Folio Biology a+

8/12/2019 Folio Biology a+

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-MoVeMeNt oF-

-SuBsTaNcEs-

-ThRoUgH pLaSmA-

-MeMbRaNe-


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-MiNd MaP-


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-SiMpLe DiFUs!oN-

-P"asma Memb#a$e-

A semi-pe#meab"e ce""

memb#a$e that a""o%s

%ate# a$d ce#tai$

substa$ces to mo&e i$

a$d out o the ce""

The ce""s ca$ obtai$

$ut#ie$ts a$d gases'

The ce""s $eed to

e(c#ete metabo"ic

%astes'

The t)pes a$d the

amou$t o

substa$ces ca$ be

co$t#o""ed'


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oMolecules move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a

region of lower concentration.

oMolecules have kinetic energy and collide with each other.

oDiffusion will occur until a dynamic equilibrium is reached, that is the

concentration is the same in all regions.

oExample: Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide

-Ac!"!tAtEd DiFUs!oN-


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ohe transport of molecules across the outer membrane of living cell

by a process that involves carrier protein or channel protein within

the cell membrane.

o!ubstances such as glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids

pass through the membrane by facilitated diffusion.

oExample: "bsorption of digested food in the villus

-*sMoSiS-


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o#smosis is the passage of water molecules from a dilute solution to a

more concentrated solution across a semi$permeable membrane.

o%ater continues to pass through the semi$permeable membrane until

the solute concentration is the same in both regions.

oExample: "bsorption of water by root hairs through osmosis process

-AcTiVe T#A$Sp*#T-


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o&eeds carrier proteins and energy.

o"gainst concentration gradient.

o'arrier molecules in and out of a cell.

oExamples: (ons intake by root hairs of a plant

-DiFE#E$+es-

-aPpLi+aTi*$ iN eVeR)Da, LiFe-


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Isotonic

Animal Cell RED BLOODCELL)Water diffuses into and out of the

cell at equal rates.

The cell retains its normal size and

shape.

Plant Cell epidermiscell)The flow of water intoand out of the

cell is balanced.

Cell does not change shape or size

Vacuole maintains the normal size.

Hypotonic


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-+oNcE$T#At!oN #Ad!eNt-

Animal Cell red bloodcell)Water enters the cell by osmosisThe cell expands and burst

Haemolysis takes place

Plant Cell epidermiscell)Water diffuses into the acuole byosmosis

Vacuole expand and swell upThe cell does not burst because of

the rigid cell wall

The cell becomes turgid

The swelling of a plant cell createsturgor pressure within the cell.

Turgor pressure is important to

plant cells in supporting andmaintaining the shape of the cells

Hypertonic

Animal Cell red bloodcell)Water leaes the cell by osmosis

The cell shrinks upCrenation takes place

Plant Cell epidermiscell)Water diffuses out of acuole by

osmosisVacuole and cytoplasm shrink

!lasma membrane pulls away from

the cell wallThe cell becomes flaccid

The process is called plasmolysis

" plasmolysed plant cell canbecome turgid again by immersingthe cell in a hypotonic solution

The cell hae undergone

deplasmolysis


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-+#E$At!oN-


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o 'renation is the contraction or formation of abnormal nokta

around the edges of the cells after inserted into hypertonic

solution.

o 'renation occurs because of hypertonic environment )the cellhas a solution with a lower concentration than the solutionaround the outside of the cells*, osmosis)diffusion of water*

causing movement of water out of cells, causing reduced

cytoplasmic volume. "s a result, the cells shrink.o !ame process that occurs in plant cell plasmolysis which is also

shrinking due to put in a hypertonic solution


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-eN.,mEs-


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E&+ME!

'haracteristics

Biological catalyststhat accelerate therate of biochemical

reactions

"ll en-ymes areproteins.

&eeded in smallquantities.

!peed upbiochemical

reactions.

'atalyse specificreactions.

Re/ui#e coacto#s to

u$ctio$ optimum")'

Catalyse both the

forward and reversedirections of specific

metabolic reactions.

"ctivities sloweddown by inhibitors.


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-ThE 0Lo+1 aNd 1E)2 h,p*tHeSiS oF E$3)Me AcTi*$-


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-Fa+t*#S AFe+t!$ E$3)Me AcTiViT)-

p

$/ow p )acidic*$

En-yme$substratecomplex does not

form

-igh p )alkaline*$

En-yme$substratecomplex does not

form

!uitable p )&ormal*

En-yme$substratecomplex forms


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EM0E1"21E

/ow emperature$En-yme catalysedreaction is slow.

$he movement ofsubstrate molecules

isinactive.

igh emperature

$1eaction stops.$3ecause the

chemical bonds thathold molecules will

break at high

temperature.

#ptimum$Maximum reaction

$'auses rapidmovement and

collision betweenthe substrate and

en-yme.


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E&+ME'#&'E&1"(#&

(f the concentration ofan en-yme increases,

more en-ymes areavailable.

he en-yme$catalysed

reaction will increase ifthere is more substrate

supplied.

"t low en-ymeconcentration, the

en-yme catalysedreaction is slow.

his is because moreactive sites are available.

(f the substrates are

catalysed totally byen-ymes, the reaction

will stop.


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!23!1"E'#&'E&1"(#&

"t 4.56 en-ymeconcentration

"t 4.76 en-ymeconcentration

More substrates will collide

with the en-yme.

he high concentration ofsubstrates will raise the

reaction to maximum rateuntil not enough en-yme

supply.

%hen the substrate

concentration increases, theen-ymes$catalysed reactionincreases.

he concentration of en-yme

becomes limiting factor to theconcentration of substrate.

1eaction of 4.76 en-ymeconcentration is lower than

4.56 en-yme concentration.


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-gRaPh-


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-tHe UsEs oF eN.,mEs-

(ndustry 2ses

8ish and Meat

(ndustry

0rotease

$1emoval of fish skin.

$Meat tenderi-ation.

Dairy (ndustry 1ennin

$Milk protein coagulant in cheese production.

/ipase

$2sed in cheese ripening.

/actase

$9ives lactose$free milk products through hydrolysis

of lactose.

3aking (ndustry "mylase

$3reaks down starch into maltose.

0rotease

$3reaks down and decrease proteins in biscuit

manufacture.

9lucose #xidase

$Maintains dough stability.

3rewing

(ndustry

"mylase

$3reaks down starch into glucose.

0rotease

$3reaks down protein into amino acids.

'ellulose

$0revents cloudiness during the storage of beers.

Bio"ogica"

Dete#ge$ts

P#otease4 Lipase a$d Am)"ase

-Remo&a" o o#ga$ic stai$s a$d #esista$t sta#ch #esidues'extile (ndustry "mylase


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$1emoval of starch that is applied to threads of

fabrics to prevent damage.

/eather anning

(ndustry

0rotease

$1emoval of hairs from animal hides and softens

leather.

0aper (ndustry "mylase and /igninase

$0roduce smoother paper by filling in the gaps

between fibres with partial breakdown of starch.

$1emove lignins from pulp.

0rocessing 8ood rypsin and "mylase

$o pre$digest a few baby foods and convert starch

to glucose syrup.Medical "nalysis rypsin

$1emoves blood clots and cleans the wound.


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-+eLL d!&!s!oN-

-+eLL c,cLe-


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-MiToSiS-


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-Me!oSis-


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-MiToSiS-


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'#(&E!(!

$Meaning$he process of

cytoplasm divisionin a parent cell to

form two daughtercells at the end of

mitosis.

'ytokinesis willstart before

nuclear division is

completed.

he organelles and

other contents ofthe parent cell will

distribute betweentwo daughter cells.


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-+)To5iNeSiS !$ A$ aNiMaL +eLL-

-c,t*1!$Es!s iN pLaNt +eLL-


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-TeT#Ad +hRoMoSoMe-

-BiVaLeNt +hRoMoSoMe-


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-cLoNi$ * aNiMaLs-


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-+oMpA#!s*$ BeT%EeN MiToSis aNd Me!oSis-

Mitosis Similarities Meosis

;. " cell division process

5. &uclear division happenMitosis Difference

Aspects/ItemsMeiosis

!omatic cells Place of occurrence 9onadic cells

0roduce cells for growthand tissue repair

Role 0roduce gamete

#ne Number of divisions wo

Does not occur Synapsis ofhomologue

chromosomes

#ccurs during 0rophaseof Meiosis 7 to form

tetrads

Does not occur rossing over

!hiasma formation"

#ccurs during 0rophase

of Meiosis 7wo Number of daughter

cells formed at theend of division

8our

Diploid)5n*, samenumber of

chromosomes in parentcell

Number ofchromosomes in

daughter cell

aploid)n*, half thenumber of

chromosomes of theparent cell

(dentical to parent cell #enetic compositionin daughter cell

&on identical to theparent cell and to each

other

&o variation produced #enetic $ariation 0roduces geneticvariation

1emain5n

5n

5n

Ploidy %evel 1educe n n

n

5n n n

n


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-$UtRiTi*$-


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-BaLaNcEd DiEt-


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-ThE HuMaN DieSt!&E S)StEm-


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-Fo*d DieSt!oN-

!ite of

digestion

Digestive

$

=.?

starch@water maltose

!tomach 9astric


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-DieSt!oN oF +eL"uLoSe !$ RoDeNtS-


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-AbSoRpTi*$ aNd AsSiMiLaTi*$ oF NuT#!eNtS-


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9/2'#!E "M( "'(D! 8" "'(D!,

9/'E1#/, C("M(&!

",D,E,

o "bsorbed into blood

capillaries,

transported to liver

via hepatic portal

vein.

o 2sed for cellular

respiration.

oExcess converted

into glycogen and

stored in liver.

o (n cell, used for

cellular respiration.

o "bsorbed into blood

capillaries,

transported to liver

via hepatic portal

vein.

o 2sed in the

synthesis of plasma

membrane.

o Excess is

delaminated, and

urea excreted.

o (n cell, used to

make en-ymes and

hormones.

o "bsorbed into

lacteal, transported

in the bloodstream

to body cells.

o Ma


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&'P(S )*

N+&RI&I)N

A+&)&R)P,I,(&(R)&R)P,I

P,)&)S'N&,(&I(-AP%( &R((

,()S'N&,(&I

(-AP%(BA&(RIA

,)%)0)I SAPR)P,'&I(-AP%( *+N#I

PARASI&I

(-AP%(RA**%(SIA

,(RBI$)R)+S

ARNI$)+R)+S

)NI$)+R)+S


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-Ph*t*s,$ThEs!s-

-LeA StRu+tU#E-


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-FuNcTi*$-

0arts 8unctions

2pper

Epidermis

$0revents loss of water.

$0rotects the underlying cells from in


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External 8eatures:

o he wide, flat and thin lamina provides a large surface area for the

maximum absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.

o he leaf is positioned at right angle to sunlight and arranged in amosaic pattern to absorb maximum sunlight.

o 2pper epidermis is translucent to allow sunlight to pass through it

easily.

(nternal 8eatures:

o 0alisade Mesophyll cells contain a lot of chloroplasts and closely

packed for maximum absorption of sunlight.

o ylem and phloem are long and continuous tubes that can transport

water and products of photosynthesis efficiently.

o !pongy Mesophyll cells are arranged loosely for diffusion of carbon

dioxide and oxygen between the leaf and environment.

o Many stomata at lower epidermis to allow the exchange of gases

-DaR1 A$D LihT ReAcTi*$-


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-DiFE#E$+eS bEt6eE$ LihT ReAcTi*$ aNd DaR1 ReAcTi*$-


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/ight 1eaction Differences Dark 1eaction

0hotolysis reaction

which requires light

energy

ype of reaction 3iochemical reaction

which does not

require light energy

9rana of chloroplast /ocation of process !troma of chloroplasts0hotolysis of water 0rocess involved 1eduction of carbon

dioxide

%ater and sunlight 1aw materials

required

'arbon dioxide,

hydrogen ions,

electron, "0 and

&"D0

8orms "0 Energy 2ses "0

es "bsorption of light &o(n the presence of

light only

ime of occurring "fter the light reaction

0roduces water and

oxygen

0roduct output 0roduces glucose and

water

-Fa+t*#S AFe+t!$ Ph*t*S)NtHeSiS-


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-Te+hNoLoi+aL DeVeLoPmE$T iN Fo*d P#*cEsSiNg-

0rocessing Methods 0rinciples

'ooking o igh temperature can kill the

microorganisms in the food which


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can cause food spoilage.

0ickling with sugar, salt and

vinegar

o Makes the food becomes

hypertonic causing microorganisms

to lose water by osmosis and die of

dehydration.

o "cetic acid of vinegar )low p* can

kill the microorganisms.

2ltra eat reatment)2* o ugh temperature will kill all the

bacteria and their spores in the

food.

0asteurisation o igh temperature will kill most of

the bacteria )except lactic acid and

bacteria* and maintain the taste of

milk.

o 0asteurisation can preserve the

nutrients and taste of milk.

Drying o 'ausing dehydration in food so that

the microorganisms cannot survive.

o %ithout water, microorganisms will

be killed or become spores which

are inactive.

8ermentation o 8ermentation produces ethanol

which will kill the microorganisms.

o %ater will be absorbed by the

concentrated ethanol from food

and microorganisms through

osmosis.

'anning o igh temperature kills the

microorganisms.


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o he vacuum created in the sealed

can may prevent the food in the

can from contamination.

1efrigeration o 'old storage causes

microorganisms become inactive

and keeps the food fresh.


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-ReSp!#At!oN-


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0E #8

1E!0(1"(#&0E #8

1E!0(1"(#&

"E1#3('(s the breakdown of

glucose in the presenceof oxygen with the

release of a largeamount of chemical

energy.

"E1#3('(s the breakdown of

glucose in the presence

of oxygen with therelease of a large

amount of chemicalenergy.

"&"E1#3('(s the breakdown of

glucose in the absence

of oxygen with therelease of a smallamount of chemical

energy.

"&"E1#3('(s the breakdown of

glucose in the absence

of oxygen with therelease of a smallamount of chemical

energy.

'omplete oxidation of

glucose in the presenceof oxygen to form carbon

dioxide, water andenergy.

'omplete oxidation of

glucose in the presenceof oxygen to form carbon

dioxide, water andenergy.

>? molecules "0 areproduced.

5?? kF energy is released.#ccurs in the mitochondria.

>? molecules "0 areproduced.

5?? kF energy is released.#ccurs in the mitochondria.

(ncomplete oxidation ofglucose in the absence of

oxygen to form lactic acidand energy )in muscle

cells* or ethanol, carbondioxide and energy )in

yeast*.

(ncomplete oxidation ofglucose in the absence of

oxygen to form lactic acidand energy )in muscle

cells* or ethanol, carbondioxide and energy )in

yeast*.

5 molecules of "0 areproduced.

574 kF energy is released)during fermentation* and

7A4kF )during anaerobicrespiration in the muscle

cells*.

5 molecules of "0 areproduced.

574 kF energy is released)during fermentation* and

7A4kF )during anaerobicrespiration in the muscle

cells*.


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-+hEm!cA" E/UaTi*$ FoR AeRoBi+ ReSp!#At!oN-

-+hEm!cA" E/UaTi*$ FoR AeRoBi+ ReSp!#At!oN-

C6H

12O

6 + 6O

2 6CO

2 + 6H

2O +

Energy (ATP molecules)

C6H12O6 2C3O6O3 + Energy (150

kJ or 2 ATP)


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-FeRmE$TaTi*$-

-E/UaTi*$ !$VoL&Ed-


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-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#Es iN P#*t*.*a-

o he proto-oa, for example 0aramecium and "moeba are unicellular

organisms.

o hese inactive small organisms have no respiratory structure.

o he whole external surface of these organisms acts as an efficient

respiratory surface.

o #xygen diffuses into the cell and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the

cell through the plasma membrane down the concentration

gradient.

o "s the external surface of these organisms is fully permeable to thegases, these organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio.


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-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#Es !$ !$Se+t-

o he muscles in the abdomen contract and relax to force air in and

out of the trachea rhythmically.

o his is because the volume and the pressure in the abdomen are

different.

o During (nhalation:

$he abdominal muscles relax.

$he valves of spiracles open.

$0ressure in trachea decrease.

$"ir goes into the body of insect.

o During exhalation:

$he abdominal muscles contract.

$he valves of spiracles close.

$0ressure in trachea increases.

$"ir goes out from the body of insect.


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-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#E !$ AmPh!b!aNs-

'oetaneous 1espirationo Main supply of oxygen for amphibians.

o "s its skin is thin, permeable, moisted and well supplied with

blood capillaries, oxygen dissolves into the blood capillaries.

3uckle 1espiration

o "s the buckle cavity and the pharynx are covered with a thin

epithelium, the diffusion of gases is easier.

o Centilation of the buckle cavity influences the air pressure in the

buckle cavity and influences the breathing mechanism.

0ulmonary 1espiration

o 0ulmonary respiration is carried out when cutaneous respiration

and buckle respiration do not supply enough oxygen.

o Each frog has a pair of lungs which are moist and has a network

of blood capillaries on tiny alveolus.


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-ThE HuMaN ReSp!#At*#, S)StEm-

-!$HaLaTi*$ 7 E(HaLaTi*$-


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(nhalation "spects Exhalation

'ontracts External intercostals

muscle

1elaxes

1elaxes (nternal intercostals

muscle

'ontracts

2p and towards Movement of rib cage Down and inwards

'ontracts "ction of diaphragm 1elaxes

(ncreases Colume of thoracic

cavity

Decreases

/ow "ir pressure of

thoracic cavity

igh

(nhaled into the lungs 8low of air Exhaled from thelungs

/ow (nternal air pressure igh

igh External air pressure /ow

8lattens !hape of diaphragm 'urves upwards

-aSe*uS E(+hA$e !$ ThE A"Ve*LuS-


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-aSe*uS E(+hA$e-


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-ReSp!#At!oN !$ pLaNt-


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-E$DaNgE#Ed Ec*s,sTeM-


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-6aTeR p*"LuTioN-

Biologicalagents

$0olluted by bacteria, proto-oa, virus$'holera)bacteria Cibrio*, epatitis ")virus*


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hemicalfertili1ers

$0olluted by phosphates, nitrates$'aused by e2cessiveuse of chemicalfertili-ers$Encourage excessive growth of aquatic

plant

hemicalto2ins

$0olluted by 7.(norganic toxic )'u, 'r, +netc.* 5.#rganic toxic )pesticides*$'ause cancer and gene mutation, bodyorgans damage

Physicalagents

$0olluted by discharge of grease and oil,solid sediments$0revent sunlight and oxygen from

penetrate through waterRadioactive3aste

$contaminate waterways

-EuT#*pH+aTi*$-


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" process where a body of water )e.g. pond or lake*

becomes rich in dissolved nutrients )phosphates or

nitrates* either naturally or due to the human activity.

he organic and inorganic wastes that enter a river or lakeenrich the water nutrients.

0hotosynthesi-ing organisms particularly algae growrapidly.

his result in population explosion known as algal bloom.

igh density of algae reduces light intensity to penetratethrough water.

his lead to the death of other photosynthetic organisms.

he decompositionof these dead organisms by bacteriacausing severe depletion of water dissolved oxygen.

his causing the death of other aerobic organisms such asfish, prawns etc.

-Bi*"*gi+aL o8)eN DeMaNd 9BoD:-


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he total amount of oxygen used by microorganisms

such as bacteria and fungi which decompose organic

matter in such sample water.

he lo3erthe 3#D value, the higherthe amount ofoxygen dissolved in the water, vice versa.

-LeVeL oF 6aTeR p*""Uti*$-

#$%

The presences of organic

materials in water increase

the growth of

microorganisms.

&ncrease of the #$% alue.

The dissoled oxygen in

water decreases.The life of the liingorganisms is affected and in

danger.

'(

) *


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+xamples of waste materials and

pollution. Heay metal

,oils

,ediments

+xcessie fertilizer

Effects

-!ollution increase BODof

rier.

-ots of bacterial activities

decomposing the organic

waste materials that present.

-,olid sediments will clog up

the rier flow.

-/iers become shallow.

-Flash floodswill happen

when it is raining heaily.


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Se5oLaH MeNeNgAh Sa!$STuA$5u S)Ed PuT#A

;


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