Focus Groups

21 February 2011

Ian Rowen

What are Focus Groups?

• Small structured discussion groups with selected participants, led by a moderator

• “Carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non threatening environment” (Krueger 1994)

• Spoken content is crucial, but group interaction also makes useful data

History of Focus Groups

• 1926: Group interviews (Bogardus)• WWII: Used to evaluate propaganda and

productivity• 1950s-70s: Adopted by marketers (Lazarsfeld),

mostly neglected by social scientists• 1980s: Rediscovered and used to assess attitudes

about contraception (Folch-Lyon et al), media (Lunt & Livingstone)

• 1988: First standard texts on focus groups for marketers and social scientists (Krueger, Morgan)

Data type

• Primary– Ex: Using focus groups to explore attitudes of groups differentiated by age, gender etc.

• Supplementary—Ex: To determine specific questions for surveys, interviews, or other methods

• Multi-Method—Ex: Triangulation with other methods for difficult or controversial topics

Kind of focus group

• In-person: Most common in social science research. Provides richer data

• Videoconference• Online • Telephone

Format

• Size: Usually six to ten participants, but can be four to twelve

• Composition: Usually homogenous, like-minded individuals, unless aim is to brainstorm or explore diverse opinions

• Length: 1.5 to 2 hours• Number of different groups per study: Usually three

or more • An additional observer or moderator can help take

notes on who said and did what

Question Guidelines

• Use open-ended questions: Broader, allow for freer discussion

• Avoid yes/no questions• Use neutral questions to minimize bias• Avoid why questions: They can solicit answers

meant to justify, or oversimplify cause and effect

Typical Sequence

• Opening question: Factual—”What is your name and what do you like doing?”

• Introductory questions: General topic--”What do you think about tourists?”

• Key questions: Main research issue. Ask after group is warmed up.

• Transition questions: Used tactically– “We’ve been talking about… Can we move on to…”

• Ending questions

Advantages

• Social context, with discussion, feels more natural than one-on-one interviewing

• Useful for brainstorming or generating ideas• Reveals social dynamics and the ways people

in a given group can influence each other

Disadvantages

• People may tell you what they think you want to hear

• “False” consensus, with some people dominating the group

• Individual behavior can be influenced by group

• Difficulty in making generalizations or interpreting results

References

• Krueger, Richard A. 1994. Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

• Litosseliti , Lia. 2003. Using focus groups in research. London ; New York: Continuum.

• Morgan, David L. 1997. Focus groups as qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

• Stewart, David W. and Prem N. Shamdasani. Focus groups : theory and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.