Food Agriculture, Natural Resources Policy Analysis ... Integrated Disease Management ... MCIA...
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F
A COMPREHENSIVE SCOPING AND ASSESSMENT
STUDY OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE POLICIES
IN MAURITIUS
Report
30 April 2014
BY
Prof Sunita Facknath; Assoc Prof Bhanooduth
Lalljee; Mr Navin Boodia
Food Agriculture, Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network
FANRPAN
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Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) Physical address: 141 Cresswell Road, Weavind Park 0184, Pretoria, South Africa
Postal address: Private Bag X2087, Silverton 0127, Pretoria, South Africa Tel: +27 (0) 12 804 2966 or +27 (0) 12 804 3186
Fax: +27 (0) 12 804 0600 Email: [email protected] URL: www.fanrpan.org
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Executive Summary
Agriculture in the Republic of Mauritius must undergo significant transformation in order to
meet the related challenges of food security, sustainable livelihoods, and climate change.
Effective climate-smart practices already exist and could be implemented in the national
agricultural systems. As recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organisation, national
institutions and decision making must remain flexible while dealing with uncertainties of
potential climate change impacts, with iterative planning, participatory and systems-based
approaches, and strong stakeholder engagement.
The Republic of Mauritius has been proactive in tackling climate change issues. Although
there is no specific and separate CSA policy as such, many of the existing and proposed
agricultural policies, plans and activities include elements of CSA.
Apart from agriculture and food security, attempts are being made to incorporate climate
change (but not necessarily CSA) concerns gradually into other sectoral development
policies, plans and strategies such as water resources, tourism, land use, transport, health,
forest, infrastructure and coastal zone management to ensure sustainable development
while aiming at poverty reduction and social equity. However, the process is very slow, and
implementation so far has been inadequate, mainly due to financial constraints and
insufficient capacity at all levels. However, the concept of CSA has not been sufficiently
mainstreamed, and there are several important gaps.
There is a need to mainstream CSA into the policies and plans of other national sectors, as
well as to strengthen the necessary policy and institutional frameworks, and provide the
essential capacity, technical and financial resources for their implementation.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary ii
List of Tables iv
List of Figures iv
List of Abbreviations v
1 Introduction 1
1.1. Country Overview 2
1.1.1. The Republic of Mauritius 2
1.1.2. Socio-Economics 2
1.1.3. National Emissions 2
1.1.4. Weather Systems 3
1.1.5. Climate Variability and Climate Change 3
1.2. Methodology 6
2 Farming Systems and CSA Technologies and Practices 7
2.1. Farming Systems 7
2.2. Climate-Smart Practices and Technologies 8
2.2.1. Mixed Cropping 8
2.2.2. Mulching 8
2.2.3. Adjusting Planting Dates to Rainfall 9
2.2.4. Crop Rotation 9
2.2.5. Pit Planting 9
2.2.6. Water Harvesting in Fields 10
2.2.7. Biological Control of Insect and Other Pests 10
2.2.8. Use of Other Traditional Knowledge for Pest Control 10
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and Soil Improvement
2.3. Climate-Smart Programmes and Projects 11
2.3.1. Africa Adaptation Programme 11
2.3.2. Maurice Ile Durable 11
2.3.3. Food Security Fund 12
2.3.4. Capacity Building 12
2.3.5. Other Adaptation Projects 12
2.3.6. Other Mitigation Projects 12
2.4. Constraints and Challenges 13
3 Policies and Institutional Frameworks 14
3.1. Policies and Legislation 14
3.1.1. Conventions 14
3.1.2. Climate-Smart Relevant Policies and Plans 15
3.1.3. National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework
(NCCAPF)
17
3.1.4. Disaster Risk Reduction 18
3.1.5. Rainwater Harvesting Policy in Rodrigues 18
3.1.6. Climate Change Legislation 18
3.1.7. Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP)
19
3.1.8. Policy Gap Analysis 20
3.2. Institutional Framework 20
3.2.1. Institutions 20
3.2.2. Institutional Gap Analysis 22
3.3. Gender and Social Equity in Climate Change Issues
23
4 Conclusions and Recommendations 23
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4.1 Key Challenges to Implementing CSA
23
4.2. Opportunities to Implement CSA 24
4.3. Conclusions 24
4.3.1. Policies and Programmes 24
4.3.2. Institutions 24
4.3.3. Climate-Smart Technologies 24
4.3.4.Capacity Building 25
4.3.5. Financial Resources 25
4.4. Recommendations 25
4.4.1. Policies and Programmes 25
4.4.2. Institutional 27
4.4.3. Climate-Smart Technologies 27
4.4.4. Capacity Building 28
4.4.5. Financing 28
5 References 30
6 Annexes 34
6.1. Policies, Plans and Programmes Relevant to CSA 34
6.2. Details of Selected CSA-Relevant Policies and Programmes 36
6.3. Climate-Smart Agriculture Relevant Research Projects 39
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List of Tables
Annex 6.1 Policies, Plans and Programmes Relevant to CSA 34
Annex 6.2 Details of Selected CSA-Relevant Policies and Programmes 36
Annex 6.3 Climate-Smart Agriculture Relevant Research Projects 39
List of Figures
Fig 1 Change in precipitation over the island of Mauritius 4
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List of Abbreviations
AAP Africa Adaptation Programme
AU African Union
BoI Board of Investment
CA Conservation Agriculture
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development
Programme
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
EC European Commission
EU-DCP European Union - Decentralised Cooperation
Programme
FANRPAN Food Agriculture Natural Resources Policy Analysis
Network
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FAREI Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gas
HFCs Hydroflurocarbons
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IDM Integrated Disease Management
INM Integrated Nutrient Management
IOC Indian Ocean Commission
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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IPM Integrated Pest Management
LULUCF Land Use Land Use Cover and Forestry
MCIA Mauritius Cane Industry Authority
MID Maurice Ile Durable
MMS Mauritius Meteorological Services
MoAFS Ministry of Agroindustry and Food Security
MoESD Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development
MoF Ministry of Fisheries
NCCAPF National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NPCS National Parks and Conservation Services
PFCs Perflurocarbons
SIDS Small Island Developing States
UNFCCC United National Framework Convention on Climate
Change
UoM University of Mauritius
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1. Introduction
Climate variability and climate change is emerging as the most important challenge facing
development in Africa. There is already evidence that Africa is continuing to warm faster
than the global average (IPCC, 2007), and by 2100, increase in mean surface temperature
will range from 1.4°C to 5.8°C as compared to 1990, with a 10cm to 90cm rise in mean sea
level (AMCEN, 2011). With over 70% of the population being dependent on agriculture as a
source of livelihood, and about 97% of agriculture being rain-fed (World Bank, 2013), any
change in climatic patterns has far-reaching consequences for the economies of African
countries. Agricultural production and stability, and food security in many regions of Africa
will be severely compromised, with those that are already vulnerable being the hardest hit.
(Beddington et al, 2011; Cline 2007; Stern Review 2006).
The Republic of Mauritius is a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) and, in common with
other SIDS, is highly vulnerable to climate variability and climate change. A narrow resource
and livelihood base, high dependence on external markets and other exogenous forces,
increasing population, frequent extreme weather events, and the high risk of sea level rise,
make Mauritius (as other SIDs) particularly exposed to the vagaries of a changing climate.
Climate change-associated changes in temperature and rainfall are expected to shift
production ranges and seasons, pest, disease and weed patterns, modify crop phenologies,
change species composition and ecosystem boundaries, and modify the set of feasible
crops, all of which will affect production, prices, incomes and ultimately, livelihoods and
lives. Furthermore, climate change will worsen the water stress being currently faced by the
country. Inundation of low-lying lands will negatively impact agricultural and fishing
communities, coastal settlements and coastal tourism activities. Increased incidence of
pests, parasites, vector-borne and other diseases, heat-associated discomfort, and other
climate-related disorders will have significant negative consequences on human and
livestock health.
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Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that can help reduce the negative impacts of
climate change on food supplies, livelihoods and economies, and increase the adaptive
capacity of farming communities to long-term climatic trends as well as to increasing
variability in weather patterns (Liverman, 2011; Speranza et al., 2010). Climate-smart
agriculture is not a single specific agricultural technology or practice that can be universally
applied; it is a combined policy, technology and financing approach that involves the direct
incorporation of climate change adaptation and mitigation into agricultural development
planning and investment strategies in order to enable sustainable agricultural development
under climate change (FAO 2010). It starts with site-specific assessments of the synergies
and tradeoffs between the multiple objectives of prioritizing food security, ensuring
sustainable livelihoods, and meeting the challenge of climate change, in diverse social,
economic, and environmental contexts; it aims to maximise benefits and minimise negative
trade-offs through appropriate adaptation options, while reaping potential mitigation co-
benefits. Therefore, CSA builds further upon the concept of sustainable agriculture, and uses
the ecosystem approach as well as principles of sustainable land and water management,
along with resource and energy use assessments, to make decisions on the appropriate site-
specific farming methods to use.
1.1. Country Overview
1.1.1. The Republic of Mauritius
The Republic of Mauritius comprises the main island, Mauritius, and the Outer Islands of
Rodrigues, Cargados Carajos Archipelago (St Brandon) and Agalega Islands. The Republic
also claims sovereignty over Tromelin and the Chagos Archipelago which includes the Diego
Garcia atoll. The total land area of the Republic is 2,040 km2, with an Exclusive Economic
Zone of about 1.9 million km2, and an extended continental shelf of 400,000 km2 jointly
managed with the Republic of Seychelles.
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1.1.2. Socio-Economics
From a monocrop economy founded on sugarcane for sugar, Mauritius has today developed
into a vibrant, middle-income country with a diversified economy based on tourism,
manufacturing, offshore finance, services, and ICT. New and emerging sectors include
medical and educational tourism, and ocean-related activities such as mariculture, marine
bioprospecting, etc. Sugarcane production is being expanded to include power generation
from sugarcane residue (bagasse) and ethanol production, and special refined sugars.
1.1.3. National Emissions
The National GHG Inventory (2010) reports that the net Greenhouse Gas emissions in 2006
was 4,646 Gg CO2-eq, with CO2 being the major contributor (about 71%). The main sources
of GHG emissions in the energy sector are electricity generation, transport, manufacturing
and construction. Methane emissions (about 30%) are mainly from urban wastes, followed
by the agriculture sector. Emissions from nitrous oxide, HFCs and PFCs have been decreasing
over the years. In the agriculture sector, the 206 Gg CO2-eq emissions (4.2% of the total
national emission) are from enteric fermentation, manure management, agricultural soils
and field burning of agricultural residues (SNC, 2010). Of these emissions, agricultural soils
contributed the highest amount (59.6%) followed by the livestock sector (40.4%).
The LULUCF sector acts as a carbon sink with 117.6 Gg CO2 emissions and 303.7 Gg CO2
removals in 2006, representing 6% removal of total national emissions (SNC, 2010).
1.1.4. Weather Systems
Weather in Mauritius is influenced by South-East trade winds, which give the island a mild
and pleasant maritime climate throughout the year. The two seasons comprise of a warm
humid summer (mean maximum temperature of 29.2o C) extending from November to April
and a relatively cool dry winter (mean minimum temperature of 16.4o C) from June to
September. Average precipitation ranges from about 4,000mm on the Central Plateau to
about 800mm along the coast. Tropical storms (cyclones) occur during the summer months,
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and are associated with very strong winds and heavy rains leading to localised flash floods.
The cyclone-associated rains serve as the main source of freshwater for the islands.
1.1.5. Climate Variability and Climate Change
The mean temperature in the country has been increasing by 0.16oC per decade; the
minimum temperature has been increasing at a higher level than has the maximum
temperature. Furthermore, summer temperatures have been observed to be increasing
more rapidly than winter ones and the number of days with maximum temperatures above
the threshold value of 30oC is on the rise (SNC, 2010).
On the other hand, rainfall has been decreasing (Fig. 2) with an overall decrease of about
100 mm over the last 50 years or so. Rainfall pattern has also changed, with a delay in the
onset of summer rains and a longer dry season (3-4 months as opposed to the 2 months
some decades ago), and an increased occurrence of high-intensity rainfall events that cause
flash-floods and high run-off to the detriment of aquifer recharge.
It has been observed that tropical storms are increasing in strength (wind gusts between
234 and 299 km/h), with more frequent flood events. Mean sea levels have risen by 7.8 cm
at Port Louis and 6.7 cm at Rodrigues, compared to 1950, with a higher rate of increase
during the past 25 years (MMS, 2014).
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Fig 1. Change in precipitation over the island of Mauritius (MMS)
In the agricultural sector, the Agricultural Productions Systems Simulator Model (APSIM)
predicts cane yield reductions of 34% - 48% and sugar yield reductions of 47% - 65% with a
10%-20% decrease in rainfall and a 2oC increase in temperature (SNC, 2010). Extreme
weather events like cyclones and drought have also been shown to reduce cane productivity
and sugar extraction rate depending on the timing, severity and duration of the extreme
event, as well as some carry-over effects. Climate change is also expected to change
sugarcane phenology, with higher vegetative growth to the detriment of sucrose
accumulation, under conditions of increased mean temperatures and a narrowing of the day
and night temperature amplitudes.
Climate change is expected to have similar impacts on crop phenology (greater vegetative
growth, decreased flowering intensity, shorter life cycles, etc.) and yields of vegetables and
other crops as well. Flooding of cultivated areas due to intense rainfall events and/or
flashfloods results in total destruction of vegetable production. Higher temperatures
shorten the life cycle of insect pests and vectors, resulting in a greater number of
generations in a season, increase incidence of vector-borne and other diseases, expand the
geographical and host ranges of agricultural pests and diseases, reduce success of biological
control agents, and shift the species composition and ecosystem dynamics of the area. With
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greater evaporation and lesser recharge of underground aquifers, utilisable water resources
are expected to decrease by about 13% by 2050 (SNC, 2010).
Ramlowat (2009) showed that higher mean and extreme temperatures may reduce net
assimilation rates in potato plants at the end of the growing season, with decreased tuber
growth rates and lowered productivity due to the shorter crop cycles resulting in lower total
intercepted radiation. Jonsson (2011) showed that a 1°C increase in temperature and 10%
decrease in precipitation would negatively affect tomato production in Mauritius, with
yields dropping by 8.2% and 13.3% in short run and long run, respectively, in the eastern
region of the country.
Facknath (2009a) reported on the resilience of food security systems in Africa in the face of
a changing climate, in particular the impacts of climate change on food security and
biodiversity in the Indian Ocean Small Island Developing States (Facknath, 2009c), as well as
the challenges involved in finding sustainable solutions for climate-smart crop protection
(Facknath, 2011a,b,c; 2010; 2009b). The vulnerability of agriculture to climatic changes was
also analysed by the Acclimate project of the Indian Ocean Commission in 2011. This study
revealed that while there is currently no systematic approach for observing the impacts of
climate change in the non-sugar sector in Mauritius, the livestock and crop production
figures over the years have reflected the rising temperatures and reduced precipitation.
A national dialogue to increase awareness about climate change and its impact on Mauritian
agriculture and to propose and discuss stakeholders’ coping and adaptation strategies, was
organised in June 2010 jointly by the Mauritius Node of FANRPAN and the Faculty of
Agriculture of the University of Mauritius (UoM), was attended by more than 70
stakeholders from the farming community, the public and private sectors, NGOs, academia.
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The several surveys carried out on the perception of farmers on the impacts of climate
variability and climate change on their production systems, and their adaptation
mechanisms (Brizmohun-Gopaul et al., 2013; Boodhoo, 2011; Facknath and Lalljee, 2005)
have shown that about 92% of the farmers interviewed have noted changes in weather
patterns over recent years, with 81% to 87.8% reporting reductions in quantitative and
qualitative crop yields. Specific observations in the crop sector include: heat stress in plants,
soil moisture deficit, higher pest and disease incidence, loss of arable land, shift in
vegetation zones increased salinisation of coastal agricultural lands, and change in cropping
zones for some crops from lowlands to higher altitude (Attawoo, 2012). Observations in the
livestock sector include: heat stress in the animals, lowered feed quality, lowered feed
intake, lower productivity, lower milk production in cattle, reduction in live pig weight from
about 100 pounds to 80-85 pounds per head, higher risk and incidence of swine flu and
other diseases, higher risk of introduction of new diseases, disturbed younger animals
resulting in poorer livestock production, physiological disturbances leading to delay in the
onset of the reproductive cycle; slower growth rate of animals; dehydration in animals due
to higher temperatures, lowering of meat quality and taste, emergence of diseases, and
increased heat-related mortality in poultry. The increasing temperatures have also led to
lower fodder productivity in the lowlands, resulting in a lowered carrying capacity for deer
ranching (Brizmohun-Gopaul et al., 2013; Attawoo, 2012).
The negative impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity and profitability may
lead to abandonment of cultivable areas, with further negative consequences such as soil
erosion, soil fertility loss, land degradation, increased siltation of freshwater bodies and the
lagoon in slopy areas, etc.
Some of the positive effects include an extension of the cropping zone for certain crop and
fruit species due to the rise in temperature (e.g. litchis and mangoes can now be produced
at higher altitudes than was previously possible), and production of off-season crops due to
seasonal variations with consequent changes in crop phenology and productivity (e.g. litchis,
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mangoes, pineapples). This creates the possibility of higher prices in local and export
markets, and therefore higher farm incomes.
1.2. Methodology
The scoping study was developed through the following steps:
(i) Desk review of existing documents – relevant national strategy and action plans,
legislation and regulations, key project proposals and reports, research papers.
(ii) Scientifically designed surveys and interviews of farmers.
(iii) Key informant interviews with executive members of farmer cooperatives and
federations, extension staff, and policy makers.
(iv)Validation of scoping study with key local stakeholders at an international
symposium on Africa in Global Environmental Change held at the University of
Mauritius on the 7th April 2014.
2. Farming Systems and CSA Technologies and Practices
2.1. Farming System
Agriculture in Mauritius occupies about 40% of the land area, being dominated by
sugarcane. About 70% of the sugarcane sector is under corporate management, while the
remaining 30% is owned by some 22,000 small individual planters. The remaining 10% of the
land is cultivated with food crops, tea, tobacco, palm, fruit and flowers, by about 12,000
small growers. In 2010, about 6,000 food growers cultivated around 7,570 ha of land for
food crops and fruits (mainly pineapple and banana) and produced about 110,000 tonnes
vegetables and fruits. Another 6,000 producers rear livestock for meat and milk. Forests
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cover about 25% of the total land area. Forestry activities are restricted mainly to deer
ranching and production of Christmas trees (National Forest Policy, 2006).
The island of Rodrigues is mainly agricultural, producing maize, beans, onion, chilli, lime,
honey and meat. However, recent years have seen a decline in production mainly due to
water stress caused by decreasing rainfall, and increasing land degradation caused by
unsustainable management practices such as overgrazing by cattle, and construction on
slopes.
The farming system in Rodrigues is mainly rain-fed, while in Mauritius it is a mix of tropical
rainfed and irrigated. Cultivations are highly vulnerable to climate variability and climate
change-associated conditions such as higher temperatures, reduced precipitation and
drought, short periods of heavy rains and flooding, cyclones, and increased incidence of
pests, disease and weeds.
2.2. Climate-Smart Practices and Technologies
Farmers adapt to changing conditions through a combination of traditional practices and
modern techniques recommended by the Extension staff. Some CSA relevant practices are
described below:
2.2.1. Mixed Cropping
Farmers in Mauritius and Rodrigues often grow several crops together. In some cases, all
the different crops are food crops, while in some cases, farmers combine food crops with
ornamentals, e.g. onions with runner beans, coriander and marigold. This ensures some
harvest in the event of a failure of the main crop (ensures food security), and there are also
other benefits, such as reduced pest and disease attack, better utilisation of water and
nutrients, maintenance of a soil cover for a longer period of time (an adaptation to climate
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change). The case of sugarcane is different in that planters ratoon a cane crop for up to 8 to
10 years before replanting. Intercropping with potato or maize or groundnuts is practiced
only in the virgin cane. However, after 8 to 10 years, planters normally allow a fallow period
or grow groundnuts or potato on the plots previously under sugarcane.
Mixed cropping systems tend to be more labour-intensive, and the high cost of labour in
Mauritius makes this system less attractive compared to monocropping, which is more
amenable to mechanisation. Another drawback is that cultivation guidance to farmers from
the Extension Services is in the form of specific crops, e.g. the Guide Agricole 2010,
published by the Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute of the Ministry of
Agroindustry and Food Security, explains the culture of 38 crops individually. There is no
specific guidance to farmers on the appropriate crop mixes to grow in mixed cropping
systems and the agronomic practices to follow.
2.2.2. Mulching
Farmers in some parts of Mauritius use sugarcane or maize stalks as mulch to prevent soil
erosion and maintain soil moisture. Although some farmers in Rodrigues use maize stovers
as mulch, most prefer to keep maize stovers to feed to cattle rather than as a soil cover.
Research on innovative mulches has identified banana leaves, coconut leaves, vetiver as
organic mulches as well as textile fabric (Facknath and Lalljee, 2013; Lalljee, 2012, 2013).
Mulching has been shown to reduce soil temperatures, retain moisture in the soil (which
helps in water conservation), prevent soil erosion, reduce incidence of pests and weeds, add
to nutrients in the soil, and increase yields (ensures food security as well as adaptation to
climate change). The organic mulch decomposes and gets incorporated into the soil, thereby
adding to the carbon pool in the soil (mitigation). However the shortage of organic mulch
materials is a drawback to this excellent climate-smart practice.
2.2.3. Adjusting Planting Dates to Rainfall
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In Rodrigues, there is increasingly late onset of rains. Since maize and beans are only
planted after the first rains, the uncertainty about the onset of rains has led to farmers
modifying their farming practice to adapt to this situation. They prepare the land, but plant
only when the rains come. Late rains mean late planting, which shortens the growing season
considerably. This situation of uncertainty is not conducive to the adoption of good
agricultural and CSA practice. Although the Mauritius Meteorological Services provides
rainfall forecasts for up to one week in advance, there is nonetheless considerable variation
in forecasting efficiency, mainly due to the small size of the islands. Presently there is no
source of advice to farmers on the specific issue of adapting to the observed changes in
rainfall patterns.
2.2.4. Crop Rotation
Although some farmers in Mauritius tend to specialise in one or two crops (e.g. sugarcane,
onions, potatoes, tomatoes, aubergines, or chillies) and grow the same crop(s) every season,
temporal and spatial crop rotation is practiced by a number of farmers. This practice
contributes to optimising the water and nutrient uptake from the soil thereby reducing the
need for fertilisers and irrigation, reduces incidence of pests and diseases thereby reducing
the need for pesticides, and overall increases the environmental and economic sustainability
of the farm. It is both an adaptation as well as a mitigation measure, and also ensures food
security. On the other hand, the high cost of farm labour can sometimes be a disincentive
for farmers to practice crop rotation.
2.2.5. Pit Planting
Farmers plant in depressions in the soil to collect and hold rainwater. This reduces the need
for irrigation, and helps in water conservation, and is a good adaptation strategy against
water stress.
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2.2.6. Water Harvesting in Fields
Most farmers in Rodrigues, and several in the southeast coast of Mauritius, dig ponds in the
fields to collect rainwater and runoff from adjacent higher ground. These ponds provide
water for irrigation, preparing spray volumes for pesticides, and other farm activities for
several months in a year, and thereby reduce the use of river or municipal water. They are a
particularly useful adaptation measure during periods when there is no rain. One drawback
to this practice is the loss of field space to ponds, and which could have been planted with
crops. However, in sloping areas and arid regions, the benefits outweigh this small
drawback.
2.2.7. Biological Control of Insect and Other Pests
Natural enemies have been introduced by the agricultural Ministry for several of the key
pests of sugarcane and food crops in Mauritius. As a result, there is no use of insecticides in
sugarcane fields, all insect pests being controlled by the introduced natural enemies. In the
non-sugar sector, several important pests (e.g. coconut beetle, leafminers, diamondback
moth, etc) are controlled using this approach, with varying degrees of success. Increasing
agricultural biodiversity and/or reducing use of synthetic pesticides is an important
adaptation practice. Biological control in Mauritius is not applied by farmers; it is
institutionalised at the level of the Ministry of Agroindustry and Food Security (for all crops,
except sugarcane) and the Mauritius Cane Industry Authority (for sugarcane). While this
increases efficiency of introduction and release of the natural enemies, as well as the bio-
security aspect, it does not involve the farmers sufficiently. The result is that many farmers
are not aware of the role of natural enemies in pest control and do not feel sufficiently
involved in this activity to ensure the survival of these natural enemies, e.g. through
reducing their application of synthetic insecticides, or using selective insecticides that do not
kill the natural enemies.
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2.2.8. Use of Other Traditional Knowledge for Pest Control and Soil Improvement
Farmers use several traditional methods as part of their agronomic practices, e.g. smearing
mixtures of plant oil on cattle for controlling stable flies, using mixtures of brown sugar and
vinegar to attract fruit flies to a trap, using stale beer to attract and kill snails, using rotting
fish heads, lights, and fluttering flags to keep away bats from damaging litchi, papaya, and
mango fruits (Facknath and Lalljee, 2005). For improving soil productivity, farmers
incorporate certain locally available materials to soil, such as wastes from the sugar industry
(scum, vinasse and ash), as well as sea weeds (in coastal regions). These, and other,
traditional (together with modern) agronomic practices help to reduce use of synthetic
pesticides and fertilisers and make agriculture more climate-smart.
2.3. Climate-Smart Programmes and Projects
2.3.1. Africa Adaptation Programme
Under the recent African Adaptation Programme (AAP), funded by the Government of Japan
Cool Earth Partnership for Africa, and implemented by the Ministry of Environment and
Sustainable Development, a number of projects were successfully completed, which
included integrating climate change into sectoral plans and strategies, sustainable utilisation
in agriculture of wastes (e.g. ash from sugarcane bagasse) from production of biofuels,
strategies for reducing fertiliser use, and awareness-raising and capacity building for dealing
with climate change. Annex 2 lists some of the CSA-relevant research projects. One major
output of the AAP was the setting up of a Climate Change Information Centre in 2012,
under the aegis of the MoESD and the University of Mauritius, which would act as the
repository of all climate change related data and information.
2.3.2. Maurice Ile Durable
The ‘Maurice Ile Durable’ (MID) vision of the Prime Minister, and now translated into the
MID Strategy and Action Plan, comprises of a number of policies and initiatives that
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promote sustainable development. Developed following several nation-wide dialogues, and
consultations with a wide range of stakeholders, the participatory approach led to the
identification of a series of policy and strategic recommendations to make Mauritius a
sustainable island in line with the Brundtland three-pronged definition of sustainability
(economic, environment and social). One key goal of MID is to render Mauritius less
dependent on fossil fuels by enhancing energy efficiency and increasing the use of
renewable energy sources. Although its main thrust is mitigation, several of the activities
funded under the MID programme are climate-smart and have adaptation benefits, e.g.,
promoting water saving technologies such as drip irrigation, provision of free composters to
farmers and households, support to farming and other associations to
transit from conventional farming to ecological farming, promotion of
low energy technology (solar dryers and evaporative cooling) for agro-processing, etc.
2.3.3. Food Security Fund
In 2008, Government set up of a Food Security Fund (FSF) to the tune of MUR 1 Bn (over
USD 33 million) with a view to assist the crop, livestock and fisheries sectors to, inter alia,
develop coping strategies to increase climate resilience, through projects such as
introduction of new crop varieties, setting up of climate-related crop insurance schemes,
mechanization of farm activities, research on sustainable agricultural technologies, provision
of efficient and effective institutional support and services, capacity building of farmers, etc.
2.3.4. Capacity Building
Capacity building projects include training organized in 2012 by the Technical Centre for
Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA), Wageningen University (Netherlands) and
the University of Mauritius on carbon balance appraisal of AFOLU projects and policies using
the EX-ACT scoping tool developed by FAO. Another project by CTA and the UoM involved
training of farmers and other stakeholders on the use of Web 2.0 tools for real time,
efficient and rapid information and knowledge dissemination. This tool has its relevance for
early warning systems, and other communication and collaboration among farmers,
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between farmers and extension personnel, between researchers and extension personnel,
and a host of other stakeholders. Training of farmers on specific topics such as use of soil
and water salinity meters has also been carried out by the MoESD under the AAP.
2.3.5 Other Adaptation Projects
Other projects have been the regional ePRPV: Elargissement et Pérénisation du Réseau de
Protection des Végétaux, and the regional Initiative Régionale Agro-écologie Changement
Climatique (IRACC), which is another regional project funded by the Indian Ocean
Commission, and involving the Indian Ocean islands and the Tanzanian province of Zanzibar.
2.3.6. Other Mitigation Projects/ Activities
Since the year 2000, various mitigation measures have been implemented at country level,
e.g.
Reforestation of about 770 hectares of state forest lands including some 20 hectares
of degraded mountain slopes, which represent more than 1 million new trees.
Planting of some 100 000 trees and ornamental seedlings under the National Tree
Planting Campaign.
Reduction in the volume of timber exploited.
Setting-up of endemic gardens in schools to enhance sink capacity and promote
awareness about climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Planting of mangroves as a CO2 sink.
Increasing the energy conversion efficiency of sugarcane bagasse as biofuel.
Shift to energy-efficient appliances and buildings.
Promotion of solar water heaters through financial incentives to households.
Installation of four wind turbines in Rodrigues.
Flaring of landfill gas.
Partial replacement of sodium vapour lamps for street lighting with energy saving
lamps.
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Phasing out of HFCs and PFCs.
Replacement of household incandescent bulbs with energy saving lamps.
2.4. Constraints and Challenges
There are no full-scale, integrated climate models developed specifically for Mauritius. Most
models are downscaled from global climate models, and hence lack the degree of resolution
needed for more meaningful predictions on climate impacts, which can help focus research
towards site-specific adaptation/mitigation measures. Furthermore, research on the
technical issues of climate change and agriculture is presently limited, and there is therefore
insufficient local, scientifically-generated data and knowledge on CSA. As a consequence,
Extension Services are not sufficiently equipped to disseminate research findings to farmers
to support their adaptation strategies. Moreover, uptake of research by end-users is limited
since the benefits of new technologies or approaches are not validated for the local context,
and not sufficiently demonstrated to them.
The following recommendations have been proposed for climate change mainstreaming and
adaptation in the crop sub-sector (MoESD et al., 2012):
Introduce and develop improved (drought and heat tolerant, early-maturing, disease
and pest-tolerant, high yielding) crop varieties; and strengthen phytosanitary
measures for crop production;
Carry out countrywide assessments to determine regional vulnerability of the sector to
climate change elements in areas prone to drought, floods, and soil erosion;
Promote organic farming, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient
Management and Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), which combines technologies,
policies and activities aimed at sustainable crop protection, enhancing agricultural
production and food security and safety, protecting the environment and preventing
degradation of soil and water quality.
Research on planting of forest trees with high carbon sequestration ability to mitigate
climate change and protection of water catchment areas and watershed management,
with economic value for use in the timber industry;
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Promote water conserving crops and production technologies such as mulching and
intercropping, soil fertility conservation measures, drip and micro sprinkler irrigation
methods and planting of water efficient crop cultivars, short cycle crops, minimum
tillage, hydroponics and fertigation;
Diversify crop production;
Promote agro-processing particularly to cater for women entrepreneurs in the food
sector;
Introduce protected crop production methods such as greenhouse farming;
Introduce agroforestry systems for climate change mitigation, food security and soil
conservation;
Promote post-harvest technologies that reduce post-harvest losses; and
Adopt an agro-ecological approach to agriculture and food production
3. Policy and Institutional Frameworks
3.1. Policies and Legislation
3.1.1. Conventions
The Republic of Mauritius signed and ratified the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in June 1992 which came into force for the country in 1994. The first
related action of the Government was the preparation of the Climate Change Action Plan in
1998, which highlighted the high vulnerability of the country to climate change as a Small
Island Developing State, and the need to reduce GHG emissions and increase sink capacity.
This Plan could not be fully implemented at the time due to insufficient technical know-how,
inadequate trained manpower, and shortage of funds. The Plan is presently being reviewed
and updated.
3.1.2. Climate-Smart Relevant Policies and Plans
The term CSA was coined fairly recently, and gained popularity after the 2011 UN Climate
Change Conference in Durban. Hence it is unlikely that there would be CSA-specific policies
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and legislation in Mauritius, as would be expected in other countries as well. Instead, major
agriculture policies are broad-based and designed for food security and agricultural
productivity in the nation, rather than for climate-smartness per se. Notwithstanding this
fact, most policies for sustainable development include CSA-relevant measures. In
Mauritius, the term CSA does not appear in any of the agriculture-related strategy and
action plans; however, a number of the development plans do have elements of CSA, even if
not clearly stated as such. Some adaptation actions are included in the following:
(i) The Sugar Sector Strategic Plan (1999-2005).
(ii) Non Sugar Sector Strategic Plan (2003-2007).
(iii) Strategic Options in Crop Diversification and Livestock Sector (2007-2015).
(iv) The Food Security Strategic Plan (2008-2011).
(v) A Blueprint for a Sustainable Diversified Agri-Food Strategy for Mauritius (2008-
2015).
While all these plans have their specific thrusts relevant to the country’s need at the given
point in time, the underlying principles of all the plans involve the reorientation and
modernization of the sugar and non-sugar agricultural sectors, the need to ensure food
security through improving self-sufficiency of key crops, promotion of sustainable
agricultural technologies such as the use of environmentally-friendly methods for soil health
and fertility management (mulching, green manures, composting, etc) and pest and disease
control (biological control, botanical pesticides, trap crops, coloured insect traps, etc), the
development of innovative production methods, novel product development, strengthening
services required for commercial production of crops and livestock, ensuring sustainable
development, improving diet and health of the nation, and increasing resilience to internal
and external drivers of change (e.g. climate change, market forces, etc). All of these are in
one way or another linked to adaptation and mitigation to climate variability and climate
change.
In spite of the relatively minimal amount of GHG emissions from the Republic of Mauritius,
and in spite of being a non-Annex 1 party, the Government has been proactive in putting in
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place a number of mitigation strategies. Some of these are an inherent part of the
development plans and laws of allied sectors such as land, transport, environment,
biodiversity, tourism, energy, health, and are compatible with the CSA framework, including
both adaptation and mitigation strategies that impact directly and indirectly on agriculture.
The key ones include:
The National Environment Policy (2007) establishes a clear policy framework and sets
appropriate environmental objectives and strategies, including for conservation of
habitats and ecosystems, protection of native fauna and flora, and agrobiodiversity, and
enhancement of crop and animal production for food security.
The Multi Annual Adaptation Strategy (2006-2015) outlines action for the sugar industry
for product diversification and energy cogeneration, and promoting agroforestry.
The Environment Protection Act (2002) has been amended to provide, inter alia, for the
setting up of a Multilateral Environmental Agreement (MEAs) Coordinating Committee
to ensure better mainstreaming of all MEAs into sectoral and national policies. This
includes several climate change related issues, e.g. banning burning of agricultural
residues to reduce CO2 emissions and to promote their conversion into composts which
can be used in lieu of inorganic fertilizers, reducing traffic congestion which is one of the
main causes of high level of CO2 emissions in the transport sector, converting waste into
electricity to reduce methane emissions, etc.
The National Forest Policy (2006) includes measures to enhance sink capacity through
reforestation and better management of existing forests. This can also contribute to
preventing soil erosion, maintaining soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and nutrient
recycling, etc. and hence contributing to agricultural productivity and climate-smartness.
The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2006-2016) recommends, inter alia,
the protection of agrobiodiversity through habitat management, sustainable land
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management, and reduction in the use of agricultural pesticides, all of which have
implications for GHG emissions..
The Country Paper on the Health Sector (2006) identifies some measures that will help to
cope with climate change issues, e.g. strengthening the on-going surveillance system for
the control of vector-borne and communicable diseases.
The Long Term Energy Strategy (2009-2025) sets a target of 35% of renewable energy
sources in the national energy profile by the year 2025.
The Mauritius Strategy for Implementation, National Assessment Report (2010) analyses
initiatives taken, progress made, and constraints encountered.
3.1.3. National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework (NCCAPF)
This framework aims to integrate climate change in the future development policies of the
country, i.e. ensuring sustainable national development while preventing/ reducing damage
to human settlements and infrastructure, and loss of lives and also increasing resilience of
the key economic sectors to the negative impacts of climate change through capacity
building and providing an enabling environment. The NCCAPF establishes national policy for
the coming 20 years, proposes coping strategies and an action plan for the next decade, and
establishes a financing plan for the next three years.
The Framework consists of a National Climate Change Adaptation Policy, a Climate Change
Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan, a Climate Change Adaptation Investment Program,
and a few project concepts in key specific areas such as agriculture, water, fisheries and
tourism. The NCCAPF will also help to facilitate access to international financing plans, such
as the Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Fund of the United Nations. It will be
accompanied by the Climate Change Bill, to be presented to Parliament soon.
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3.1.4. Disaster Risk Reduction
Climate risk analysis for the Republic of Mauritius predicts an increase in the intensity and
frequency of extreme precipitation events, even if the total annual precipitation remains
constant or increases only slightly. The recently developed Strategic Framework and Action
Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction has estimated that 19-30 km2 of agricultural land, 5-70 km2
of built-up land, 2.4-3 km of motorway, 18-29 km of main roads and 68-109 km of secondary
roads could be exposed to flood hazards in the island of Mauritius, while in Rodrigues island,
0.5-0.6 km2 and 0.4 km2 of agricultural and built-up land, respectively, would be prone to
flood hazards.
A National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Centre has recently been set up under
the Prime Minister’s Office, which has the mandate of monitoring implementation of the
Strategic Framework and Action Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction. As part of the Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management strategy of the Government, profile maps have been
developed that indicate areas highly prone to flooding, landslides and coastal inundation,
and which will help in designing sound urban and rural land use planning. The coastal
inundation vulnerability assessment will help to ensure that development on coastal zones
will be better protected against sea level rise and more resilient to climate change.
3.1.5. Rainwater Harvesting Policy in Rodrigues
The rain water harvesting system in Rodrigues was promoted in 1992 through the
construction of concrete tanks into which rain water from the roofs of buildings was
channeled. The rainwater harvesting structure regulations have been drafted under the
Building Act (1919) and applied to commercial and public buildings. Rainwater harvesting
complements smallholder irrigation and may be used for supplementing rain fed agriculture
by increasing soil moisture or creating runoff storage. Although a common feature in
Rodrigues, rainwater harvesting in Mauritius has yet to become as popular. While
awareness exists about the importance of harvesting and collecting rainwater, there is
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generally inadequate interest to install related devices and accessories, mainly since the
problem of water shortage is not as acute in Mauritius as it is in Rodrigues.
3.1.6. Climate Change Legislation
A Climate Change Act is in the process of being developed. The main thrust of this proposed
Act is to make Mauritius climate-resilient and adopt a low-carbon development pathway in
line with the overarching Government objectives of developing a green economy. The
proposal has also been advocated as part of sustainable development within the Maurice Ile
Durable (MID) project. The key benefits are:
Visibility - The enactment of a Climate Change Act will give a strong signal showing
Mauritius’ commitment to the issue of climate change. The proposed Act will better
prepare Mauritius for actual and forthcoming obligations to the UNFCCC, while serving
as a model in terms of managing climate change related issues.
Climate-resilient development - Implementation of the provisions of the proposed Act
will require any development to factor climate-resilience into their design and thus
enable savings in terms of costly maintenance or retrofitting of infrastructures.
Branding - In the wake of major global crises (economic, energy and fuel) and more
demanding markets and tourist preferences, Mauritius stands to gain by positioning
itself to better respond to these changes, attract niche tourist markets, and increase its
competitiveness through branding as a sustainable low-carbon and climate-resilient
tourist destination.
Enhanced attraction for financial support - Another challenge ahead for Mauritius is to
continue mobilizing funds for adaptation and mitigation projects which are usually
capital intensive projects. The new legal and institutional framework will increase the
visibility of Mauritius in the international scene and help to attract financial and human
capital.
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The Climate Change Act has been finalized at the level of the Ministry of Environment and
Sustainable Development, and is presently in the process of being vetted by the State Law
Office. The next step would be the promulgation of the Act.
3.1.7. Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP)
In African countries, agricultural development and investment strategies are being
developed and promoted under the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development
Programme (CAADP) under the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). The
main objective of the CAADP, which has as its main pillars – Sustainable Land and Water
Management, Market Access, Food Supply and Hunger, and Agricultural Research - is to
assist African countries reach a higher path of economic growth through agriculture-led
development and attainment of at least 6% annual sectoral growth. Albeit slowly, Mauritius
continues to engage with the CAADP process.
3.1.8. Policy Gap Analysis
In spite of the above listed policies, strategy and action plans, there is currently insufficient
penetration of climate change into the policy instruments of other sectors that can impact
on agricultural production, e.g. land allocation and land management, water management,
biodiversity protection and conservation. Part of the reason is the long time taken to
convert proposed strategies and actions into appropriate regulations and/or legislation, and
part is insufficient capacity for implementation. Mainstreaming climate concerns into other
policies, development programmes and management strategies is therefore the first step in
making Mauritian agriculture more climate-smart. This will help in improving the resilience
of agriculture and enhance its capacity to deal with conditions associated with climate
variability and change and hence reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to changing climate.
Mauritius has not yet signed the CAADP Compact but the buy-in process started in 2010 and
a focal person has been appointed. Mauritius is in the process of preparing for the launch of
CAADP and signing of the Compact.
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Agricultural research and extension programmes have not incorporated climate change
sufficiently into their research and extension agendas, in particular the impacts of climate
change on production and on farmers’ livelihood. The imperative of climate change requires
building capacity of extension services to make planning decisions and technology choices
and to disseminate climate change related information efficiently, as well as capacity
building of farmers to empower them to adopt new ideas and technologies for CSA.
There are no incentives from Government to farmers to adopt appropriate and efficient CSA
measures and technologies. While farmers develop their own coping strategies to face the
challenges of climate variability to their livelihoods, there are no measures in place to
reward sustainable agricultural practices such as mixed cropping, mulching, reducing use of
synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.
3.2. Institutional Framework
3.2.1. Institutions
Adaptation to climate change requires proper institutional structures and support, which
includes inter alia defining adequate national policy and legislative frameworks, assigning
and coordinating responsibilities to Governmental structures (MoESD et al., 2012). The
Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development is the focal point of the UNFCCC and,
in March 2010, created a Climate Change Division to spearhead and coordinate activities
associated with adaptation and mitigation to climate change.
Other institutions/organizations involved in climate change related issues in the agricultural
sector include:
The Mauritius Meteorological Services which provides weather information, forecasts,
and seasonal weather patterns. Furthermore, agro-meteorological stations have been
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set up as part of an Agricultural Decision Support System in seven different regions,
namely Wooton, Richelieu, Flacq, Plaisance, Plaine Sophie, Reduit, and Barkly, to provide
real time, national level weather and climate data to planters and other stakeholders,
e.g. researchers, water managers, etc.
The Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security (MoAFS) provides technical and
advisory services to the non-sugar agricultural community, e.g., pesticide spraying of
fruit trees, sale of seeds and seedlings, etc. The National Plant Protection Office of the
MoAFS screens, and if needed, quarantines, imported plants and plant products for
pests and diseases.
The Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute (FAREI) of the MoAFS is
responsible for research, development and extension services to the non-sugar
agricultural sector. It also provides training and awareness-raising of farmers on climate
change issues.
The Mauritius Cane Industry Authority conducts research on climate change effects on
sugarcane production.
The University of Mauritius undertakes teaching (both formal and informal), research,
outreach, and consultancies on climate change effects and adaptation, particularly with
respect to land use/land cover, soil health and fertility, crop production, crop protection,
agricultural extension, agricultural economics, human health.
The Development Bank of Mauritius (DBM) provides soft loans for agricultural projects.
Main stakeholders, including the vulnerable groups need to have a voice in policy
advocacy related to climate change. Mauritius has a particularly dynamic body of NGOs,
several of which are active in issues related to climate change. Although not specifically
working on CSA, a few are involved in agricultural projects that have elements of CSA,
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some of them with the help of funds made available by major international donors
under various development schemes, such as the GEF-SGP, EU-DCP, EDF, etc.
The private sector too is increasingly taking a more active role in social and
environmental issues, mainly under the stimulus of Government’s requirement for the
private sector to devote at least 2% of its profits to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
activities. Several large companies have contributed to environmental and biodiversity
projects, although there are few related to agriculture.
The written and visual media is also an important actor in the implementation of
activities related to climate change, e.g. for awareness-raising of the general public as
well as for education of farmers.
3.2.2. Institutional Gap Analysis
The current institutional capacities and relationships are insufficient to provide effective
solutions to the effects of climate change in the agricultural sector. There is inadequate
capacity within relevant institutions, and insufficient collaboration between researchers and
end-users, and research information does not reach farmers in a timely manner (Brizmohun
et al., 2012). Unlike in other countries, private sector funding of research in non-sugar
agriculture is practically negligible. Data availability and data sharing is an important issue
that needs to be addressed. Presently, environmental (including climate change and CSA)
data and information are kept with the original data generator, data collector, or recipient
of data. This means that the data and information is scattered all over the country - in the
various Ministries, Universities, other public bodies, parastatal organizations, NGOs, in the
form of hard copies, electronic storage files, office files, websites, etc. There is also a large
amount of “grey literature” among researchers, academicians, NGOs, etc. which is not
available in the public domain, and which, if made available, could provide new,
supplementary or confirmatory information to existing data.
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Although research in Mauritius on climate variability and climate change issues has been
ongoing since many years, many of the projects undertaken were limited in scope and scale,
and undertaken in isolation, preventing their effects from being widespread, cohesive and
sustainable.
3.3. Gender and Social Equity in Climate Change Issues
Unlike in other African countries, the gender disparity is much less in Mauritius. While it is
true that the majority of field labour in the sugar sector is female, there is little gender
discrimination in the non-sugar sector. In general, women field workers are paid less than
their male counterparts, however that is due to the relatively less strenuous workload
allocated to the women. At other levels, such as extension officers, researchers, academics,
technicians, there is hardly any gender discrimination. The Ministry of Gender Equality, Child
Development and Family Welfare have carried out workshops, sensitization campaigns and
training of trainer courses on gender and climate change, on mainstreaming climate change
into community programmes, on the gendered national and local vulnerability and strategy,
etc. One outcome of one such event was a draft Action Plan on how trainees will share what
they have learned with their peers, and how government officials will develop follow-up
actions in view of mainstreaming gender in climate change.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1. Key Challenges to Implementing CSA
Although there has considerable progress in the country with respect to expertise, technical
skills, trained manpower, awareness at various levels, and opportunity for funds, there is
still much more to be done at all these levels.
This study noted that the lack of financial support and knowledge are the main barriers for
technology development and implementation in Mauritius, which corroborates the findings
of the Technology Needs Assessment (2012) for climate change adaptation and mitigation in
the food crop and livestock subsectors. Furthermore, the aversion to risk taking and
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resistance to change attitude noted among the farming communities are other important
hurdles to the implementation of appropriate CSA measures.
4.2. Opportunities to Implement CSA
The political will and commitment to ensure climate-smart development in the country is an
important positive attribute to the further development and promotion of CSA in Mauritius.
The global interest in CSA, and the various funding programmes available, provide
opportunities for incorporating and mainstreaming CSA into national policies, strategies and
action plans, to strengthen capacity and infrastructural needs of various stakeholders. The
Republic of Mauritius is well poised to be able to tap these opportunities. The coming into
force of the Climate Change Act and implementation of the National Climate Change
Adaptation Policy Framework would help to accelerate CSA in the near future in the
Republic of Mauritius.
4.3. Conclusion
4.3.1. Policies and Programmes
In spite of the considerable progress made in recent years, there is insufficient penetration
of climate change policies in the policies and plans of other sectors. CSA is not specifically
addressed in the agricultural and other sectoral policies and plans. Even where legislation
and policies in related sectors exist, there is inadequate implementation and enforcement,
e.g. legislation to reduce pollution in water bodies, legislation to reduce illegal tapping of
water, policies for rainwater harvesting, wastewater reuse for irrigation, composting,
reducing use of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers, etc.
4.3.2. Institutions
There is insufficient intra-institutional coordination and little inter-institutional interaction
with respect to sharing of resources, data, information, which results in duplication of work,
fragmentation of responsibilities, and non-optimisation of available resources.
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4.3.3. Climate-Smart Technologies
Implementation of CSA is site-specific and needs to be developed locally. Any transfer-of-
technology must be accompanied by adjustment to, and validation for, the local context.
However, local research and development in CSA technologies is inadequate, due to
insufficient capacity and funds, and poor farmer awareness of climate change issues and
appropriate adaptation strategies. CSA-relevant technologies and activities are not
sufficiently promoted nor incentivised.
4.3.4. Capacity Building
Capacity for efficient local R & D is inadequate at all levels. Farmer groups are not equipped
to participate fully and meaningfully in development of CSA-technologies. Insufficient field
demonstration plots/farms results in poor research uptake by farmers, partly due to
incapacity and unwillingness of farmers to adopt recommended technologies, and partly
due to a certain lack of confidence in the results of theoretical, undemonstrated research
results.
4.3.5. Financial Resources
Insufficient financial resources at all levels remain a major constraint to the development
and adoption of CSA. The success of CSA for sustainable development depends upon the
extent to which financing and other resources can be made available to researchers,
extension services, local farmers and farming communities, and policy makers. Currently
there are no financial instruments to ensure CSA development. Furthermore, farmers are
not adequately climate proofed through insurance and/or other financial schemes.
4.4. Recommendations
4.4.1. Policies and Programmes
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Developing and promoting CSA must be built on existing policy instruments, with
rationalisation of policies, plans and programmes for greater efficiency and coverage.
The principle and practice of CSA must be mainstreamed in sectoral, trans-disciplinary
and national development plans and integrated within the wider context of sustainable
development. There is a need to foster inter-linkages between different sectoral
policies, and to ensure appropriate representation of all the sectors that have relevance
to CSA.
Policies and plans must be enforced and implemented. Standards and indicators
(social, economic and environmental) for CSA must be built into plans for monitoring
and evaluating progress and for greater transparency and accountability.
Farmers practising CSA must be supported through economic and in-kind incentives,
such as subsidies, insurance schemes, farm inputs, alignment of market information
strategies, etc in the relevant climate change and disaster risk management policies and
strategies.
Some specific recommendations for CSA include:
Developing appropriate land management plans to prevent land degradation from
erosion and unsustainable agricultural practices, e.g. community land use planning.
Restricting certain environmentally-sensitive areas to CSA agriculture only, e.g.
Conservation Agriculture.
Identifying and incentivising farmers to put relevant sections of their land for
drainage and flood protection.
Introducing legislation for safe wastewater use for irrigation.
Enforcing legally binding Code of Practice for CSA.
Developing water pricing systems that incentivise good practices in agriculture.
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Developing and implementing strategies, action plans, management plans,
programmes, guidelines, delivery and operational systems, along with their
appropriate legal framework, for specific sectors, e.g. :
A national Pest Risk Analysis and Integrated Pest Management strategy.
A national Integrated Disease Management strategy.
A national Integrated Nutrient Management strategy.
A national action programme for sustainable management of forests.
A national strategy for conservation of agro-biodiversity.
An integrated waste management strategy, which includes composting as a
major component.
Monitoring impact of unsustainable agricultural activities, and taking appropriate
corrective actions (legal, technical, financial).
Developing and implementing the concept of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
and the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP).
Encouraging, through appropriate policies and plans, intra- and inter-institutional/
sectoral collaboration and sharing of data, information and resources.
Adopting a participatory democratic approach for decision-making, with good
governance, transparency and accountability at all levels.
4.4.2. Institutional
Institutional arrangements must be reviewed to encourage greater synergies in
terms of resource and data sharing, in particular in and among sectoral line agencies,
education, research, extension and communication for development services.
Community-and locally-based networks and associations (e.g. forest-user groups,
agricultural and fisheries cooperatives, community networks and media) must be
strengthened for better management and delivery of services for CSA, and to
facilitate locally appropriate adaptation measures, including community-based
agriculture.
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Multi-stakeholder partnerships among public and private sectors, non-governmental
organizations and communities at all levels must be strengthened for R & D in CSA.
4.4.3. Climate-Smart Technologies
A farmer participative, and evidence-based approach must be adopted in order to ensure
farmer buy-in for CSA and for long term agricultural sustainability and food security.
Some specific recommendations for CSA include:
Developing and promoting crop varieties and animal breeds that are capable of
adapting to CSA.
Developing and promoting innovative methods of rainwater harvesting and storage.
Promoting the use of Integrated Pest Management, and Integrated
Nutrient Management approaches among farmers.
Promoting the use of appropriate irritation techniques for optimising water use, e.g.
micro-irrigation.
Protecting and managing agrobiodiversity in a sustainable way.
Encouraging composting of agricultural and municipal wastes.
Encouraging the use of renewable energy for agricultural activities.
Reinforcing gene banks and setting up in-situ conservation of local fruit and
vegetable varieties, and animal strains.
Validating and promoting traditional knowledge (traditional crop varieties, locally
adapted animal breeds, pest control, trap crops, storage practices, etc).
Promoting production and marketing of local, endemic, underutilized fruit and
vegetable species (jambos, jamblon, jamalac, tamarin, carambole, breadfruit,
grenade, fig, jackfruit and others), while maintaining a balance between food
security and biodiversity protection.
Promoting urban and rural kitchen gardens and roof gardens.
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Developing strong ancillary activities, e.g. a professional apiculture industry for
benefits in crop production, composting for the provision of inexpensive, good
quality compost as a supplement to synthetic fertilisers.
Improving food processing and storage facilities for off-season consumption and for
export.
Conducting research on novel crops for import substitution, reducing foreign
exchange loss, job creation, ensuring food security in the context of a changing
climate and/or extreme events.
4.4.4. Capacity Building
Capacity must be strengthened at all levels for all aspects of CSA, including policy
development, monitoring and evaluation, R & D, service delivery, investments, etc.
Some specific recommendations for CSA include:
Reinforcing national and regional capacities for plant, forest, animal health and food
safety and improve monitoring and control of variations in pests, diseases and food-
borne illnesses, related to climate change.
Enhancing national capacity to access financial resources available for technology
development and transfer, investments and capacity development for CSA.
Strengthening R & D on CSA issues.
4.4.5. Financing
Given that available financing, current and projected, are substantially insufficient to meet
climate change and food security challenges faced by the agriculture sector, there is a need
to synergistically combine financing from public and private sources, and to explore
innovative options to meet the investment requirements of CSA.
To be effective in channelling fast-track financing to agriculture, financing mechanisms must
take sector-specific considerations into account.
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Some specific recommendations for CSA include:
Making CSA one of the investment priorities for potential entrepreneurs.
Combining financing from public and private sources, and exploring innovative
options to meet the investment requirements of CSA, e.g. using revenues from taxes
on GHG emissions to subsidise CSA projects.
Exploring regional opportunities to further CSA.
Encouraging agricultural practices that lend themselves to carbon trading, e.g.
agroforestry, especially on marginal lands or lands that will be removed from the
sugar sector.
Exploring CDM options through clustering of several small related activities or
partnering with regional actors for a regional CDM project.
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5. References
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Sustainable Development. 272 pp.
Atawoo M. A. (2012). Overview of the impact of climate change on the non-sugar
agricultural sector in Mauritius and strategies for adaptation. Agricultural Research and
Extension Unit.
Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Fernandez A, Clark M, Guillou M, Jahn M, Erda L, Mamo T,
Van Bo N, Nobre CA, Scholes R, Sharma R, Wakhungu J. 2011. Achieving food security in the
face of climate change: Summary for policy makers from the Commission on Sustainable
Agriculture and Climate Change. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture
and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. 20 pp.
http://www.ccafs.cgiar.org/commission.
Brizmohun-Gopaul R and Mr Hardowar, 2011. on “Climate Change adaptation measures for
Mauritian Agriculture: Stakeholder’s perspective”. Climate Change Awareness Week,
University of Mauritius.
Brizmohun-Gopaul R, A Ruggoo, S Facknath & S Hardowar, (2013). A Situational Analysis of
Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation for Agriculture in Mauritius. Research Project
Report. University of Mauritius. Réduit. 72 pp.
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Facknath S., (2012a). The Ecosystem Approach to water management: A sustainable option
in the context of Climate Change. Scientific Conference of the NASAC-KNAW Collaboration
Initiative on Water Management Issues in Africa. Mauritius. 28th – 31st March 2012.
Facknath, S. (2009a). Climate Change and Resilience of Food Supply Systems. Keynote
address, International Workshop of Experts on Global Environmental Change (including
Climate Change and Adaptation) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Pretoria, South Africa. 9th - 11th
February 2009.
Facknath, S. (2009b). Effect of temperature rise on agricultural pests, on their control by
pesticides and on efficacy of biological control systems. International Workshop of Experts
on Global Environmental Change (including Climate Change and Adaptation) in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Pretoria, South Africa. 9th - 11th February 2009.
Facknath, S. (2009c). Les Changement climatique et son impact sur la sécurité alimentaire et
la biodiversité dans les îles de l’Océan Indien. Keynote address, Colloque Internationale sur
La Securite Alimentaire et Qualite des Aliments. CIDEFA/ UoM. Mauritius. June 2009.
Facknath, S. (2011a). Climate change impacts on crop pests and their natural enemies –
implications for food security and environmental sustainability. Scientific Conference of the
NASAC-KNAW Collaboration Initiative on “The Impact of, and Adaptation to, Climate Change
in Relation to Food Security in Africa”, Nairobi, Kenya. 23rd -25th February 2011.
Facknath, S. (2011b). Climate Change Impacts on Insect-Host Plant Interactions. Fourth
International Conference on Plants and Environmental Pollution, 8-11 December 2011,
Lucknow, India.
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Facknath, S. (2011c). The influence of inter and intraspecific interactions between Liriomyza
trifolii and Liriomyza huidobrensis on the insect-plant relationship with their potato host
(Symposium on Insect-Plant Interactions, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2011).
Facknath, S. 2011. The Adaptation Dynamics of Agriculture to Climate Change. Climate
Change Awareness Week, University of Mauritius.
Facknath, S. and Wright, D. J. (2010). Climate change effects on agricultural pests: the
response of Liriomyza huidobrensis to drought-stressed potato plants. University of
Mauritius Research Journal 16. 266-280.
Facknath, S. The Challenge of Finding Sustainable Solutions for Climate-Smart Crop
Protection. Climate-Smart Agriculture, Wageningen Oct 2011.
Facknath S. and Lalljee, B. (2005). Indigenous/Traditional knowledge from Mauritius for
Sustainable Agriculture. In : Sustainable Agriculture-Issues in Production, Management,
Agronomy and ICT (eds. A. Bandyopadhyay, K.V. Sundaram, M. Moni, P.S. Kundu, M.M. Jha).
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FAO (2010). “Climate-Smart” Agriculture Policies, Practices and Financing for Food Security,
Adaptation and Mitigation. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy. 49 pp.
IOC - Indian Ocean Commission., (2011). Etat des vulnérabilités et mesures d'adaptation à
Maurice. Evaluation Qualitative. Available at : http://www.acclimate-oi.net/etude-
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IPPC (2007). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis
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Geneva.
Jonsson, M., (2011). Impact of Climate change on Agriculture in Mauritius: A
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Kurukulasuriya, P., Mendelsohn, R., Hassan, R., Benhin, J., Diop , M., Eid, H.M., Dinar, A.
(2006).Will African agriculture survive climate change. World Bank Economic Review, 20,
367–388.
Lalljee, B. (2013). Mulching as a mitigation agricultural technology against land degradation
in the wake of climate change, Thailand, 2013.
Lalljee, B. 2012. Mulching as an adaptation strategy for climate change in the island of
Rodrigues, Mauritius. India, 2012.
Liverman, D. (2011). Informing adaptation (World Resources Report)
http://www.worldresourcesreport.org/responses/informing-adaptation
Luximon. Y. and Nowbuth. M. D., (2010). A Status of Food Security in Mauritius in face of
Climate Change. European Water 32, 3-14.
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6. Annexes
6.1. Annex 1. Policies, Plans and Programmes Relevant to CSA
Policy Sector Name of Policy Year Approved or In force
Responsible Ministry
Land Environmentally Sensitive Areas 2010 MoESD*
National Invasive Alien Species Control Strategy and Action Plan
2010 NPCS (MoAFS)
National Action Plan for Sustainable Land Management
Presently in draft form
Forestry Services (MoAFS)
Planning and Development Act 2004
National Parks and Reserves Regulations
1996
NPCS
Village Local Government Act 2003
Forestry National Forestry Policy 2006 Forestry Services (MoAFS)
Forests and Reserves Act 1983
Forestry Services (MoAFS)
Agriculture Climate Change Adaptation Policies For The Sugar Cane Sector
MCIA
National Climate Change Adaptation Policy Framework
2013 MoESD
Sugar Sector Strategic Plan 2003-2007 MoAFS
Non Sugar Sector Strategic Plan 2003-2007 MoAFS
Mauritius Chemical Fertiliser Act MoAFS
The GMO Act 2006 MoAFS
Multi Annual Adaptation Strategy; Action Plan
2006-2015 MoAFS
Blueprint for a Sustainable Diversified AgriFood Strategy for Mauritius
2008-2015 MoAFS
Strategic Options in Crop Diversification and Livestock Sector
2007-2015 MoAFS
Food Security Strategic Plan 2008-2011 MoAFS
Livestock Potential for Sustainable Aquaculture 2007 BoI
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Development in Mauritius
Aquaculture Master Plan 2007 MoF
Rodrigues Rainwater Harvesting Policy (under
the Building Act)
RRA
Cross-cutting Climate Change Act (under review at State Law Office)
MoESD
Maurice Ile Durable Policy, Strategy and Action Plan
2013
MoESD
Disaster Risk Reduction Strategic Framework and Action Plan
2013 NDRRMC (PMO)
Environment Protection Act 2002 MoESD
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
2006-2015 MoESD
National Environment Policy 2007 MoESD
*MoESD: Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development
MoAFS: Ministry of Agroindustry and Food Security
MoF: Ministry of Fisheries
BoI: Board of Investment
RRA: Rodrigues Regional Assembly
MCIA: Mauritius Cane Industry Authority
NPCS: National Parks and Conservation Services
NDRRMC: National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Centre
PMO: Prime Minister’s Office
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6.2. Annex 2. Details of Selected CSA-Relevant Policies and Programmes
Title of document Salient features Action areas
Climate change Action
Plan (1998)
Highlighted the high
vulnerability of the country to
climate change as a SIDS
The Action Plan highlighted the
importance of reducing GHG
emissions and increasing the
sink capacity.
Initial National
Communication to
UNFCCC (1999)
Major impacts of climate
change on agriculture were
identified as:
Change in physiology of crop plants and weeds.
Sea level rise on agricultural land
Adjustments will depend on the
nature of impacts. The
adoption of new technologies
and management systems will
play a key role in adaptation.
Technology Needs
Assessment (2004) –
Ministry of Environment
Various technologies are being
adopted by the agricultural
sector to attain sustainability.
Research on CO2
fertilisation effects Research and capacity
building are needed to focus on proper remedial measures.
National Capacity Self-
Assessment (2005)
The primary objective of the
NCSA project was to identify
national priorities and capacity
building needed to address
national as well as global
environmental issues, in
particular, to enhance the
capacity of Mauritius to meet
its commitments under the
three Rio Conventions.
Research on the impact of climate change on hydrological cycle and on fresh water availability.
Research to quantify vulnerability and adaptation of sugarcane and other non-sugar crops to climate change and the possible change in yield should be taken into consideration.
Research on the diffusion of agrochemical and other nutrients.
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Mauritius
Meteorological Services
(2009)
The science of climate change
is followed by the Mauritius
Meteorological Service (MMS).
Various climatic changes are
being observed and research is
required to better understand
the changes occurring and
better predict climatic changes.
UNFCCC (2010) Adaptation measures put in
place in the agricultural
sectors:
A Blueprint for a Sustainable
Diversified Agri-food Strategy
for Mauritius, 2008-2015
addressing the food security by
enhancing self-sufficiency
status of a number of strategic
crops in the short to medium
term.
Some of the key adaptation strategies/ measures for agriculture include: The need for introducing
new varieties of cultivars; The shifting of regions
where actual crops are grown to higher elevations with cooler temperatures.
Food Security Fund
Strategic Plan (2008-
2011)
The FSFSP has suggested a RISK
and CATASTROPHE INSURANCE
Scheme (RaCis). This scheme /
insurance should cover losses
of priority crops (already
identified crops) as well as
goat, cattle and pigs.
All the measures proposed in
the FSFC strategic plan aim at
increasing the production of
food commodities locally in
order to strengthen the food
system and decrease the net
food import bill which is
increasing drastically over the
years.
UNDP- African Adaptation Programme Project Document (2010-2013): Supporting Integrated and Comprehensive Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation in Africa – The Republic of Mauritius
The AAP intends to build
capacity to understand,
analyse and react to future
climate change impacts within
Mauritius.
The recent activities carried out
by AAP are as follows:
Trained 10 representatives
from ministries, the national
meteorological agency and
academia on climate analysis
Mainstreamed climate change
in the development processes
under the Capacity Building on
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Climate Resilient Policies Road
Map
Supported the development of
the National Environmental
Policy and Food Security Fund
Strategic Plan, as well as water
storage and water harvesting
strategies
Undertook economic
evaluation of ecosystem
services and socio-economic
assessment of climate change.
Mauritius Environment
Outlook (2011)
Critical assessment of the
environmental state and
trends and links them to policy
action to serve as a decision
support tool.
Increasing pressures on land
resources along with
unsustainable practices has led
to overuse and degradation.
Maurice Ile Durable
Project
The MID project is an
opportunity to define a shared
vision of sustainability and to
develop strategies to reduce
vulnerability to natural
hazards.
MID initiative will increase the
preparedness of Mauritius to
adapt to climate change as far
as possible; this will involve
mainstreaming adaptation to
climate change at the policy
level, leading to concrete
actions at the operational level.
The Other Migrants
preparing for change,
International
Organisation for
Migration (2011)
Climate change will further
increase uncertainty and
exacerbate weather-related
disasters, drought, biodiversity
loss, and land and water
scarcity and affects Small
Islands Developing States
(SIDS) disproportionately
compared to the Continents.
The impacts of climate changes
have already been felt in other
countries such as Maldives,
where communities had to be
migrated to other parts of the
archipelagos.
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6.3. Annex 3. Climate-Smart Agriculture Relevant Research Projects Some of the key completed/ongoing CSA-relevant research projects include:
Date Title of Project Funding
Source
Implementing
Organisation
2009-
2013
Modeling the effect of large-scale circulation
patterns and other factors on the water level in
reservoirs in Mauritius: A hydroinformatics
approach.
AAP* MoESD
2009-
2013
Use of compost by farmers as an adaptation
strategy for climate change
AAP MoESD
2009 Assessing the impacts of climate change on the
phenology of native Mauritian plants.
AAP MoESD
2009-
2013
Climate change and Agriculture: Impacts and
Vulnerability Assessment
AAP MoESD
2009-
2013
Assessing the potential of using coal ash and
bagasse ash as inorganic amendment in the
composting process of municipal solid wastes:
Improvements in compost quality for agronomic
application.
AAP/
MRC
UoM
2009-
2013
Developing a decision support system for
agriculture based on real time agro-
meteorological data to provide national level
high quality climate data to a range of sectors
namely agriculture, water management,
researchers and farmers.
AAP MoESD
2009-
2013
Enhancing resilience of planters through
provision of salinity meters.
AAP MoESD
2009-
2013
Planting of mangroves on the East Coast. AAP MoESD
2012-13 Safe and sustainable utilisation of coal/bagasse AAP/ MRC UoM
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ash in agro-ecosystems as soil amendment and
for crop protection
2012-15 Development of decision support simulation
tools based on scientifically validated
indigenous/traditional and conventional
knowledge for increasing agricultural production
and food security in Africa in the context of a
changing climate
AU/EU UoM
2012-15 Understanding the chemical and biological
effects of mulching used for improving soil
health and fertility in the context of climate
change to reduce sediment and agrochemical
leaching
IAEA UoM
2012-14 Global islands’ vulnerability research, adaptation,
policy and development
CDKN UoM
2009-11 Sustainable agricultural practices for improving
soil health and fertility, and crop protection, in
the context of climate change to reduce use of
synthetic fertilisers and pesticides in the South
East region of Mauritius
EU-IOC-
RecoMap
UoM
2007-9 Turning a waste into wealth – use of vinasse as
an organic fertiliser for reduced GHG emissions
MRC UoM
2008-9 Sustainable agricultural practices for improving
soil health and fertility, and crop protection, in
the context of climate change to reduce
agrochemical use in Rodrigues.
EU-DCP UoM
*AAP: Africa Adaptation Programme for Climate Change
AU: African Union
CDKN: Climate Development Knowledge Network
DCP: Decentralised Cooperation Programme
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EU: European Union
IOC: Indian Ocean Commission
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
MMS: Mauritius Meteorological Service
MRC: Mauritius Research Council
MoESD: Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development
UoM: University of Mauritius
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