents at the Droneld Henry Fanshaweschool; Abel and Co for the organic vegetablebox; Robert Latimer of Latimers Shellshdelicatessen, Whiburn; St Marys RC HighSchool Technology Department, Chestereld;Alice Brashaw and Marc Boardman of StMarys High School, Chesterled; SheffsSpecial; The Simpson family for photographs;Brian Simpson for his support and patience;Katherine Swords for help with photography;Samantha Johnson, Rebecca Jagger, LauarKelly, Nicole Radley, Emma-Jane Heaton,David Mitchell, Sarah Bierton and NatalieBradwell for providing examples of theirwork; Judith Price and Stuart Thompson atthe Technology Department of DroneldHenry Fanshawe school; Paul DiNicoli for hissupport and Philippa DiNicoli for her help withICT work.

The authors and publishers would like tothank the following for use of photographsand illustrations in this volume:

Figure 1.1 EkaterinaMonakhova/iStockphoto.com; Figure 1.7 Gregor Lajh/iStockphoto.co; Figure 2.2 digitalskillet/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.13originally published in Delia Clarke and BettyHerbert; Food Facts (Nelson Thornes; 1986)and reproduced by kind permission of theauthor; Figure 2.15 Phil Date/iStockphoto.com; Figure 2.16 Crowncopyright material is reproduced with thepermission of the Controller of HMSO and

Lugo/iStockphoto.com; photos in Table 5.3 allPanasonic UK; photos in Table 5.6 (from leftto right) William Berry Fotolia.com, Elena Elisseeva Fotolia.com, RobertLinton/iStockphoto.com; Figure 5.8www.purestockX.com; Figure 5.9 MonkeyBusiness Fotolia.com; Figure 5.11 JulinRovagnati Fotolia.com; Figure 5.13 LeePettet/iStockphoto.com; Figure 5.14 AlexeyStiop/iStockphoto.com; Figure 5.145 petforsberg/Alamy; Figure 5.16 Igor Dutina Fotolia.com; Figure 5.18 (from left to right) Olivier Blondeau/iStockphoto.com, YanikChauvin/iStockphoto.com, JillChen/iStockphoto.com, MarcusClackson/iStockphoto.com, Elena ElisseevaFotolia.com, ALEAIMAGE/iStockphoto.com, Monkey Business Fotolia.com; Figure 5.20 reproduced by kindpermission of OCR; tablespoon in Figure 6.1 Irochka Fotolia.com; vegetable knife inFigure 6.2 KVaSS Fotolia.com; rotarygrater in Figure 6.2 Aleksandr Ugorenkov Fotolia.com; rotary whisk in Figure 6.3 Agatha Brown Fotolia.com; blender on page150 Alexandra Draghici/iStockphoto.com;food processor on page 150 NataliaBratslavsky/iStockphoto.com; bacteria inFigure 7.1 Henrik Jonsson/iStockphoto.com; moulds in Figure 7.1 Mike Wiggins/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.2 Darko Radanovic/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.3 Stuart Pitkin/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.4 Chris Dascher/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.5 Sebastian Kaulitzki/iStockphoto.com; Figure7.7 www.purestockX.com; Figure 7.8 Ingram;Figure 7.9a Tomasz Trojanowski Fotolia.com; Figure 7. 9b KellyCline/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.13 DuanZidar/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.14a Ernesto Solla Domnguez/iStockphoto.com;Figure 7.15 Vallentin Vassileff/iStockphoto.com; Figure 7.16 broker Fotolia.com; photos in Table 7.5 (from top)

Rafa Irusta/iStockphoto.com, KellyCline/iStockphoto.com, KellyCline/iStockphoto.com, Rob Bouwman Fotolia.com, Kelly Cline/iStockphoto.com;Figure 8.3 gerenme/iStockphoto.com;Figure 8.6 www.purestockx.com; Figure 8.9 Peter Scholey /Alamy; 8.10 Dr. HeinzLinke/iStockphoto.com; 8.11 JonathanHeger/iStockphoto.com; 8.12 Kronick/iStockphoto.com; 8.13 webphotographeer/iStockphoto.com; photo inTable 8.7 Colin Underhill /Alamy; Figure8.15 David J. Green /Alamy; Figure 8.16 Shaun Finch Coyote-Photography.co.uk/Alamy; Figure 9.3 Dr. HeinzLinke/iStockphoto.com; Figure 9.5 Dr.Heinz Linke/iStockphoto.com; 9.6 StevenMiric/iStockphoto.com; 9.7 Dr. Heinz Linke/iStockphoto.com; 9.8 Ingram; 9.9 BulentInce/iStockphoto.com; Figure 10. 4mediablitzimages (UK) Limited/Alamy; 10.05 dieter Spears/iStockphoto.com; Figure 11.1Digital Vision/Photolibrary Group; Figure 11.2 Ieva Geneviciene Fotolia.com; Figure11.4 Jill Chen/iStockphoto.com; Figure 11.5 Mark Evans/iStockphoto.com; Figure 13.3 Olivier Blondeau/ iStockphoto.com; Figure13.6 Ingram; Figure 13.8 Gary Unwin Fotolia.com; Figure 13.10 Dawn Hudson Fotolia.com; Figure 13.11 FairtradeFoundation; Figure 13.12 printed with kindpermission of Traidcraft; Figure 15.1 vm/iStockphoto.com

All other photos in this volume taken by theauthors.

Illustrations by Art Construction.

Every effort has been made to trace andacknowledge ownership of copyright. Thepublishers will be happy to makearrangements with any copyright owners thatit has not been possible to contact.

viii OCR DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY FOR GCSE: FOOD TECHNOLOGY

The book outlines the knowledge, skills andunderstanding required to be successfulwithin GCSE Food Technology. It is designedto give you a body of knowledge which canbe used to develop your own knowledge andunderstanding during the course and support

you when undertaking both controlledassessment and examined units.

Chapters 111 form the body of knowledge.Chapters 1215 give specific guidance abouteach of the units that make up the GCSEcourse.

HOW TO GET THE MOSTOUT OF THIS BOOKWelcome to OCR Design and Technology for GCSE Food Technology(specification numbers J302 and J042).

The book has been designed to support you throughout your GCSE course. Itprovides clear and precise guidance for each of the four units that make up thefull course qualification, along with detailed information about the subjectcontent of the course. It will be an extremely effective resource in helping youprepare for both controlled assessment and examined units.

The book has been written and developed by a team of writers who haveconsiderable specialist knowledge of the subject area and are all veryexperienced teachers.

The book: is student focused. The aim of the book is to help you achieve the best

possible results from your study of GCSE Food Technology gives clear guidance of exactly what is expected of you in both controlled

assessment and examined units contains examiner tips and guidance to help improve your performance in

both Controlled Assessment and examined units provides detailed information relating to the subject content and designing is designed to help you locate information quickly is focused on the OCR specification for GCSE Food Technology has relevance and value to other GCSE Food Technology courses.

x OCR DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY FOR GCSE: FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Unit A521 Introduction toDesigning and Making

Chapter 12 gives detailed information aboutthe structure of the controlled assessmentunit and the rules relating to the controlledassessment task you will undertake. It clearlyexplains what you need to do section bysection and includes examiner tips to helpimprove your performance. Specific referenceis made to the assessment criteria and anexplanation is provided as to how the criteriawill be applied to your product. Examples ofstudents work are used within the text toreinforce the requirements of each section.

Unit A522 Sustainable Design

This chapter provides detailed informationrelating to this unit. It gives a clearexplanation of the structure of theexamination and gives further informationrelating to the key aspects of sustainability inrelation to GCSE Food Technology. Thechapter examines:

what we mean by the 6Rs in relation tofood products

the social issues governing the trends infood consumption

the moral issues concerning foodproduction

the impact of cultural issues on foodproducts

how to select ingredients/materials that areboth suitable and sustainable

current issues affecting the design of newproducts.

Unit A523 Making Quality ProductsChapter 14 follows a similar format toChapter 12. It explains the requirements of

the unit section by section and includesexaminer tips to guide you through thecontrolled assessment task.

Unit A524 Technical Aspects ofDesigning and Making

Chapter 15 is designed to help you preparefor the written examination. It clearlydescribes the format of the examinationpaper and gives examples of questions.Examiner tips are given to help you identifythe type of question and the approach youshould take in completing your answer.

Icons used in this book

Introduction boxes provide a shortoverview of the topics underdiscussion in the section.

KEY TERMSKey Terms boxes provide definitions of thetechnical terms used in the section.

KEY POINTS Key Points boxes list key aspects of a

topic.

EXAMINERS TIPS

Examiners Tips boxes give tips on how toimprove performance in both theControlled Assessment and examinedunits.

xiHOW TO GET THE MOST OUT OF THIS BOOK

ACTIVITY

Activity boxes suggest interesting tasksto support, enhance and extendlearning opportunities.

QUESTIONSQuestions boxes provide practicequestions to test key areas of thecontent of the specification.

CASE STUDYCase study boxes provide examples of how real-life businesses use the knowledge and skillsdiscussed.

Learning Outcomes boxes highlight the knowledge andunderstanding you should have developed by the end ofthe section.

LEARN

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people living on their own in the form ofsingle-portion products, others for a specicage group, such as children.

CH

APT

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DESIGN PROCESS

By the end of this section you should have developed a knowledge and understanding of how to:

provide a detailed description of a design need

consider food trends, consumer preference, dietary needs, mediainuence and sustainability

identify the users and the market for the intended product

develop a design brief.

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Identification of a need

Your rst step is to identify a need. Productsshould be developed according to whatpeople want. These people become youruser group or your intended target market.For example, some food products aredeveloped specically for people on a specialdiet, such as weight watchers, others for

1.1 DEVELOPING AND WRITING A DESIGN BRIEF

When a new product isdeveloped, the rst step is toidentify a need. By carrying outinitial research, the product typeand user group can be identiedand a design brief can be written.

Figure 1.1 Identify your intended target market

Consideration of food trends,consumer preference, dietaryneeds, media influence andsustainability

Consumers change their ideas about theproducts they want to buy as they areinuenced by a changing economic,technological and social environment. In orderfor you to be successful you must identifychanging consumer needs and new trendsand develop products to meet these. This canbe done by adapting an existing product or bydeveloping a completely new and originalproduct.

There are many different issues affectingpeoples choice of food. For example:

Current dietary trends low in fat, sugarand salt, high in bre.

Social issues cost remains the top priorityfor some people, particularly those on lowincomes. Other people may have moremoney to spend on food products.Consequently there has been an increase inthe number of luxury products available.

Environmental issues using locally growningredients, using recycled materials forpackaging.

Ethical issues deciding whether to use genetically modied foods, organic foods.

Cultural issues religious beliefs preventsome people eating certain products.

Media influence advertising is verypowerful in encouraging consumers to trynew products. Products may be associatedwith a particular image or speciccharacteristic, for example a healthy foodproduct.

2 OCR DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY FOR GCSE: FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Initial researchAny information you collect and presentshould be relevant. There are two kinds ofresearch material which you should use:

Primary research material is your owninformation which you have obtained frominterviews, questionnaires and observations.

Secondary research material is informationwhich has been collected by other people, forinstance from books or newspapers.

You can carry out your initial research toidentify a need by:

reading newspapers or magazines orlooking on the internet

looking at existing products and thinkinghow they can be extended into a range ofproducts

carrying out questionnaires and/orinterviews

observing market trends by watchingtelevision advertisements, looking atproducts in supermarkets, etc.

considering national concerns, e.g. 5 a daycampaign.

Figure 1.2 Researching information fromnewspapers

When you collect information fromsecondary sources, such as newspapers,the internet or magazines, the informationshould be summarised concisely in your ownwords.

Questionnaire and interviewsA questionnaire and/or interview should bedesigned so that it helps you to extractspecic information from people about thequalities they would like to see in a newproduct. When you design yourquestionnaire, start with an introduction.This will allow the public to:

focus on the theme of the questionnaire/interview so that thoughts are clear

feel involved from the start so a moresatisfactory response is given

understand the purpose of thequestionnaire/interview.

The questions need to be clear and easy tounderstand and answer. It should be easy foryou to collate the results using graphs,tables, tally charts, pie charts, etc. beforeanalysing the results and coming to yourconclusions.

The questionnaire/interview must not be too

long or people will become irritated and oftenwill not think about their response but willjust give the rst response that comes intotheir thoughts.

Different types of questions can be used:

1. Closed can be a very quick way ofnding out specic information. Theyprovide a yes/no type response or offer alimited choice of answers, e.g.

Do you like the avour of chocolate? Yes No

2. Multichoice offers a range of responsesfor the respondents to choose from, e.g.

Which avour do you prefer?Chocolate Lemon Coffee Ginger

3. Ordered choice sometimes it is useful forthe respondent to rank a set of options bynumbering them in order from 1 to themaximum number you are interested in, e.g.

Place in order of preference the followingflavourings (indicate by numbering from 14 in order where 1 is the most preferred).

Chocolate Lemon Coffee Ginger

4. Open-ended questions can produce awide variety of responses that take a longtime to interpret and put into categories.However, these may give some interestingresults which could provide valuableinformation relating to moving the designforward or a new idea. They are useful forfinding out about attitudes and opinions,e.g.

What do you like about..?

What avour would you like the biscuit tobe and why?

3DESIGN PROCESS

Figure 1.3 Carrying out a questionnaire

Designing the correct questions can be timeconsuming. Questions should always bechecked before you use the questionnaire.Make sure that each question will lead to auseful answer, for instance, do you reallyneed to know a persons age/gender?

ICT can be used to design the questionnaire,analyse and compare data, and presentresults.


QUESTIONSInitial research is carried out to identify aneed and to find out the qualities peoplerequire in a new product.

1. List two methods that can be used tocarry out research.

2. Why is it important to carry out thisinitial research?

3. How can findings from research berecorded? Give two ways.

The purpose of the design briefOnce you have identied the product typeand user group, a design brief can bewritten. This is a short statement thatoutlines the problem to be solved. Forexample: design and make a low-in-sugar,chilled dessert that is suitable for a family.

ACTIVITY

1. Research information on a currentfood trend. Use newspapers,magazines or the internet. Summarise the information you

find to identify a need (producttype and user group).

Write a design brief that outlinesthe problem to be solved.

2. Find a label from a food product.Suggest a target group for theproduct and give a reason for youranswer. Why is it important for amanufacturer to know the targetgroup?

KEY POINTS Lifestyles and technology are

changing our food choices.

Research findings should be analysedand used.

A design brief is a short statementoutlining the design problem to besolved.

KEY TERMSUSER GROUP or INTENDED TARGETGROUP the person or group of peoplewho will use the productBRIEF a clear statement of designintentionRESEARCH the use of a variety ofsources to nd relevant information

Analysing a design brief

Once you decide on your design brief, youneed to analyse it carefully. Contained withinthe brief will be certain key words it isimportant that you identify these. You need topick out the key words and any other pointswhich you think are important to the brief.This is called analysing the brief.

5DESIGN PROCESS

1.2 DRAWING UP A DESIGN SPECIFICATION


analyse a design brief

carry out further research to help in the design and development of a new food product

evaluate existing products to determine their suitability for the intendeduser

develop a design specication.LEA

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The design brief needs to beanalysed to allow other areas ofresearch to be identied. Bycarrying out further research andevaluating existing products youwill be able to develop a designspecication for a new product.

Name of Low in Aimed Sold 4+ Attractive Colourful Tasty Good product sugar with at 1119 chilled portions portion

less than year olds size5 g/100 g

Table 1.1 Table showing identied needs for a chilled dessert for 1119 year olds

Low in sugar luxurychilled dessert suitable

for a family

What is low sugar?

Ways to reduce sugarFunctions of ingredients

Likes and dislikes of a family

Chilled dessertsalready available

Ways to decoratechilled desserts

The chillingprocess

Figure 1.4 Example of the analysis of a designbrief. A spider diagram has been used to showhow you can pick out the key words and otherrelevant points that need to be researched fromthe brief

Further researchBy analysing the brief you will be able toidentify further research you will need toundertake to help you in the design anddevelopment of a new food product.

You need to think carefully about the amount of research you do and how you will present it.

Remember that:

projects have to be completed within acertain number of hours

research is only part of the process

information can be presented in a numberof ways, such as text, diagrams, charts orbulleted lists

information should be presented clearlyand concisely in your own words

information should be relevant to yourdesign brief.

Identifying complex associationslinking principles of good designwith technological knowledgeCollecting, analysing and applying relevantdata allows you to show an understanding oftechnological knowledge when designing anddeveloping food products. For example,through research, the different ways ofreducing fat content can be identied. Thisknowledge can then be applied during thedesigning and development of a successfulfood product.

Evaluation of existing products Evaluation of existing products allows you tosee what products are already available andto identify how these products meetidentied needs, i.e. the qualities identiedfrom the analysis of results from yourquestionnaire/interview. You could taste some


products and carry out sensory analysis soyou can evaluate how existing products meetidentied sensory qualities e.g. texture, tasteand appearance. Sensory analysis is part ofproduct analysis. Carrying out this type ofresearch may also give you some ideas whendesigning food products. The products youchoose to evaluate should be relevant to yourbrief.

ACTIVITY

Create a table like the one in Table 1.1on page 5 which shows the qualities(identied needs) that a student foundthrough analysis of a questionnaire fora chilled dessert which is to be aimed at1119 year olds. Choose three chilled desserts and

evaluate them against the identiedneeds.

Write a conclusion from yourndings.

Choose one of the desserts andevaluate in detail against theidentied needs.

Developing a design specification

Once you have carried out all your research, adesign specication for a new product can bewritten. It is usually written as a series ofbullet points or a numbered list. It may bedivided into what are essential criteria andwhat are the desirable criteria for the product.

A design specication is important because itclearly states the general details (criteria) ofthe product that is to be developed. It is alsoa checklist for evaluation throughout thedevelopment of the new product.

How to produce a designspecificationFirst you must look back at your design briefand your analysis. You need to make a list ofthe main points identied when you analysedyour brief. You should look back over yourresearch, particularly the analysis of yourquestionnaire/interviews.

7DESIGN PROCESS

Stored chilled

TastyPastry productaimed at adults

Eaten cold

Attractive

Small-sized product

Crisp textured

Suitable for apacked lunch New, creative

and innovative

Sold with four productsin a packet

Meat flavoured

Squareshaped

Figure 1.5 Example of a design specification for apastry product aimed at adults

Look at the example design specication inFigure 1.5. Note that the student has notstated a type of pastry or product, leavingplenty of opportunity for a wide range ofpractical skills.

QUESTIONExplain why a design specication isimportant when developing new products.

ACTIVITY

Design a questionnaire to nd out thequalities teenagers would like to see ina new snack product. Ask ten teenagers to complete the

questionnaire and draw conclusionsfrom the results. Using yourconclusions, develop a designspecication.

KEY POINTS Analysing the brief means identifying

the key words and any other pointswhich are important to the brief

A design specication clearly statesthe general criteria for the product tobe developed.

1.3 GENERATING, RECORDING AND MODELLING IDEAS


generate, record and model design ideas, understanding the relevance of function and aesthetics

carry out sensory analysis including rating/ranking and how to record results in appropriate ways (star proles and charts)

evaluate design ideas against a design specication.

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You must always ensure that the design ideasyou choose to trial are fully explained. Youcan do this by:

listing ingredients

describing the modications/adaptations toeach recipe, such as different shape,avour, texture, ingredients, assembly,presentation/nishing techniques

giving reasons for modications/adaptations

carrying out nutritional analysis

modelling ideas, which means making yourdesigned practical ideas

using sensory analysis to evaluate theideas

suggesting any improvements to theproducts

evaluating products against each of thecriteria in the design specication.

How can I communicate mydesign ideas? Word-processed documents

Annotated sketches

Mood boards


Where can I find ideas? Recipe books

Analysis of research information

Existing products

Websites.

The design ideas you choose to trial shouldallow you to demonstrate a range of practicalskills appropriate to your brief, for example,peeling, chopping, grating, meat preparation,shaping, rolling, sauce making (roux, blended,all in one), kneading, cake and pastry making,piping. You could list the ideas you nd togive you time to think and make decisions asto which products you will trial.

Generating, recording andmodelling of design ideas willallow a number of products to beadapted and trialled. Throughsensory analysis testing, qualitiescan be monitored andimprovements identied.Evaluating ideas against thecriteria in your design specicationwill inform you how each idea hasmet the specication.

Figure 1.6 Demonstrating practical skillsappropriate to your brief

Figure 1.7 Communicating design ideas throughphotographs

Analysing nutritional computer printouts

Sensory analysis charts

Photographs of your practical products.

Modifying/adapting recipes tomeet the needs of the user groupIngredients can be substituted to alter recipesand proportions can be varied to alter thenutritional content of a product. The shape,nishing techniques and the way the productis assembled can also be changed.Assembling means tting together thedifferent parts of a food product, for instancemeat sauce, pasta sheets, cheese sauce andgrated cheese when making a lasagne.

When changes are made, the colour, avour,texture and nutritional value of the nishedproduct will be altered (see Table 1.2).

9DESIGN PROCESS

Tomato sauce

Cubedcarrot

Choppedonion Sliced leeks

Slicedpotato

Cubedsweetpotato

Crispy cheese topping

Figure 1.8 Annotated sketch for a spicy vegetablelayer pie

QUESTIONS1. List three ways of communicating

thoughts when generating ideas.

2. Suggest four different avourings thatcould be added to each of the followingproducts:i) shortbread biscuits ii) bread.

3. Look at the pizza nutritional printout inFigure 1.9. How much fat per 100g doesthe pizza contain?

4. What would be the effect of reducingthe fat content in the lower-in-sugarcream-lled clairs in Figure 1.9?

Lower in sugar cream filled clairsPer 100g Per ServingTypical Value

1695 KJ405 kcal

559 KJ125 kcal

Energy

5.97 g 1.97 gProtein18.4 g5.18 g

6.07 g1.52 g

Carbohydrateof which sugars

34.6 g16.4 g

11.4 g5.41 g

Fatof which saturates

0.56 g 0.19 gFibre (NSP)0.27 g 0.09 gSodium

Nutrition Information Pizza

per100g

per Serving32 g

Typical Values

1168 kJ279 kcal

374 kJ89.3 kcal

Energy

12 g 3.84 gProtein

49.2 g 15.7 gCarbohydrate

5.16 g 1.65 gFat

Figure 1.9 Nutritional printouts for lower-in-sugar clairs and a lower-in-fat pizza

ACTIVITY

Draw an annotated sketch of a layereddessert.

Sensory analysis Food is essential for life, but needs to havemany qualities if it is to be enjoyed by a wide variety of people. It is important that all food products are carefully andconsistently prepared so that the taste,aroma and appearance are of the highestquality.

To enable the qualities to be monitored andrecorded during the designing and making ofa new product, sensory analysis tests (thetasting of foods) are carried out. This enablesmodifications (changes) to be made at eachstage of the development of the product sothat the end result is successful. Thisprevents money from being wasted. It alsoallows a food manufacturer to check that theproduct matches the specication, nds outwhat the consumer likes/wants and tests theshelf life. Checks can be made throughoutproduction to maintain consistently highstandards and the products can be comparedwith those of competitors.


Sensory analysis testsSensory analysis is used to gatherinformation on food products to establishtheir most important characteristics. Thereare several types of test these meet BritishStandard BS5929.

a) Preference or acceptance tests thesetests would be used to evaluate productacceptability by nding out the opinions, likesand dislikes of the consumer. There are twotypes of preference tests that can be used:hedonic ratings tests and paired preferencetests.

Hedonic ratings test testers give theiropinion of one or more samples of food fromextreme like to extreme dislike (see Table1.3).

Paired preference test testers are giventwo samples of food and have to indicatewhich sample they prefer, for instance tunashcakes or salmon shcakes.

Reducing fat

Result is less moist

Less flavour

Product will stale morerapidly

Paler colour

Reducing sugar

Less avour

Paler colour

Poorer keeping quality

Capacity to rise may bereduced

Reducing salt

Less avour

May reduce keepingqualities

Bread may not rise as well

Increasing fat

Result may be greasy

Flavour may be improved

Darker colour

Increasing sugar

Baked mixtures become soft

during baking, then hard on

cooling

Increased cooking time

Darker colour

Adding water

May make baked productshard

Creates bulk, e.g. inmargarine

Encourages mould growth

Table 1.2 What happens when the proportions in a recipe are altered?

Discriminatory testing these tests areused to see whether people can tell thedifference between two samples, forinstance when an ingredient or quantity ofingredient is changed and whenmanufacturers are copying another brand, forexample two brands of cheese and onioncrisps or a vegeburger and a beefburger.These are objective tests. You will ndseveral types of discriminatory tests.

Paired comparison a pair of codedsamples is given for the comparison of aspecic characteristic, such as sweetness,crunchiness, smoothness. A minimum of 20tastes will give a useful result.

Triangle test Three samples are given tothe tester. Two samples are the same andthe tester is asked to identify the odd oneout. This test is useful if you have madesmall changes to a product, for instancemade a lasagne low in fat or used moreeconomical ingredients.

b) Grading tests these test for the degreeof intensity of a specic sensory property,such as sweetness. Food samples are rankedin order to show consumer preference. Youwould use these tests to:

select a small number of samples from alarge sample to enable a more precise testto be carried out

nd out consumer preferences

obtain rapid results.

Examples of grading tests are: ranking,rating and profiling.

Ranking test used to sort a variety offoods into order (e.g. different-avouredcrisps made by one manufacturer). A set ofcoded samples is presented to the tester.The tester has to rank the samples in order ofeither:

a specic attribute, e.g. sweetness,saltiness

a preference on a hedonic scale or ranking.

11DESIGN PROCESS

Sample 1. Dislike 2. Dislike 3. Neither 4. Like 5. Like CommentsVery Much Like nor Very

Dislike Muchx

xx

xx

xxxx

xxx

Table 1.3 Hedonistic ratings test

Taste the samples and put them in the order you like best

Sample Order Commentscode

Table 1.4

diagram as required. The marks on each point are joined together to identify themclearly (see Figure 1.10).

Profiling tests this is also called sensoryprofiling. Sensory profiling is used to obtain adetailed, descriptive evaluation of thedifferences between products and to find outhow much of each difference there is.

A sensory profile of each product isdeveloped which may include thecharacteristics of texture (mouthfeel), flavour,aroma, appearance and sound. These may beassessed together.


Ranking test with descriptor used to placea variety of one type of food into order (e.g.the avour of cream of tomato soupsprocessed by different methods).

Ranking according to flavour

Sample code Creaminess choice 2nd

1st

4th

3rd

Table 1.5 Ranking test with descriptor

Rating test using a descriptor used toshow how much tasters like or dislikeseveral aspects of one product (e.g. avour,colour, nutrition of a cold dessert) or oneaspect of several products (e.g. crispness ofa range of pizza bases) (see Table 1.6).

Star profile used to describe theappearance, taste and texture of a foodproduct. It can also be used to record thesuitability of other aspects of the product(such as packaging). A descriptor is identiedat the end of each line. The descriptor usedwill depend on the product being tested.When the food is tasted, the taster assessesthe identied areas and marks the star

Tasting Votes by tasting panelwords (1 = poor, 2 = average, 3 = good, Total Average

4 = v good, 5 = excellent)Flavour 4 4 5 3 4 20 4

Thickness 1 1 2 1 2 7 1.4

Colour 3 4 1 5 2 15 3

Smoothness 3 2 1 2 3 11 2.2

Table 1.6 Rating test using a descriptor

size

crispy

sweet

moist

fatty

sour

sharp

chewy

0

2

4

6

8

10

Figure 1.10 Star profile of a citrus cookie

During sensory proling testing:

trained assessors are used because of thecomplexity of the tests

a set of coded samples is presented to sixor more trained assessors

each assessor has to rate the intensity ofeach descriptor on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 isthe lowest, 5 is the highest)

results from each assessor are added upand the average rating for each descriptoris worked out

a visual prole is created by plotting theresults on a spider or star diagram.

Carrying out sensory analysisIt is important to use correct procedureswhen carrying out sensory analysis testing:

Set up a quiet area where people will notbe disturbed (do not allow testers tocommunicate with each other).

Give the testers a drink of lemon-avouredwater or a piece of apple to clear the palate.

Use small quantities of food on plain andidentical sized plates/dishes.

Use coloured lighting.

Use same garnish or decoration.

Try not to give too many samples at once.

Serve at the correct temperature for theproduct that is being tested.

Use clean spoons or forks each time. DoNOT allow people to put dirty spoons intoyour dish.

Use codes for the products to prevent thetesters being inuenced by the name ofthe product (this is known as testing blind).

Have any charts ready before you begintesting.

Make sure the testers know how to ll inthe charts you are using.

13DESIGN PROCESS

Table 1.7 A rating chart for pasties and the suggested improvements from five tasters

Tester 1 Tester 2 Tester 3 Tester 4 Tester 5 AverageMeaty 3 3 3 3 4 3.2

Square 4 4 4 4 4 4

Tasty 3 3 3 3 3 3

Attractive 3 3 3 2 3 2.8

Crisp texture 2 2 3 2 3 2.4

Small 1 2 3 2 4 2.4

Key

Poor = 1 Good = 2 Very Good = 3 Excellent = 4

Improvements

Taster 1 make slightly larger so more lling can be added

Taster 2 glaze the pasties so they are golden brown

Taster 3 add herbs to give a little more avour

Taster 4 make the pasties larger

Taster 5 add another vegetable for extra taste

When you carry out sensory analysis of yourproduct this will involve you:

looking at the product

smelling the product

tasting the product.

You will need to ask your user group or yourintended target market to carry out sensoryanalysis. The results of sensory analysistesting will help you decide whether theproduct is acceptable; or if it is notacceptable, the information gained can helpyou decide how the product can be improved.Results from sensory analysis will also beused as evidence when evaluating theproduct against the design specication.

Evaluation of design ideasEvaluation is an ongoing process throughout thedesigning and making of new food products.Evaluation allows judgements to be made about


a product, thereby enabling improvements to bemade at each stage. As each design idea istrialled you will need to find out:

1. Whether it appeals to your user group oryour intended target market

2. Whether it meets your design specication

3. Any improvements that need to be made.

Sensory analysis testing, using tasters fromyour user group, with the results beingpresented in tables or star diagrams, shouldinform you whether the design idea is appealingand whether any improvements are required.

Evaluating against each criterion in yourdesign specication will inform you how eachdesign idea meets the specication. Resultsfrom nutritional analysis and sensory analysistesting should be used as evidence.

Evaluating each idea against the designspecication helps to identify which idea shouldbe taken forward to product development.

QUESTIONS1. Explain the difference between a rating and a ranking chart.

2. Give clear instructions on how to carry out sensory analysis testing.

3. Table 1.8 shows the taste test results for a new chicken pasta bake.

Characteristics Tester Tester Tester Tester Tester1 2 3 4 5

Portion size 2 2 1 1 2Amount of chicken 4 4 3 4 4Creamy cheese sauce 4 3 4 4 3Crispiness of topping 1 1 2 1 2Tomato flavour 4 4 4 4 4Well seasoned 2 1 1 2 2Key Poor = 1 Good = 2 Very Good = 3 Excellent = 4 Table 1.8 Taste test results for a new chicken pasta bake

From the results shown identify two characteristics that need improving and explainhow this could be done.

15DESIGN PROCESS

QUESTIONGive two reasons why evaluation takesplace when trialling design ideas.

To contain vitamin C

Design specificationfor a new salad

To be low in fat

To be colourfulTo contain a variety of textures

To include a protein food

Figure 1.11 Design specification for a new salad

KEY POINTS Recipes need adapting for design work. Sensory analysis testing is used to

test the quality of existing productsand evaluate design ideas.

Evaluation is an ongoing processthroughout the designing and makingof new food products.

Evaluation enables products to beimproved.

KEY TERMSANNOTATE to label a sketchSENSORY ANALYSIS TESTING taste/testing of a food product to check itsacceptability and to identify improvementsSENSORY DESCRIPTORS words thatdescribe taste, smell, texture and avour

1.4 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT


decide on the final design proposal

understand how products are developed including costing and taking account of users views

understand the relevance of function and aesthetics (sensory andfunctional considerations during the modification of ideas, i.e. taste,texture and appearance)

carry out sensory analysis during product development.

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ACTIVITY

Figure 1.11 shows the designspecification for a new salad.

Sketch a design idea for the productand explain how the idea meets thespecification

to alter the colour

to improve the final appearance

to consider the cost of the product.

Some examples of modications that can bemade to a product are:

the ingredients used

proportions of ingredients used

the nishing technique used

assembling of the product, e.g. layeringdifferently.

The key is that the product must bedeveloped according to the needs of youruser group or your intended target marketso their views must be considered as theproduct develops. When you start productdevelopment, you need to look back to whenyour idea was originally trialled.

You must always ensure your developmentwork is fully explained. You can do this by:

listing and costing ingredients

describing the modications/changes

giving reasons for modications/changes

carrying out nutritional analysis if this isrelevant to the brief

using sensory analysis to evaluate eachdevelopment

an evaluation of each developmentindicating how effective themodications/changes have been and anyfurther improvements that need to bemade.

Costing food productsCosting is an important part of thedevelopment process. As you modify/changeyour product you will be able to see theeffect this has on the cost of the product.


When a number of products have beentrialled you have to decide which product totake forward for product development.Looking back to your evaluations of designideas will help you make a decision.

You need to clearly explain why you havechosen this product and why you haverejected the other ideas. This is sometimesknown as the nal design proposal.

Development is all about changing, testingor modifying all or part of a product until adesired outcome is achieved.

Development gives you the opportunity totry out changes. Evaluation enables you tomake appropriate decisions. Simple notes,charts or diagrams with comments areadequate ways of recording your results.

Ideas for development workThere are many ways that you could developa product:

to improve the nutritional content

to change the flavour

to alter the texture

to alter the shape

Once a number of design ideashave been evaluated against thedesign specication a decision canbe made as to which idea shouldbe taken forward to productdevelopment. Duringdevelopment the product isrened through trialling, takingaccount of users views, until adesired outcome is achieved. Atthis stage, costing of the productshould be considered.

17DESIGN PROCESS

QUESTIONS1. Traditional plain scones are made by

using the following ingredients andshaped by using a round fluted cutter: 200 g self-raising flour50 g margarine50 g sugar1 egg + enough milk to make up to 125 ml of liquidSuggest three adaptations you couldmake to the scones. Give reasons forthese adaptations.

2. Below is a recipe for spaghettibolognese.1 small onion25 g margarine1 small carrot225 g minced beeftin chopped tomatoes 1 stock cube4 tomatoessalt and pepper200 g spaghetti(a.) Give two ways in which the fat

content can be reduced.(b.) Give two ways in which the fibre

content can be increased.

3. The ingredients used in a spicy burgerproduct are listed below.250 g minced lamb 25 g breadcrumbs10 g coriander fresh 2 cloves garlic75 g finely chopped onion 3 g ground cumin3 g paprika 10 ml lemon juice

5 g mild curry powder 15 g tomato puree1 small egg salt and pepperThe rating chart shown in Table 1.9shows the results from the tasting andtesting of the spicy burger product.

Taster 1 Taster 2 Taster 3Evenly browned 3 5 5Round shape 2 2 1Excellent aroma 5 5 4Consistent size 5 5 4Correct level of spiciness 1 2 2Even texture 2 2 3Table 1.9 Results from the tasting and testing of thespicy burger product

Consider the results shown in the ratingchart. Discuss the implications to theproduct development team of theseresults.

4. The ingredients below have been takenfrom a label for chilli con carni.Cooked long grain rice, mincedAberdeen angus beef, tomato, kidneybeans, onions, green pepper, plumtomato, red pepper, red wine, rapeseedoil, beef stock, tomato puree, garlicpuree, coriander, salt, red chilli,margarine, wheat our, modied maizestarch, parsley, cumin, vegetablebouillon, green chilli, paprika, whitesugar, oregano, chili powder, bay leaf.

State two ways in which the cost of thechilli can be reduced.

Changing ingredients to reduce the cost cansometimes be detrimental to the successfulmaking of the product. However, you couldreduce the cost by:

making slightly smaller portions

changing an expensive ingredient to acheaper one, e.g. substituting meat withvegetables

mixing meat with an alternative proteinfood, e.g. textured vegetable protein


increasing the carbohydrate content andreducing, for example, the protein contentof the product, i.e. to eke out the use ofan expensive ingredient

using avourings and colourings instead offresh ingredients such as fresh fruits

drizzling chocolate/glac icing instead ofspreading on top of a product.

1.5 PRODUCT PLANNING


plan for your nal product including costing, being able to match materials and components with tools, equipment and processes when deciding how to make the product

develop a product specication

plan for the production of products.

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When product development hasbeen completed, planning for thenal product can take place. Thisinvolves making reasoneddecisions about the ingredientsand equipment used to make thenal product, including costing,development of a productspecication and producing a planof action for the making of thenal product.

When you have completed your productdevelopment work you will be ready to planfor your nal product. Your plans will need toshow:

choice of your nal ingredients andequipment

reasons for your choice of ingredients andequipment

costing of the nal ingredients

nutritional analysis if this is relevant to thebrief.

be written when the development work iscompleted and the final prototype is readyfor manufacturing in large quantities

give exact and precise details of theproduct so that a replica of the finalprototype can be produced.

You will need to look at your designspecication and your development work toproduce your product specication whichshould include a labelled sketch of your nalproduct.

Writing a product specificationYour product specication should include:

the name of the target group that theproduct is going to be manufactured for,e.g. teenagers

any nutritional claims or importantinformation for the label, e.g. lower in fat.The actual amount of fat content needs tobe given per 100 g

details of any special dietary claims, e.g.vegetarian

specic descriptions of the ingredients,e.g. flaked/ground almonds, block/softmargarine, diced/sliced carrots

sensory qualities of the actual nal product

how it is to be assembled, or the shapeand size, e.g. layers of, round shape

nishing techniques, e.g. brushed with anegg glaze before baking, garnished withtwo slices of tomato and one small sprig ofparsley, decorated with

portion size, e.g. will serve four people

preparation and serving details

actual cost of the product

storage requirements, e.g. chilled/frozen,etc.

19DESIGN PROCESS

Food materialsFood technology involves converting rawmaterials into edible food products.

Food products are made by combiningingredients in different proportions and usinga range of different techniques. Foodmaterials can be prepared using a variety ofprocesses and equipment.

When you give reasons for the choice of yournal ingredients you are really giving thefunction of each ingredient for your particularproduct.

A particular ingredient could givecrunchiness to a product or perhaps give afruity flavour.

It could increase the fibre or lower the fatcontent of the product.

Using yeast in bread making allows thebread to rise.

Gluten-free flour is used for a celiac asthey have an intolerance to gluten.

You are also required to give reasoneddecisions for the equipment you will use. Thiswill involve you listing the pieces ofequipment and stating the job that each piecewill be used for.

Developing a product specification

A product specication does not providegeneral points like the design specication.Instead, it describes very specificcharacteristics which a product must have,so the product could be produced in identicalbatches. It is written after the developmentwork is completed.

The product specication will:

give success criteria when evaluating thefinal product

PlanningYou will need to plan your making activities.Time management is a very important part ofthis.

You will be required to:

plan your work over a number of lessonsto show your ability to forward plan (duringcontrolled assessment project 2)

plan for the making of a practical product to show an effective order ofsequences.

The presentation of the plan for a practicalproduct can be in many different forms. Aflowchart is a diagrammatical way to show aplan of work. A good place to start is to readthe original method for the product you aremaking and then change this to match yournew product and add further detail.

A owchart uses the standard symbolsshown in Figure 1.13.


My product must be: Suitable for teenagers/adults as this is my target group. Chocolate flavoured, as I will add grated milk and plain chocolate to the biscuit base. Decorated with white and milk chocolate to create a marbled effect. The white chocolate will be spread to within 1 cm of the edge and the milk chocolate will then be drizzled randomly over the top and a skewer will be used to drag the drizzled lines into the base chocolate cover. Medium sized. I will do this by using 25 g of mixture in each biscuit and making each biscuit 5 cm in diameter. Circular shape achieved by rolling mixture into a ball in the hand and slightly flattening when on baking tray. Attractive, as I will decorate carefully and make sure the biscuit is golden brown. 68 pence for 6 biscuits. Crunchy and slight chewy texture achieved by adding crushed Smarties and toffee pieces to the biscuit base. Base ingredients consisting of: 100 g margarine, 50 g soft brown sugar, 100 g plain flour, 50 g toffee pieces, 40 g Smarties, 25 g plain chocolate and 25 g milk chocolate.

Figure 1.12 A product specification for a biscuitaimed at teenagers

5 cm diameter

Whitechocolate

Chocolateflavouredbiscuit

Circularshape

Goldenbrowncolour

25 g in weight

Milkchocolate

QUESTIONExplain the difference between a designspecification and a product specification.

QUESTIONor

DECISION

START / STOP

PROCESS /INSTRUCTION

Figure 1.13 Standard flow chart symbols

Alternatively you could present your plan as achart as shown in Table 1.10.

21DESIGN PROCESS

Sprinkle in the Oxo cube, chilli flakes and gravy granules.Add the drained kidney beans and 250ml water and stir well.

Has themeat

browned?

START

Peel the potatoes onto a metal plate. Wash and slice into 1cm slices.

Half fill a pan with water and bring to the boil.

Prepare self, ingredients and equipment.

In a large saucepan dry fry the mince meat until browned.

Chop the onion into small pieces.

Place potatoes into the boiling water and cook for 10 15 minutes.

Add the onion and fry for a further 5 minutes.

Check potatoes are cooked and soft using a fork.

Leave the mince mixture to simmer for 10 minutes.

Place the meat mixture into the base of the serving dish andarrange the potato slices on top. Sprinkle on the cheese.

Are theysoft?

Drain the potatoes carefully using a colander.

Bake in the oven for 20 minutes at 200C.

Has the piebrowned?

Take pie out of the oven. Wash all equipment and surfaces.

STOP

Cook for afurther 5 minutes

NO

YES

Bake for afurther 5 minutes

NO

YES

Fry for afurther 5 mins

NO

YES

Figure 1.14 Example of a owchart for a spicy pie

ACTIVITY

The flowchart in Figure 1.14 for a spicypie has clear steps which can befollowed when making the pie.

For a product that you will be making,design a detailed flowchart for theproduction of the product.

KEY TERMFLOWCHART a diagram which shows asequence of events

Health Process Quality and safety checks

Table 1.10 Presenting your plan as a chart

suggestions for further modications.

Comments from your user group or yourintended target market can support yourviews and they can be given as evidencewhen you offer conclusions for your work. Itis a good idea to ask your testers how theproduct could be improved as this will helpyou suggest further modications.

To achieve a high level you must produce acritical evaluation.


1.6 CRITICAL EVALUATION SKILLS

Evaluation is all about making judgements. It is a very important part ofdesigning and making and should be done at all stages so that you can makethe right decisions for the next step in the process.

Evaluation takes place:

during research evaluating existing products whilst generating and trialling ideas sensory analysis and evaluating ideas

against the design specication during product development, sensory analysis and evaluating the

effectiveness of modications/changes made to the product as it isdeveloped

after production of the nal product, sensory analysis and evaluating againstthe product specication.

By evaluating throughout the whole process you should be able to make a nalproduct that meets your original design brief.

Evaluation of the final product

The rst stage of your evaluation will be tocarry out sensory analysis testing with youruser group or your intended target market,for instance a tasting chart or a star prole.

When evaluating your nal product yourcomments need to show:

how successful you have been in terms ofyour product specication and your designbrief


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23DESIGN PROCESS

SuitableforTeenagers

Suitable for teenagers

Attractive

Serve 4portions

Serve 4portions

Attractive Colourful

Colourful

Goodtexture

Goodtexture

Tasty

Tasty

Taster

Taster

Taster

Taster

Taster

1

2

3

4

5

4

3

4

5

3

2

2

1

2

2

4

5

3

3

5

3

4

4

3

4

2

3

2

3

3

4

3

2

4

4

User commentsIt was fairly easy to eatHad a soft, doughy textureThere were too many vegetables on itNot enough colour displayed on the productI would pay the stated price for itToo small for four peopleThe overall shape of the pizza was very goodThe contrast of the chosen pepperoni,vegetables and tomato puree was verywell suited and produced a lovely flavour

Figure 1.15 Results for sensory testings of a low-fat pizza

ACTIVITY

Produce a product specication for aproduct you will be making. Ask threepeople to carry out sensory analysistesting of the product. Critically evaluatethe product against your productspecication, giving results from yoursensory analysis testing as evidence.Suggest further modications that couldbe made to your product, givingreasons for these modications.

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Nutrients

Nutrients are substances found in foods.They are divided into two types:

The macronutrients proteins, fats andcarbohydrates. These are needed by the

body in relatively large quantities and formthe bulk of our diet.

The micronutrients vitamins andminerals. These are found in food and arevital to health but are required in very smallquantities.

By the end of this section you should have developed a knowledge and understanding of the function, deficiencies and sources in the diet of:

protein

fats

carbohydrates sugar, starch and fibre

vitamins A, B complex, C and D

minerals calcium, iron, sodium (salt), fluoride, phosphorusLEA

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Every living thing needs food it is essential to keep us alive and in good health.We need food for:

providing the energy we need to survive, to keep us healthy and to help fightdisease

growth and repair of body tissues all bodily functions, which depend upon the energy and trace elements found

in the food we eat stopping us feeling hungry keeping us happy as we find eating a pleasurable and enjoyable experience.

DIET AND NUTRITION

25DIET AND NUTRITION

fruit, vegetables and bre. Keeping physicallyactive and maintaining a healthy body weightwill also help.

Deciencies or excesses of any particularnutrient could result in a dietrelated medicalcondition, so we need to eat a balance ofnutrients every day.

Carbohydrates Fats

Water

Minerals Vitamins

Protein

Nutrients

Figure 2.1 Nutrients in food

All foods contain a mix of nutrients. Somefoods are higher in some nutrients thanothers. We should eat a mixture of foodsevery day.

The government has produced guidelines andadvice to encourage the UK population toimprove their diet and lifestyle. It has settargets to reduce the numbers of people withdietrelated medical conditions such ascancer, coronary heart disease, strokes,diabetes and obesity. Individuals couldbecome healthier by increasing their intake of

Figure 2.2 A family eating a meal

KEY POINTS We need a balance of nutrients in our

diet every day.

Foods contain a combination of macroand micronutrients.

Protein is one of the macronutrients. It isessential for growth and repair of body tissueand is crucial to the healthy functioning of thebody. Protein is made up of complex chainsof molecules called amino acids there are20 different types of amino acid, each havinga specic function in the body.

The functions of protein in the diet are:

growth, especially in children and pregnantwomen

repair of body tissue after illness, accidentsand surgery; renewal of cell proteins forpeople of all ages

enzymes, vital for metabolism, arecomposed of proteins

hormones, which regulate some importantbodily functions are also composed ofprotein

a secondary source of energy. When thebody has used all the amino acids it needs

2.1 PROTEIN


for construction, the remainder are burntfor energy.

Why are proteins important?The human body needs all 20 amino acids forthe maintenance of health and growth. Someof these can be made by the body but theothers have to be obtained through the foodwe eat; these are called essential aminoacids. There are eight essential amino acidsfor adults and ten for children.

High biological valueThe foods that contain all the essential aminoacids are said to have a high biological value(HBV). Most of these come from animalsources (meat, sh, poultry and dairyproducts) plus the vegetable source, soya. Asthe vegetarian market grows there is a largerange of food products made from soya, suchas soya mince, textured vegetable protein(known as TVP) and tofu. Another HBVprotein is Quorn which is the brand namefor a food product made from myco-protein.

Low biological valueVegetable sources of protein include cereals,peas, beans, pulses, nuts and seeds.Because these do not contain all the essentialamino acids they are called low biologicalvalue (LBV). They can easily be combined in ameal or product to provide all the essentialamino acids. This is called food combining orcomplementary proteins.

Food combiningVegetarian, vegan or other limited diets relyon combining LBV proteins, for instancebeans on toast, dhal and rice, hummus andpitta bread, to form proteins of higher value.

Sources of protein in the diet Animal sources include all meats, such aspoultry, offal and game, as well as sh,cheese, milk, eggs and gelatine.

Vegetables sources include soya beans andsoya products, pulses, beans, cereal grainsand cereal products, nuts and Quorn.

Figure 2.3 All these foods are protein sources ofHBV

Figure 2.4 All these foods are protein sources ofLBV


Protein deficiencyA protein deciency in the diet causes variousproblems.

In children growth slows down or stops.

There are digestive upsets as enzymes arenot produced.

The liver fails to function normally.

The muscles become weak and so limbsare thin and the tummy is soft and maylook distended.

Kwashiorkor is a protein energy malnutritiondisease occurring when a child is weanedfrom breast milk to a diet low in protein.

Lipids is a general term for both fats andoils. Oils are fats that are liquid at roomtemperature. Fat is one of the macronutrientsessential to health. All fats and oils havesimilar chemical structures and functions. Allare high in calories. Fat in the diet isimportant for health and wellbeing.

QUESTIONS1. List the functions of protein in the diet.

2. Explain the difference between HBV andLBV proteins.

3. Explain how and why you wouldcombine protein foods to complementeach other.

ACTIVITY

Prepare a main course product thatcombines a range of LBV proteins. Usenutritional software to nd out how oneportion of the product meets the needsof a teenager.

Plan a meal that will provide 18 g ofprotein.

KEY POINTS Protein is needed for growth and

repair of body tissues.

Protein is made up of amino acids. Good sources of high biological value

proteins are meat, sh, cheese, eggs,sh and soya.

Good sources of low biological valueprotein are pulses, cereals and nuts.

KEY TERMSAMINO ACIDS smallest unit of a proteinESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS cannot bemade by the bodyHIGH BIOLOGICAL VALUE PROTEINS contain all the essential amino acidsLOW BIOLOGICAL VALUE PROTEINS do not contain all the essential aminoacidsFOOD COMBINING mixing differentlow biological value proteins to supply allthe essential amino acids

2.2 FATS AND OILS


The functions of fat in the diet Fats are used by the body for energy and

also form part of the structure of cells.

Stored under the skin, fat helps insulatethe body against the cold.

Our vital organs, such as kidneys, areprotected by a layer of fat.

Fat is a source of the fat-soluble vitaminsA, D, E and K (see vitamins).

We like to eat fat because it gives foodstexture and avour.

Fat in our diet helps to promote a feelingof satiety (feeling full after eating).

Sources of fat in the dietFats come from both plant and animalsources. There has been a signicantincrease in the oils and fats available fromvegetable sources as consumers andmanufacturers look to follow the latestdietary advice.

Plant sources include:

some fruits, for example avocado pears,olives

nuts and pulses, for example peanuts,walnuts

seeds, for example sesame, sunower andsoya.

Animal sources include:

meat and meat products, such as lard andsuet

dairy products, for example, milk, butter,cheese and cream

sh, particularly oily sh, for example tuna,salmon and sardines.

The chemistry of fatsFats are large molecules made up of only theelements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Theyare composed of fatty acids and glycerol.Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated.

Saturated fatsEach carbon atom in the fatty acid iscombined with two hydrogen atoms.Saturated fats are solid at room temperatureand are mainly found in animal foods. Toomuch saturated fat in the diet has been linkedto high blood cholesterol, leading to anincreased risk of coronary heart disease,diabetes and obesity.

CholesterolCholesterol has the consistency of soft waxand is produced in the liver and transportedround the body in the blood. It has beenfound that when too much cholesterol is inthe blood it is deposited on the walls of thearteries, narrowing them and making themless efcient. Narrowed arteries are one ofthe major causes of coronary heart disease.

Figure 2.5 Sources of saturated fat in the diet


Trans fatty acids are man-made moleculesproduced when hydrogen is added tovegetable oils. This is called hydrogenation.This process is used to make solidmargarines from oil and is used in a variety ofmanufactured foods. Trans fatty acids behavelike saturated fats, raising your levels ofcholesterol. Medical research has shown thattrans fatty acids are very bad for yourcardiovascular system and may increase therisk of breast cancer.

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) cannot be madeby the body but are important to the healthyand efcient functioning of the body. It isimportant to get the right balance of EFAs inour diet. They are essential for regulatingbody processes, including blood clotting andcontrol of inammation. Two important onesare:

Omega 3 found in oily sh, seeds, walnut oil,and green leafy vegetables. It helps protectthe heart.Omega 6 found in vegetables, fruits, grains,chicken and seeds. It helps lower cholesterolin the blood.

Unsaturated fatsThere are two types of unsaturated fats,polyunsaturated and monounsaturated.Unsaturated fats are usually soft or liquid atroom temperature and have a lower meltingpoint.

Monounsaturated fatty acids have one pairof their carbon atoms with only one hydrogenatom attached, so they are capable of takingone more hydrogen atom. They are soft atroom temperature but will go solid whenplaced in the coldest part of the refrigerator.They are found in both animal and vegetablefats. Monounsaturated fatty acids in particularare considered healthier because they canhelp to lower blood cholesterol, reduce therisk of diabetes and are linked with a lowerrate of cancer.

Figure 2.6 Sources of monounsaturated fat in thediet

Polyunsaturated fatty acids have two ormore pairs of carbon atoms which arecapable of taking up more hydrogen atoms.They are very soft or oily at roomtemperature. They will not go solid even inthe refrigerator.

Figure 2.7 Sources of polyunsaturated fat in thediet


Carbohydrates are important macronutrientsformed from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.They are mainly used to provide energy andduring digestion they are broken down to

KEY POINTS Fat is a concentrated source of energy Excess fat in the diet is stored as

body fat

We are advised to reduce our fatintake to no more than 35 per cent ofour total energy intake

Saturated fats contribute to a highlevel of cholesterol in the blood.

QUESTIONS1. Why does the body need fat? Explain

why high-fat food products appeal to us.

2. Why should we cut down on theamount of saturated fats that we eat?

3. What is a low-in-fat and a lower-in-fatproduct? Research this on the internet.

ACTIVITY

1. Produce a poster to show A guide to the fat in your diet.

2. Visit your supermarket or supermarket website and conduct a survey of the typesof product that have a lower-fat version. Set out your ndings in a table like theone in Table 2.1 above.

3. Examine a range of butter, margarines, lard and spreads. Compare the fat contentin 100 g of each.

Product name Regular product Lower-fat version How much is the fatreduced per 100 g?

Table 2.1 Supermarket survey to compare fat contents of products

KEY TERMSESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS small unit of fatthat must be supplied in the dietHYDROGENATION the process ofadding hydrogen to oils to make them intosolid fatsLIPID another name for fat and oilsMONOUNSATURATED FATS a fatmolecule with one hydrogen space POLYUNSATURATED FATS a fatmolecule with more than one hydrogenspaceSATIETY a feeling of fullness

2.3 CARBOHYDRATES


it is often used by athletes in tablet orpowder form to provide a fast-energy boost.

Fructose is similar in structure to glucose andis found naturally in the juices of some fruitsand plants but mainly in honey. It can bebought in crystalline form. As it is thesweetest of all sugars it is used bymanufacturers to replace sucrose, enablingless sugar to be used to provide the samelevel of sweetness.

Galactose is formed during digestion oflactose (milk sugar).

their simplest form, glucose, which can beused for energy. There are three forms:sugar, starch and NSP (bre).

Functions of carbohydrates They provide the body with energy for

physical activity.

They provide the body with energy tomaintain bodily functions.

They provide dietary bre (non-starchpolysaccharide (NSP)) to help digestion.

They sweeten and avour foods.

They are divided into sugars and starchesalso known as simple and complexcarbohydrates.

Carbohydrates

GalactoseSimple sugars

Complexcarbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

Non-starchPolysaccharides

GlucoseFructose

Maltose

Lactose

Sucrose

Starch

Fibre NSP

Figure 2.8 Diagram to show the types of simpleand complex carbohydrates

Simple sugarsThere are two main types of simple sugars.

MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides are also known as simplesugars. The simpler the carbohydrate, themore quickly it can be absorbed in the bodyand the faster energy can be provided.

Glucose is one of these simple sugars andalthough found in some fruits and vegetables

Figure 2.9 Sources of monosaccharides in the diet

DisaccharidesDisaccharides are double sugars which aremade up of two monosaccharides.

Lactose is the disaccharide found in milk,which some people think gives milk itsslightly sweet taste.

Maltose, another of the disaccharides, resultsfrom the fermentation of cereal grains. Maltis used in some food production and as adietary supplement.

Sucrose is the most common disaccharide, awhite crystalline substance used in homes


PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides are complex carbohydratesformed from hundreds of glucose moleculesstrung together that provide the body withenergy and are thus important nutrients.Modern dietary advice recommends that thedietary intake of bre-rich complexcarbohydrates be increased to provide atleast 50 per cent of our daily energy needs.

StarchesStarches are found in grain products likebread, rice, cereals and pasta and in somefruits and vegetables. Starches take longerthan sugars for the body to digest and soprovide a feeling of fullness for longer,helping to avoid over-eating and obesity. Allstarch comes from plant sources.

Figure 2.10 Sources of disaccharides

and industry known as cane sugar. It providesthe body with energy but has no otherbenets in the diet. It contains no othernutrients. Sucrose comes from sugar beet orsugar cane. We buy it as granulated sugar/brown sugar/syrup/treacle/castor and icingsugar.

We eat sugar in different forms:

intrinsic sugar found naturally in the cellsof fruits and vegetables; it is part of thecells

extrinsic sugars which are those you cansee, such as cane sugar, syrup and thoseadded to cakes biscuits, desserts andsweets.

The most common problems relating tosucrose are obesity and tooth decay. Toothdecay is caused when the bacteria in yourmouth (plaque) feed on the sucrose toproduce an acid. The acid then causes smallholes in your teeth (dental caries). Intrinsicsugars are less harmful as they are less likelyto lead to tooth decay and are easier for thebody to absorb.

Plaque + sucrose = acidAcid + tooth = decay

Figure 2.11 Sources of starch in the diet

Functions of starch in the diet broken down slowly into simple sugars by

the digestive system to provide energy

adds bulk to our diet

proves a feeling of fullness

excess is converted to fat.


We should be eating no less than 18 g ofbre a day, although women seem to needmore than men. The average person eatsonly about 12 g a day so that means weshould be increasing our intake by 50 percent.

Sources of fibre in the diet There are two type of dietary bre, insolubleand soluble, which have different functions.

Insoluble fibre absorbs water and increasesbulk, making the faeces very soft and bulkyand easy to pass through the digestivesystem. Insoluble bre-rich foods arewholemeal our, wholegrain breakfastcereals, pasta, brown rice and some fruitsand vegetables.

Soluble fibre slows down the digestion andabsorption of carbohydrates and so helps tocontrol blood sugar levels which helps stopus feeling hungry. Soluble bre may alsoreduce blood cholesterol levels and so mayreduce our risk of heart of disease. Goodsources of soluble bre are oats, peas, beans,lentils, most types of fruit and vegetables.Vegetables and fruits also provide more breif eaten with their skins on.

Fibre/NSPFibre/NSP (non-starch polysaccharide) is thenon-digestible cellulose found in plant foods.It cannot be digested so it passes straightthrough the digestive system, absorbingmoisture and providing bulk. Fibre helps topush other food through the system andhelps to clean the walls of the intestine ofbacteria. The efcient removal of wasteproducts from the body is vital to health.

Functions of dietary fibre holds water and keeps the faeces soft and

bulky

helps prevent various bowel disordersincluding constipation, bowel cancer,diverticular disease, appendicitis andhaemorrhoids (piles)

can help people to control their bodyweight because high-bre foods are lling

high-bre diets are linked to lower bloodcholesterol.

Too little bre in the diet can causeconstipation and in extreme cases diverticulardisease where the lining of the intestinebecomes distorted and inamed.

Figure 2.12 Sources of fibre in the diet

High fibre diet(a)

Soft, large faeces pass easily through the intestine

Small, hard faeces do not pass easily through colon

Colonwall

(b)Low fibre diet Development

of diverticula in wall of colon

(c)

Inner lining of colon pushes and distorts colon wall

Figure 2.13 Diagram to show food waste passingthrough the digestive system


Vitamins are called micronutrients becausethey are needed in only very small quantities.They all have chemical names but they areusually referred to by letters.

Functions of vitamins in the dietVitamins are essential to the body:

to maintain health

to help prevent deficiency diseases suchas beri beri and rickets

to regulate the repair of body cells

to help combat the ageing process

to help to process carbohydrates andrelease energy in the body.

KEY POINTS Sugars and starches release energy

into the body.

Starches are converted to energymore slowly than sugars.

Sugars contain no other nutrientsapart from energy.

If we eat more carbohydrates than weneed for energy, the excess is storedas fat.

Dietary bre is a very complexstructure and cannot be digested.

QUESTIONS1. State the function of carbohydrate in the

diet.

2. Describe the differences betweensimple and complex carbohydrates.

3. Although bre does not provide thebody with nutrients, explain why it itimportant in the diet.

4. Explain the relationship between sugarand tooth decay.

ACTIVITY

1. Design and make a high-carbohydrate main course productfor an athlete. Use nutritionalsoftware to calculate the percentageof carbohydrate in your product.

2. Collect a range of different breakfast

cereal packets. Make a chart to showhow much starch, sugar and brethere is in them. Do you notice arelationship between the amount ofsugar and bre?

3. Choose a traditional recipe and adaptit to increase the bre content.

KEY TERMSINTRINSIC SUGAR contained within theplant cell wallsEXTRINSIC SUGAR added sucrose to aproductMONOSACCHARIDE simple sugarDISACCHARIDE two monosaccharidescombinedPOLYSACCHARIDE complexcarbohydrate, either starch or bre

2.4 VITAMINS


There are two main groups of vitamins, fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-solublevitamins A and D are found in the fat infoods. They can be stored in the liver andused by the body when needed. Water-

soluble vitamins dissolve in water. Theyinclude the B group and C and are not storedin the body, so it is important that foodscontaining these vitamins are eaten regularly.

Water-soluble vitamins B and CVitamin B is a group of vitamins all havingsimilar functions. The most important Bvitamins are listed in Table 2.3 on page 36.

Fat-soluble Function in the Good sources Deficiency Examples of vitamins body food sourceChemical nameVitamin A Keeps eyes healthy Retinol is in liver, Long-term

and improves night oily sh, eggs, deciency Retinol vision milk, cheese, butter may lead to

and margarine night Beta carotene is Helps maintain skin blindnessan anti-oxidant Beta carotene is in vitamin which red, green and Excess may might protect orange vegetables lead to liver against cancer and fruits, and bone

especially carrots damage

Vitamin D Works with calcium Dairy products, In children it to build and oily sh, liver, can cause maintain strong cereals rickets which bones and teeth is a softening

Available by of the bones. exposure to There is no sunlight RNI for

vitamin D

Table 2.2 Fat-soluble vitamins A and D

KEY POINTS Vitamins are required in very small

amounts.

Vitamins promote health and helpprevent disease.

They regulate the building and repairof the body.

They help regulate the chemicalreactions which release energy inbody cells.


Water-soluble Function in the Good sources Deficiency Examples of vitamins body food sourceChemical nameB Helps the release Fortied breakfast Slows growth Thiamine of energy from cereals, whole and

nutrients grains, meat, development. eggs, milk, some Severe

Functioning and vegetables deciency normal nervous causes beri system beri

B Normal growth Liver, kidneys, Poor growth Riboavin meat, milk, eggs rate

Healthy skin and green vegetables Skin and eye

Release of energy problems

B Metabolism growth Meat and poultry, Deciency is Niacin and energy release sh, cereals, very rare in

grains UKEssential for healthy skin and nerves Dairy products Pellagra,

rough sore Pulses skin, weak-

ness and depression

Folic Acid Essential for the Liver, kidneys Tiredness formation of red and anaemiablood cells Whole grain

cereals, pulses, Foetal development dark green

vegetables

Vitamin C Formation of Citrus and soft Spotty skin, connective tissue fruits, oranges, swollen gums,

Ascorbic acid blackcurrants, loose teethHelps wound strawberrieshealing and In severe calcium absorption Green vegetables, cases

cabbage, new scurvy Blood and blood potatoes, peppers developsvessel formation

Helps absorb iron

Table 2.3 Water-soluble vitamins B and C


Our bodies require mineral elements for avariety of functions. They are micronutrientsrequired in very small quantities. We aregoing to look at ve important minerals:calcium, iron, sodium, phosphorus anduoride. There are many more and these arecalled trace elements.

Minerals have four major functions:

body building (bones and teeth)

control of body processes, especially thenervous system

QUESTIONS1. Explain why vitamins and minerals are

important in the diet.

2. List the water-soluble and the fat-solublevitamins and their main functions.

ACTIVITY

1. Prepare a salad that would appeal toa teenager to include as manyvitamins as possible.Make a list of the ingredients andstate which vitamins are in the salad.

2. Carry out research about vitaminsupplements. Would you recommendsomeone to take them?

3. Analyse a range of orange drinks todetermine the amount of vitamin C ineach one. Compare the amount ofvitamin C, sugar and the cost of eachone.

essential part of body uids and cells

form part of enzymes and other proteinsnecessary for the release of energy.

We are going to look at four major mineralsand one trace element.

Calcium and iron are the most importantminerals needed by the body.

CalciumCalcium helps form teeth and bones. An adultbody contains more than 1 kg of calcium!Calcium is also needed for blood clotting,muscle contraction and enzyme formation.People need differing amounts of calciumeach day, depending on their age and sex.Women who are breastfeeding need anincreased amount. Young children need a diethigh in calcium because their bones aregrowing rapidly but by about the age of 18years bones stop growing. We reach peakbone mass at about 30 years when our bonesare fully calcied.

If we do not eat sufcient calcium in our dietto maintain blood calcium the body will takecalcium from our bones. Osteoporosis is acondition of weakening and thinning of thebones most common in the elderly, especiallywomen.

Vitamin D and phosphorus work togetherwith calcium to help maintain strong bonesand teeth.

IronAnaemia caused by

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