Floors:

Floors have had a broad range of functions and finishes throughout the history of architecture. It should be noted that looking down after entering a building is an important consideration that should not be ignored. The commitment to floors has always been based on the project budget. If funds are not available, floor finishes are left basic, and if funds are available, finishes tend to be of a higher quality. Because there are so many material, color, pattern, and covering options available, floors are still valued as surfaces worthy of financial investment and creative expression.

Sub-Floor Structures:

There are generally two types of subfloor structures over which floor coverings can be installed:

Concrete Subfloors: Elevated concrete floors (cast-in-place concrete and concrete on metal deck) and concrete slabs-on-ground, Figure 1 .

Wood Subfloors: Wood panels supported by wood light-frame or cold-formed steelframe members, Figure 2 .

Figure 1

Sub-Floor Characteristics:

The long-term durability of floor coverings depends on the quality of the subfloor conditions. A good subfloor will have some of the following characteristics:

Sound: Concrete should be finished smooth, without ridges, ripples, and imperfections, and wood structures should be properly attached, solid and tight, with nails, screws, or adhesive.

Figure 2

Dry: Subfloors must be sufficiently dry because adhesives will not adhere properly to a wet or partially wet surface. Additionally, excessive moisture in a concrete subfloor will damage floor coverings as the moisture leaves the subfloor.

Clean and Free of Foreign Materials: There should be no foreign materials, including dust, solvents, paint, wax, oil, and so on, on the surface of the subfloor.

Selection Criterion for Floor coverings:

An almost limitless number of floor covering products and materials is available today. The selection of materials must consider the design intent as well as the manner in which people will interact with the floors.

Factors

There are many performance factors that should be considered when selecting floor coverings. Some of the these factors are critically important and necessary to consider, whereas others do not apply to every situation.

1. Slip Resistance: Many injuries result annually from falls on slippery surfaces, particularly when wet. In areas where this is a hazard, surface conditions must provide adequate resistance to slipping. This is measured by laboratory testing that establishes a numerical value known as the coefficient of friction.

2. Durability and Longevity: Floor coverings may be subjected to many types of use and exposure to environmental impacts. These include wear and damage due to the abrasive impact of pedestrian and other types of traffic; staining and damage from liquids, chemicals, and reagents; degradation from exposure to ultraviolet radiation from skylights or large windows coverings; and issues related to water and moisture.

3. Flammability: Building codes require resistance to fire propagation (flame spread and smoke development) for some applications.

4. Hygienic Qualities:In some applications, such as a hospital or commercial kitchen, a floor covering should not give sanctuary to dirt and bacteria.

5. Walking Comfort: When people will be constantly standing on, or walking over, a floor covering, underfoot comfort is very important. Hard, unyielding surfaces can cause walker fatigue and, in some cases, lead to foot, leg, or back stress problems.

6. Maintenance Requirements: Maintenance is an ongoing expense for every building. For every floor covering, there is a prescribed maintenance procedure to ensure the longest possible performance time. Some floor coverings are more time-consuming and expensive to maintain than others, a factor that must be considered in terms of long-term maintenance goals and budgets for the building.

Common Types of Floor Finishing Surfaces

Ceramic Tile Flooring

The composition and installation of ceramic tile have changed little over the decades. The tiles are adhered with mortar, and the voids between tile edges are then filled with grout.

Ceramic tile is made from natural clay, porcelain, or other ceramic materials. The exposed face is either glazed or left unglazed and then fired to a temperature sufficient to produce the necessary physical properties. Glazed tiles have glassy, or glossy, exposed surfaces. The glaze protects the tile body against water absorption and provides for a wide range of colors. Glazes can be opaque, transparent clear, or colored clear. One of the weaknesses of glaze is that it can be scratched, which changes its appearance and performance characteristics.

Stone Panel Flooring

Stone panels for flooring, also known as dimension stone , are natural stones that have been selected and fabricated (cut and trimmed) to specific shapes and sizes, with or without mechanical dressing of one or more surfaces. Natural stones used for panel flooring include granite, marble, limestone, slate, and other quartz-based stones such as sandstone, bluestone, and quartzite.

Stone panels are uniformly dressed on five faces, with the backs being left ungauged. The panels are actually slabs of stone and usually have large dimensions in one or both directions. Because the panels are not uniformly thick, they must be installed over a thick-set mortar bed, Figure 3.

Figure 3

Terrazzo Flooring

Terrazzo flooring has much in common with concrete. Like concrete, a terrazzo binding matrix is mixed with several aggregates and placed, wet and plastic, in its final location. However, unlike concrete, the exposed surface is ground and polished after it cures to expose the binding matrix and aggregates, thus revealing a smooth and colorful finish.

A binding matrix is the material that holds the aggregate chips in position. Until about the end of the twentieth century, the most common binding matrix was cementitious, combining portland cement (usually white), aggregate chips, and pigments if needed (either alkali resistant or synthetic powdered, inorganic substances) to form a uniform matrix color. This binding matrix is now being replaced with a resinous epoxy, most commonly polyester, polyacrylate-modified cement, or polyurethane. The creative design of terrazzo flooring is the primary criterion for selecting aggregate chips. The defining quality for these chips is their ability to be ground and polished. Marble chips are the most common aggregate, glass chips are also used.

Figure 4

Carpet Flooring

The most emotionally comforting floor covering is carpet. It is widely used due to its softness, contribution to quietness, and feeling of comfort. All carpet is manufactured in continuous lengths. The essential difference between carpets is in their construction and how they are used in a building. Two basic types of carpet are available: rolled goods and tiles . Rolled goods, also called broadloom , dominates the carpet industry (rolls are typically 6 or 12 ft in width). Carpet tiles, typically used in commercial buildings, have rubber backings and can be easily changed when a tile becomes stained or otherwise damaged, Figure 5.

Fibers, the basic component of carpet, are either natural or synthetic. Fibers are used to make the yarn that is used to make carpet:

Figure 5

Wood Flooring

Wood flooring is valued in residential applications for the warmth and beauty it brings to a room. It is also used extensively for athletic floors, such as basketball and volleyball courts, as well as for theater and dance floors, where durability and hardness, are highly desired. Although most wood species can be fabricated for wood flooring, all of them are not equal in performance. Oak and maple are the most commonly used species in the United States.

Generally, wood floorings are classified as either solid wood flooring or engineered wood flooring. As the name implies, in solid wood flooring the same wood species is used throughout

the entire piece, Figure 6. It is susceptible to changes in size due to moisture content. It can be flat sawn, quarter sawn and is available in different appearance grades. Like plywood, engineered wood flooring is a combination of a surface veneer, usually a hardwood, which is laminated to one or more plies of a wood veneer from a less expensive wood species that provides dimensional stability and added strength.

Figure 6

Typical components of a Window and its types

Figure 7

Types of Windows

Fixed Window

A fixed window generally does not have a sash because the glass is held directly by the window frame. A fixed window gives 0% ventilation, and is generally more energy efficient because of its lower air leakage rate, Figure 8 (a).

Single-Hung Window

A single-hung window consists of one sash that can slide vertically over a fixed lite of glass. It can provide up to 50% ventilation. An insect screen unit can be easily included on the outside, Figure 8 (d).

Double-Hung Window

A double-hung window consists of two sashes, both of which can slide up and down. The maximum amount of ventilation provided by a doublehung window is 50%. An insect screen can be included on the outside. Some contemporary double-hung windows include a tilt-and-turn mechanism that allows the cleaning of the outside of the window from the inside, Figure 8 (b).

Horizontal Sliding Window

A sliding window consists of one sash that slides horizontally over a fixed sash. Alternatively, both sashes may slide with respect to each other, as shown here. A sliding window can provide up to 50% ventilation. A sliding window is more prone to air leakage than other window styles. An insect screen unit can be easily included toward the exterior, Figure 8 (c).

Casement Window

A casement window (also called a side-hung window) may consist of one operable sash, as shown here, or two sashes that close on each other with or without a center mullion. Because the sash closes on the frame with pressure, providing a compression seal, a casement window is generally less prone to air leakage and, hence, can be more energy efficient than single-, double-hung or sliding windows. A casement window can provide up to 100% ventilation. Screen units with a casement window are generally provided on the inside with sashes opening out, Figure 8 (e).

Awning Window

An awning window (also called a top-hung window) is similar to a casement window but provides a degree of rain protection when the window is partially open. It can provide up to 100% ventilation. An insect screen unit can only be provided toward the interior of an awning window, Figure 8 (f).

(a)(d)(g)

(b) (e) (h)

(c) (f)

Figure 8

Hopper Window

A hopper window (also called a bottom-hung window) is similar to an awning window but opens inward at the top. Like an awning window, it can provide up to 100% ventilation. An insect screen unit can be provided toward the outside, Figure 8 (g).

Pivoting Window

A pivoting window may be pivoted at the center or off center. It allows easy cleaning of the window from the inside and can provide up to 100% ventilation. It has the ability to direct the flow of ventilation. A screen unit cannot be provided with a pivoting window, Figure 8 (h).

Typical components of a Door

Figure 9