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Transcript of FOLIO CHEMISTRY 2010 (2)
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Name Mathiarasi Bernabas
Class 4 Amanah
Title
Manufactured Substances in Industry
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Content Page
(A) Sulphuric acid
Manufacture of sulphuric acid 1 3
Properties of sulphuric acid 4
The uses of sulphuric acid 5 7
Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution 8 9
(B) Ammonia and its salt
Manufacture of ammonia 10 11
Properties of ammonia 12
The uses and preparation of ammonia 13
(C) Alloys
Arrangement of atoms in metals 14
What are alloys? 15 Composition,properties and uses of alloys 16
(D) Synthetic polymers
What are polymers? 17
Properties of polymers 18
Monomer in synthetic polymer 19
Example and uses of synthetic polymers 20
(E) Glass and ceramics
Glass-Component and properties of glass 21
Example and uses of glass 22
Ceramics-Component and properties of ceramics 23 Example and uses of ceramics 24
(F) Composite materials
What are composite materials 25
Example and their uses 26
Conclusion of topic 27
Acknowledgement 28
References 29
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(A) Sulphuric acid
Manufacture of sulphuric acid
Contact process produces more than 90% of the world sulphuric acid.
Raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :-
(i) sulphur
(ii) air(iii) water.
Contact process consists of 3 stages:
~ Production of sulphur dioxide
~ Conversion of sulphur dioxide is sulphur trioxide.~ Production of sulphuric acid
Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide
(a)Sulphur is burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
(b)Burning of metal sulphides such as zinc sulphide and lead sulphide also produces sulphur
dioxide.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2ZnO(s)
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2PbO(s)
(c)The sulphur dioxide is then mixed with excess air.The mixture is dried and purified to removeimpurities such as arsenic compounds.
(d)Arsenic compounds found in sulphur will poison the catalyst in the converter, making the
catalyst ineffective.
Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide
(a)The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen is passed through a converter.The sulphur
dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
(b)Optimum conditions used are as follows.
(i) Temperature : 450C
(ii) Pressure : 1 atmosphere
(iii) Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide,V2O5
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(c)About 97% conversion occurs under these optimum conditions.
Stage III : Production of sulphuric acid
(a) The sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a productcalled oleum, H2S2O7
SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7(l)
(b) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water to form sulphuric acid.This is because reaction
between sulphur trioxide and water is very vigorous and produces a large amount of
heat.The reaction causes the production of a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist.The mist iscorrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.
(c) The oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid of about98%.
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
Flow chart of Contact process.
burns in air
O2V2O5,450C, 1 atm
concentrated H2SO4
water
water
Figure 1 : The manufacture of sulphuric acid through the Contact process
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Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Oleum, H2S2O7
Sulphur trioxide, SO3
Sulphur dioxide,SO2
Sulphur
Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Oleum,H2S2O7
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The manufacture of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in the Contact Process
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Oily
liquid
Highlycorrosive
Non-
volatile
acid
Viscouscolourless
liquid
Dense
Soluble inwater
Density
1.83g cm-3
Diprotic
acid
Boilingpoint
340oC
Melting
point
10oC
Molar
mass
98 g mol-1
ChemicalFormula:
H2SO4
Propertiesof
sulphuricacid
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Uses of sulphuric acid
There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are:
a) Calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)
b) Ammonium sulphate
c) Potassium sulphate
Sulphuric acid is used as:
to manufacture fertilisers
to manufacture paint pigment
to manufacture detergents
to manufacture synthetic fibre
to clean metals
to manufacture plastics
as an electrolyte in car batteries
to manufacture other chemicals
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2 H2SO4
(aq) + Ca3(PO
4)
2(s)
Ca(H
2PO
4)
2(aq)+ 2CaSO
4(s)
sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate
H2SO4(aq) +2NH
3(aq) (NH
4)
2SO
4(aq)
sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate
H2SO4(aq) +2KOH
(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide solution Potassium sulphate
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogen -
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1) To manufacture paint pigments
The white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO4. The neutralization of
sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate.
2) To manufacture detergents
Sulphuric acid reacts with by-products of oil refining to form sulphonic acid.Neutralising the sulphonic acid with an alkali produces detergents.
3) To manufacture synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a synthetic
fibre that is produced by the reaction of sulphuric acid eith cellulose threads soaked inalkaline solution.
4) Cleaning metals
Before electroplating,sulphuric acid is used for cleaning metals to remove the surface
oxides.
5) Other chemicals
Sulphuric acid is used as other chemicals like pharmaceuticals,insectides, tartaric acidand explosive.
6) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are:
a. As a strong acid
b. As a drying or dehydrating agent
c. As an oxidizing agent
d. As a sulphonating agent
e. As a catalyst
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H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2
(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
sulphuric acid + barium hydroxide solution Barium sulphate + water
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Manufacture of car batteries Manufacture of detergents Manufacture of fertilisers
Manufacture of paints Manufacture of plastic items Manufacture of pesticides
Figure 2 : Uses of sulphuric acid
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Metallurgy
Fertilisers
Paint pigment
Detergents
Synthetic
Fibre
Plastics
Electrolytes
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Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution
1) Sulphur dioxide is released through:-
(a) Burning of sulphur during Contact process(b) Extraction of some metals from their sulphides ores
(c) Burning of coals or fuels with high sulphur content
2) Acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid,sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the rain.
These strong acids will cause the pH of rain to fall between 2.4 and 5.0
3) Sulphur dioxide accounts for most of the acid rain problems.
(a) When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater,sulphurous acid is formed
SO2(g) + H2O (l) H2SO3(aq)(b) Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid
2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
Ways to control and reduce the effects of acid rain:
Use low-sulphur fuels
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Add calcium oxide(lime), CaO; calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH)2 and powdered llimestone
CaCO3 into the acidic lake or river to neutralize the acids present
CaO(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) +H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
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Environmental problems cause by acid rain
corrodes buildings,monuments and statues
calcium carbonate in the marble reacts with H2SO4
from the rain toform calcium sulphate.CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) +
H2O(l)
corrodes metallic structureThe iron from the steel bridges reacts with sulphuric
acid to form iron(II) sulphate.
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
increase the acidity of water
Acid rain disturbs the ecosystem
Fish and other aquatic organisms which cannot live in
acidic water may die.
increase the acidity of the soil
plants cannot grow well in acidic soilreaction of sulphuric acid with aluminium compounds
in the soil forms aluminium sulphate which can
damage the roots of trees.
leaches minerals and nutrients in the soil.
acid react with minerals in the soil to form double
salts.dissolved salts carried by the rainwater to river.
plants lack of essential nutrients for growth.
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(B) Ammonia and its salts
Manufacture of ammonia in industry
Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process.
Raw materials for the Haber process are(i)hydrogen
(ii)nitrogen
Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.
Hydrogen gas is obtained by:(i)Reaction between methane from natural gas and steam
CH4(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H2(g) + CO2(g)
(ii)The reaction between heated coke and steam
C(s) + H2O(l) H2(g) + CO(g)
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The manufacture of ammonia,NH3 through the Haber Process.
Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2.
The mixture is compressed to 200 atm and heated to a temperature of about 450C
The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.Ammonia is
produced.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat.The high pressure
and iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction.
The ammonia gas produced is liquefied ans separated to get a better yield.
The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into the reactor togetherwith the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.About 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen are
converted into ammonia.
Ammonium fertilisers
Plants need nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium to grow.
Nitrogen-make proteins in stalks and leaves
Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions, NO3-
Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium ions.In the soil, the ammonium ions are converted
to nitrate ions by bacteria
Examples of ammonium fertilisers:
(a) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
(b) Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
(c) Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4
(d) Urea,CO(NH2)2
Fertilisers that contain a high percentage of nitrogen are more effective.
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Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared by reactions between ammonia solution and acids.
Properties of ammonia
alkaline gas
very soluble in
water
less dense than
air
pungent smell
colourless gas
Physical
properties ofammonia
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Chemical reaction of ammonia:(a) Reacting as a base
Ammonia ionises partially in water and therefore is a weak base.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
Ammonia undergoes neutralisation with acids to form ammonium salts.
Ammonia + acid ammonium salt
(b) Reacting with aqueous metal ions
Ammonia solution can precipitate some metal hydroxides from their aqueous salt
solutions.The metal ions combine with the hydroxide ions from aqueous ammonia to
produce insoluble metal hydroxides : Mn (aq) + nOH (aq) M(OH)n(s)
Uses of ammonia
To make fertilisers
- provide plants the nitrogen they need to grow
- these fertilisers are ammonium salts obtained from the neutralization of ammonia with
different acids. Examples:(a) Ammonium phosphate
- reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid produces ammonium phosphatesNH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) NH4H2PO4(aq)
2 NH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) (NH4)2HPO4(aq)
- good fertilisers because they provide two important nutrients,phosphorus and
nitrogen.
(b) Ammonium nitrate
- ammonia is neutralised by nitric acid,ammonium nitrate is formed
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
(c) Ammonium sulphate
- ammonia is neutralised by sulphuric acid2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
(d) Urea
- At a temperature of 200C and a high pressure of 200 atm, ammonia reacts with
carbon dioxide to produce urea.
2NH3(g) + CO2(g) CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O(l)
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- used as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwad process.
- Liquid ammonia used as cooling agent- used as an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex
- Ammonia salts is used as smelling salts to revive people who have fainted
Preparation of ammonia
The chief commercial method of producing ammonia is by theHaber-Bosch process, whichinvolves the direct reaction of elemental hydrogen and elemental nitrogen.N2 + 3H2 2NH3This reaction requires the use of a catalyst, highpressure (1001,000 atmospheres), and elevated
temperature (400550 C [7501020 F]). Actually, the equilibrium between the elements and
ammonia favours the formation of ammonia at low temperature, but high temperature is requiredto achieve a satisfactory rate of ammonia formation. Several different catalysts can be utilized.
Normally the catalyst isiron containing iron oxide. However, both magnesium oxide on
aluminum oxide that has been activated byalkali metal oxides andruthenium on carbon havebeen employed as catalysts. In the laboratory, ammonia is best synthesized by the hydrolysis of a
metal nitride.Mg3N2 + 6H2O 2NH3 + 3Mg(OH)2
(C) Alloys
Arrangement of atoms in metals
Pure metals
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Pure metal is made up of one type of atoms,thus all atoms are of the same size.
In solid state ,the atoms in a pure metal are orderly arranged
and closely packed together.Thus,pure metals have highdensities.
Although the forces of attraction between the metal atoms are strong,they are not
rigid.Therefore when a force is applied,the layers of atoms can slide over one another.Thus
metals are ductile or can be stretched.
Ductile
Malleable
Goodconductors of
heat and
electricity
High melting
& boilingpoints
High density
Physical
properties of
pure metals
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Force
Layers of atoms slide over one another
Figure 3 : Metals are ductile
The arrangement of atoms in pure metals are not perfect.There are some empty spaces inbetween the atoms.When a metal is knocked or pressed,groups of atoms may slide and then
settle into new position.So,metals are malleable.
Force
Figure 4 : Metals are malleable
Pure metals are weak and soft due to their ductility and malleability
What are alloys?
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which themajor component is a metal.
Pure metals are normally soft and easily oxidised.This is the reason why monuments orstatues are made of bronze(an alloy) and not copper(a pure metal).
Alloy are stronger,harder,resistant to corrosion,have a better finish and lustrous.
Why make alloys?
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The aim of making alloy is:
(a) to increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal
(b) to increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal(c) to improve the appearance of a pure metal
Figure 5 : Making alloy
Composition, properties and uses of alloys
Alloy Composition Properties Uses
Bronze 90% copper,
10% tin
Hard,strong,does not corrode
easily,shiny surface
Medals,statues,monuments,art
objects
Brass 70% copper
30% zinc
Harder than copper Musical instruments,
kitchenware, door knobs,bulletcases,electric parts,ornaments
Cupro-nickel 75% copper25% nickel
Beautifulsurface,shiny,hard,does not corrode easily
Coins
Steel 99% iron
1% carbon
Hard,strong Buildings,bridges,body of cars,
railway tracks
Stainless steel 74% iron,
8% carbon18%chronium
Shiny,strong,does not rust Cutlery,surgical
instruments,sinks,pipes
Duralumin 93%aluminium3% copper
3%magnesium
1%manganese
Light,strong Body of aircraft and bullet trains
Pewter 96% tin
3% copper
1% antimony
Shiny, strong,does not
corrode
Art objects,souvenirs
9-carat gold 37.5% gold
11% silver51.5 % copper
Shiny, strong,does not
corrode
Jewellery
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(D) Synthetic Polymer
What are polymers?
Polymers are large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many identical repeating
sub-units called monomers.
Polymerisation is a process by which the monomers are joined together into chain-like
molecule called polymer.
Formation of polymer
Polymers can be divided into 2 types.
Natural Polymers
NATURAL POLYMER MONOMER
Rubber Isoprene
Cellulose Glucose
Starch Glucose
Protein Amino acid
Fat Fatty acid and glycerol
Polymers
Natural Polymers
Exist in living things in nature
Ex:Protein,cellulose,wool,silk,
starch,natural rubber & DNA
Synthetic Polymers
They are man-made in laboratory through
chemical processes.
Ex: Plastics, nylon
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Nucleic acid Nucleotides
Examples of natural polymers and their monomers
i) Natural polymers and their uses
NATURAL POLYMER USE
Rubber Tyres, eraser, condom, electric insulation, elastic bands
and belts.
Cellulose Paper, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and explosives
Starch To stiffen cloth (as in laundering), used in cooking to
thicken foods, manufactured ofadhesives,paper,textiles
and as a mold in the manufacture of sweets.Protein Essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair of tissue,
Fat Maintaining healthy skinand hair, insulating body organsagainst shock, promoting healthy cell function and serve
as energy stores for the body
Synthetic Polymer
Synthetic polymers are prepared through 2 types of polymerisation processes:
(a)Addition polymerisation(b)Condensation polymerisation
Addition polymerisation
- involves monomers with double bonds between the carbon atoms.- During addition polymerisation, the double bonds between pairs of carbon atoms break
and the carbon atoms pf adjacent ethene molecules join together to form a molecule of
poly or polythene.
Condensation polymerisation
- involves the joining up of monomers with the formation of other smaller and simple
molecules.
Plastics
Plastics are the largest group of synthethic polymers with the following properties:
(a)Can be easily moulded
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(b)Low density
(c)Strong
(d)Inert to chemicals(e)Insulator of heat and electricity
(f)Can be coloured
Name of polymer Equation forpolymerisation
Properties Uses
Polyethylene(polythene)
H H H H n C=C CC
H H H H n
Ethene Polythene
Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily
melted,insulator
Shopping bags,Plastic cups and
plates,toys
Polypropylene(polypropene)
H CH3 H CH3 n C=C CC
H H H Hn
Propene Polypropene
Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily
melted,insulator,can be
moulded and coloured
Bottles,furniture,battery casing,
pipes,toys
Teflon F F F F n C=C CC
F F F F n
Tetrafluo- Teflon
roethene
Durable,non-stick,
Chemically inert,strong,
impermeable
Coating for non-
stick pans,
electrical
insulators
Synthetic fibre
Synthetic fibre are long-chain polymers which are not easily stretched and have highstrength.
Polynamides and polyester are two groups of synthetic polymers used as fibres for makingtekstil.
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Example of polynamide polymers is nylon.
Example of polyester polymers is terylene.
Nylon and terylene are produced through condensation polymerisation.
TYPE OF POLYMER USE
Polythene a) Make buckets
b) Make plastic bags
c) Make raincoats
d) Make filmse) Make rubbish bins
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) a) Make water pipes
b) Make electric cablesc) Make mats
d) Make vinyl recordse) Make clothes hangers
Polypropene a) Make ropesb) Make bottles
c) Make chairs
d) Make drink cans
e) Make carpets
Perspex a) Make car windows
b) Make plane windows
c) Make spectacle lenses (optical instruments)Nylon a) Make ropesb) Make curtains
c) Make stockings
d) Make clothes
Polystyrene a) Make packing boxes
b) Make buttons
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c) Make noticeboards
Terylene a) Make textile items such as clothes and cloths
Disposal of synthetic polymers has caused environmental pollution problems:
(a) Synthetic polymers are not easily biodegradable,thus their waste will block or clog up thedrainage system,thereby causing flash flood.
(b) Waste plastics pollute the lake and river,making the water not suitable for aquaticorganisms to live in
Ways to solve the problems caused by the use of synthetic polymers:
(a) Reuse(b) Recycle
(c) Use biodegradable synthetic polymer
(d) Dispose of unwanted synthetic polymers in a proper manner.
(E) Glass and ceramics
Glass
The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide,SiO2 which can be found in sand.
Glass can made by heating a mixture of silicon dioxide and metal carbonates to a temperature
above 1500C.
Figure 6 : Structure of silicon dioxide
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Type of glass Composition Properties Uses
Fused glass Silicon dioxide High melting
point
High temperature
and chemical
durability
Resistant tothermal shock
transparent to
ultraviolet andinfrared light
Laboratory
glassware
Arc tubes in
lamps
Lenses
Telescope mirrors
Optical fibres
Soda-lime glass silicon dioxide
Sodium oxide
Low meltingpoint
Containers suchas bottles,jars.
Chemically
inert
Electricalinsulator
Heat insulator
Impermeableto liquid
Hard but
brittle
Transparent
Physical
properties of
glass
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Calcium oxide High thermalexpansion
coefficient
Does not
withstand heat
Cracks easily withsudden change in
temperature
Good chemical
durability
Easy to mouldand shape
Transparent to
visible light
Flat glass
Windowpanes
Mirrors
Light bulbs
Industrial and art
objects.
Borosilicate glass Silicon dioxide
Boron oxide
Sodium oxide Calcium oxide
Transparent to
visible light
resistant tochemicals
Lower thermalexpansion
coefficient
Resistant to
thermal shock
Can withstand
wide range of
temperaturechanges
Cookware
Laboratory
glassware Automobile
headlights
glass pipelines
Electrical tubes
Lead crystal glass Silicon dioxide
Lead(II) oxide
Sodium oxide
Soft,easy to melt
Transparent to
visible light
High density
High reactive
index
Tableware
Art objects
Crystals
Prisms
Lenses
Ceramics
Ceramics are made from clay such as kaolin.Kaolin is rich in kaolinite(hydrated
aluminosilicate,Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)
Examples of ceramics are bricks,tile,mugs and clay pots.
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Resist
compression
Very high
melting point
Good insulator
of electricityand heat
Chemically
inert and does
not corrode
Brittle
Very hard and
strong
Properties ofceramics
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3 main differences between glass and ceramic:
Glass can be heated until molten repeatedly but not ceramics
Glass is usually transparent whereas ceramics are not
Glass has a lower melting point than ceramics.
Property Uses Examples
Hard and strong Building materials Tiles,bricks,roofs,cement,abrasive for grinding
Attractive,easily moulded andglazed
Decorative pieces andhousehold items
Vases,porcelain ware,sinks,bathtubs
Chemically inert and non-corrosive
Kitchenware Cooking pots,plates,bowls
Very high melting point and
good insulator of heat
Insulation Lining of furnace, engine
parts
Electrical insulators Insulating parts in electrical
appliances
Spark plugs,insulators in
ovens and electrical cables
Inert and non-compressible Medical and dental apparatus Artificial teeth and bones
Do notcorrode
Inert to
chemicals
Good heatinsulators
Good
electricalinsulators
Brittle
strong under
compression
Hard and do
not bend
Commonproperties of
glass andceramics
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`(F) Composite materials
A composite material is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more
different materials such as metals,alloys,glass,ceramics and polymers.
Some common composite materials are:a. Reinforced concrete
b.Superconductor
c. Fibre opticd.Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass
Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete is formed when concrete is reinforced with steel wire netting or steelrods.
Essential for the construction of large structures like high-rise buildings,bridges and oil
platforms.
Has a greater strength than ordinary concrete and has higher resistance to impact.
Superconductors
capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to anextremely low temperature.
most of them are alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides
Superconductors also used in :
(a) magnetic energy-storage system
(b) magnetically levitated train(c) generators
(d) transformers
(e) computer parts(f) very sensitive devices for measuring magnetic fields, voltage or current.
Fibre Optic
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consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding.
used to replace copper wire in long distance telephones lines,in mobile phones,video camerasand to link computers within local area networks.
used in instruments for examining internal parts of the body or inspecting the interior ofmanufactured structural products.
Fibre glass
produced when glass fibres are embedded in plastic resins to produce glass fibre reinforced
plastics.
has high tensile strength,can be easily coloured,moulded and shaped,inert to chemicals and islow in density.
Photochromic glass
changes from transparent to coloured when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, and reverts to
transparency when the light is dimmed or blocked.
can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like fine silver chloride.
photochromic glass helps to:(a) protect our eyes from harmful ultraviolet rays and glare from the sun(b) control the amount of light that passes through it automatically
(c) reduce refraction of light
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Sulphuric Acid
Manufactured by Contact process
Temperature:450C
Pressure: 1 atm
Catalyst : V2O5
Uses:To make
fertilizers,detergents,
electrolyte, and synthetic fibre
Synthetic Polymer
Manufactured by
polymerization.
Examples and uses:
Polyethylene:Shopping bags
Polyvinyl chloride:Pipes
polystyrene:Packaging
materials
Perspex:Lenses
Nylon:Ropes,textile
Ammonia
Manufactured by Haber
process
Temperature:450C
Pressure: 200 atm
Catalyst : Fe
Uses:To make fertilizers,
nitric acid,cooling agent,
explosives
Manufactured Substances in
Industry
Glass
Made from sand,SiO2
Types & uses:Fused glass:Lenses
Soda-lime glass:mirror
Borosilicate glass:Beaker
Lead crystal glass: Glass
crystals
Composite materials
Made by combining two or more
materials.Examples:
Reinforce concrete
Superconductors
Fibre opticFibreglass
Photochromic glass
Alloys
Made from metal and
other elements.Examples
and composition:
Bronze:Copper & tinBrass:Copper & zinc
Steel:Iron & carbon
Pewter:Tin,Copper &
Antimony
Stainless Steel:
Iron,carbon &
chronium
Ceramic
Made from clay,
kaolinite,Al2O3.2SiO2.
2H2O
Properties and uses:
Hard & strong:Tiles,
bricks
Attractive:vases,
sinks
Non-corrosive:
Kitchenware
High melting point:
FurnaceInert: Medical &
dental apparatus
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First of all,I would like to thank the God for giving me blessings to complete this
folio just in time.Even I faced a lot of difficulties when doing this project,I managed to
overcome it by the Gods blessing .
Then, thanks to my chemistry teacher Mrs.Ng Phek Lan for being such a goodguider while doing this project.She had given us appropriate information about this
project in order to make us understand more about this project.
Also a great thanks to my friends and family members who tried their best to givetheir support for me, either by giving me a lot of encouragement while doing this project
or helping me to gather the data required for the project.
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B.S.Mathiarasi
Eng Nguan Hong,Lim Eng Wah,Lim Yean Ching., 2009. Focus Ace SPM Chemistry.,
Penerbitan Pelnagi Sdn. Bhd., (page 261 287)
http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htm
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-
ammonia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php
http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.phphttp://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php