Fire Research Report newconstitution. The Task Group believes that the IFRG should be supported...

A Report of the

FIRE RESEARCH TASK GROUP

established by the

FIRE SAFETY STANDARDS SUB-GROUP

of the

FIRE SAFETY ADVISORY BOARD

1. Fire research within the UK is at an important point in itsdevelopment. There are real concerns within theprofessional fire science community that the currentlevel of UK research is inadequately funded anddirected. This, crucially, will impact upon the continuingdevelopment of fire safety engineering, which isrequired to sustain the increasing adoption ofperformance based building safety codes.

2. The Fire Safety Advisory Board established a FireResearch Task Group under the Fire Safety StandardsSub-Group to consider this and related issues. The TaskGroup over the past year examined what was happeningin the fire research field and what research might need toreceive priority.

3. What they found were examples of good, albeit oftenuncoordinated, research work. More concerning, theyidentified a significant reduction over recent years in thefunding, assets and volume of fundamental academicresearch being undertaken to underpin the applicationof fire safety engineering and practice, and the absenceof an overall national strategy to ensure adequatecoverage within, and balance between, the relevantresearch areas.

4. The Task Group also found that there were manysimilarities between their objectives and those of theInterdepartmental Fire Research Group (IFRG). TheIFRG had been established for several years. That hadfollowed an approach by senior members of theInstitution of Fire Engineers (IFE) who were concernedat the falling level of Government led fire research in theUK. In response, the UK Government established theIFRG which set itself two goals:

• to create an Internet based database of all current(and some past) Government sponsored fireresearch and to maintain this database in future,and

• to create a national forum, comprising members ofGovernment, academia and industry, within whichto promote fundamental fire research by proposinga national programme of such research which, ifadopted, it would subsequently oversee.

5. The IFRG achieved its first objective last year when adatabase of Government sponsored fire research wascreated on the Internet and was populated with detailsof the research projects being carried out by individualGovernment Departments.

6. The IFRG also partially achieved its second objective by:

• drafting a national programme of fundamental fireresearch for subsequent discussion (which isongoing); and

• expanding membership of the Group to includerepresentation from the Fire Engineering ResearchNetwork (FERN) of academic institutions involvedin fundamental fire research.

7. However, the Task Group found that the IFRG had not yetmanaged to establish the representation from the

industrial sector that would complete its proposedconstitution. The Task Group believes that the IFRGshould be supported further by industry and that itsprioritisation of fire research objectives would be aidedby further input from the collective fire community.

8. The Task Group is therefore supportive of the main aimsof the IFRG, as reported above, believing that a strongnational core programme is essential to support therespective businesses of industry and Government.Fundamental fire research is a common good whosepromotion would assist the achievement of the firecommunity’s respective aims. Properly managed itwould not damage the relative competitiveness of any ofthe members, either individually or by sector (industry,academia, Government). It did, however, needconsensual direction and prioritisation if it were toachieve its purpose.

9. The Task Group also examined the application offundamental research to identify the effectiveness of theessential transfer of science into practice. What theyfound was a somewhat weak and often confusingpicture where the term ‘fire research’ related frequentlyto the non-physical sciences, like fire management andhuman behaviour, or to generalised fire planning orinvestigations.

10. The Task Group found that there was also often a gap inthe transfer of technology between researchers andusers. This they considered a very important point sinceany support and attributed value for research is usuallyproportionately dependent on the user perspective ofthe usefulness of the research.

11. There was a further concern that researchers weremissing opportunities to gain empirical knowledge fromthe observations made by practitioners who witnessedmaterial and human behaviour in operational situationsor to offer evaluations of the effectiveness of solutions inspecific situations. This validation phase was crucial toresearch in practice and required improvement inmutual understanding between researcher and the enduser.

12. Finally, the Task Group also found that the insurance andfire industry itself had invested heavily in research toimprove products and generally to support theircommercial activities. Representatives of the insuranceand fire industries recognised that a healthy nationalcore programme of fundamental fire research had thepotential to assist their individual activities by assistingthem to improve the quality of their products.Fundamental research would also help in thedevelopment of standards, either at home or at aninternational level, which potentially offered commercialinfluence in support of the UK’s overall trading position.The Task Group was pleased to learn that thesecommercial interests fully supported the achievement ofa comprehensive programme of fundamental andapplied fire research within the UK and wouldencourage partnered activities where possible.

FIRE RESEARCH IN THE UNITED KINGDOM:REPORT OF FIRE RESEARCH TASK GROUP

Executive Summary

Fire Research in the United Kingdom 1

13. A number of conclusions were clear from this review ofresearch activity:

• Fundamental fire research (ie the investigation ofthe science of fire) is declining in volume.

• Fundamental fire research provides the assurancerequired for the practical application of fire safetyengineering.

• Fire safety engineering is an essential componentin the introduction of a less prescriptive regulatoryregime for the UK’s built environment.

• Many fire scientists consider that some existing firesafety engineered approaches are not wellfounded scientifically.

• The viability of research was being eroded by adecline in available fire research assets, bothphysical and financial.

• There was no overall sense of direction, despitethe funds currently invested by a range ofGovernmental, non-governmental and commercialorganisations in fundamental and applied fireresearch within the UK.

• There was some confusion as to exactly whatconstituted fire research. Some technical activity,including fire testing, was often referred to asbeing research, despite lacking the scientific rigor,including peer review, that is the hallmark ofacademic research.

• The use and validity of fire engineeringtechnologies, like computerised modelling now infrequent use, nevertheless remains fragile.

• The understanding between research scientistsand fire safety practitioners was often weak.

• The public priorities for fire research were not clear.

• The UK’s early world lead in fire research wasvulnerable.

14. The Task Group concluded that further work wastherefore needed and that this should occur within aconsensual framework that sought to engage the widerange of interests identified. The framework the TaskGroup proposes is the introduction of a virtual ornetworked Fire Research Academy. Broadly, theAcademy’s purpose and objectives would be to:

• Provide direction for fundamental fire researchwithin the UK.

• Help identify consensual priorities for fundamentalresearch.

• Provide a supportive mechanism to integrate andapply fundamental fire research within the UK.

• Help develop a sustainable core programme offundamental fire research.

• Help draw together partnered and collaborativeworking between the fire stakeholders in order tosustain a fundamental fire research programmewithin the UK.

• Act as a critical review body providing analysis topromote fundamental applied fire research withinthe UK.

• Innovate and, through validation mechanisms, offerquality assurance.

• Communicate the value and contribution made by

fire research in all its facets to engenderunderstanding of the importance of fire safety.

• Act as a collective voice and network to improvesafety in the UK and global environment throughthe contribution of UK fire science and fire safetyengineering.

15. There does appear to be a collective will to work moreclosely as a fire community in this way from all those whohave contributed to the Task Group’s work. The TaskGroup found a high degree of support existed across allinterest groups with a broad consensus that fireresearch must be firmly re-established in the UK. Thesewelcome and freely made contributions have providedthe information contained in the main report and helpensure a Fire Research Academy could be quicklyestablished.

16. Such an Academy would also be able to work in supportof the Government’s stated policy of seeking new ideasfor the fire and rescue service as announced on the 30 June 2003 by the Office of the Deputy Prime Ministerin ‘Our Fire and Rescue Service’ White Paper.

The Fire Research Task Group therefore advises the FireSafety Standards Sub Group to recommend to the FireSafety Advisory Board that:

• this report be accepted and endorsed;

• the proposal to form a Fire Research Academyhaving the aims outlined in this report should besupported by the Fire Safety Advisory Board; and

• that this report be widely circulated to explain thethinking behind the proposal to create a FireResearch Academy and to gather support for it’screation.

Dennis DavisChairmanFire Safety Advisory BoardFire Research Task GroupEdinburgh

1 July 2003

2 Fire Research in the United Kingdom

1. Introduction 1.1 The Fire Safety Advisory Board (FSAB), establishedunder the Fire Safety Standards Sub-Group, a Task Group toconsider issues relating to fire research. The agreed terms ofreference were

(a) The Task Group should be time limited.

(b) The purpose of the Task Group should be todetermine:(i) What fire safety research is currently being

undertaken.(ii) What fire safety research is required in the future.

(c) The Task Group should take cognisance of thereview being carried out by the Fire SafetyDirectorate on the current research situation.

(d) It should be recognised that the Building RegulationsDivision is the primary sponsor for fire safetyresearch in buildings.

(e) Fire Safety Research also involves aspects ofsocial/community fire safety.

1.2 Membership of the Task Group was invited from allmembers of the Fire Safety Advisory Board and the followingindividuals offered to contribute

Dr David Peace, Office of the Deputy Prime MinisterDr Martin Thomas, Office of the Deputy PrimeMinisterMr Darren Hobbs, Office of the Deputy PrimeMinisterMr Neil Young, FIC/BFPSAMr John Judd, CACFOAMr David Smith, Institution of Fire EngineersProf Dougal Drysdale, University of EdinburghProf Don Christian, University of UlsterMr Jim Shields University of UlsterMr R (Bob) Whitely, BASAMr Brian Hume, Office of the Deputy Prime MinisterMr Barry Stockford, Fire Brigades UnionDr Jim Glockling, Fire Protection Association.

1.3 The original reason the FSAB considered this TaskGroup should be established resulted from a backgroundpaper submitted by Dennis Davis (Her Majesty’s ChiefInspector of Fire Services for Scotland) to the Board in June2002. That paper identified that in July 2000 Dennis Davis, onbehalf of the Institution of Fire Engineers, and DougalDrysdale, representing the International Association of FireSafety Science, expressed to the Government ChiefScientific Adviser concerns related to the limitations ofcurrent UK research and the important relationship this hadto underpinning the ongoing development of fire safetyengineering. The letter is reproduced at Annex A. Thisresulted in a joint meeting with the Office of Science andTechnology (OST), Engineering and Physical ScienceResearch Council (EPSRC), Home Office, the thenDepartment of Environment, Transport and the Regions(DETR) - and the two Institutions to discuss those concerns.The outcome was OST agreed to co-ordinate furtherdiscussions involving a wider group, including HSE, DTI andQintiQ, which in turn resulted in two outcomes.

1.4 Firstly, OST, after contacting the Health and SafetyExecutive and Highways Agency, agreed to consider aproposed database, which would provide detail onGovernment sponsored research. Secondly, the two

Institutions agreed to detail a fire research programme whichwould be designed to support the development of fire safetyengineering.

1.5 Dennis Davis was subsequently asked to be theChairman of the Task Group.

1.6 The Task Group has met twice. Firstly on 17 January2003 in Edinburgh and for a second and final meeting againin Edinburgh on 12 May 2003.

1.7 This report outlines the Task Group’s deliberations andconclusions. The report is structured around the identifiedtask as indicated in the methodology section.

2. Methodology 2.1 The Task Group first defined the task to be undertaken.It concluded that a strategic view be offered to inform theFire Safety Advisory Board and hence Government,Agencies and the wider fire community on aspects of

• current Government and others’ formally identifiedand sponsored research programmes; and

• the overall direction of fire research to improve bothpublic safety and the UK’s fire knowledge base.

2.2 These two strands supported the work alreadyunderway, led by the Government’s Inter-DepartmentalResearch Group. They also provided a route to progress theaim, expressed in the original request to the Government’sChief Scientist, that UK fire research be supported to maintainthe UK and global importance of fire science and fire safety.

2.3 The agreed approach, given the strategic nature of thetask, focused upon key principles rather than detailedresearch programmes.

2.4 This concentrated upon both fundamental and appliedresearch from the viewpoint of both the scientist and thepractitioner. The outcome sought was a framework that meetsuser expectations and provided scientific confidence inprobable safety solutions.

2.5 The emphasis was upon the need to consider‘research’ as a continuum, from the most ‘fundamental’ (egchemical reactions in flames) to the most applied (egdeveloping a means of protecting the firefighter against abackdraught). It was important to avoid a culture of ‘themand us’ in the fire community, in which the ‘academics’ wereperceived to be in their ivory towers, unaware anddisinterested in ‘real’ issues. This had in fact changeddramatically in the past two decades, but the centralproblem of communication still existed. Fortunately this isgradually eroding as more fire engineering graduates enterthe fire service and industry.

2.6 The same framework, it was decided, would also beused to help inform decision processes on priorities and co-ordinate research. Avoiding duplication, in UK and global fireresearch, by focusing in this way was seen as helpingaddress research gaps and streamline funding.

2.7 A review of existing institutions and perspectives wasseen as important in helping inform the process under whichfuture fire research might be framed.

2.8 This process envisaged consideration of researchwithin the two distinct areas of fundamental and applied

REPORT OF FIRE RESEARCH TASK GROUP

Section A: The Task Approach


research. As an illustration the following broad headings areused to help provide a research framework.

Fundamental AppliedFire Science Fire Service ResponseFire Dynamics Risk ManagementActive and Passive Systems Fire Service TechnologyHuman Behaviour Heritage ProtectionMaterials Environmental Modelling ManagementFire Interactions Management Sciences

Industrial Protection Standards

The report therefore considers each of these aspects insome detail before concluding with a summary andsuggested way forward.

3. Review 3.1 A review of existing institutions and fire communityperspectives was seen as an important part of any futureconsiderations. The existing Interdepartmental Fire ResearchGroup provides a possible facilitator organisation for futureresearch development and this group is considered first.Thereafter the perspectives of insurers, the fire protectionand detection industry and fire service are identified toillustrate the wide range of interests already existing withinthe fire community followed by international and Europeanoverviews.

3.2 Inter-Departmental Fire Research Group

3.2.1 In the course of moving to a more market-ledeconomy, Government has divested itself of many of theresearch organisations for which it previously providedsupport. The trend in recent years has been forGovernment Departments increasingly to sponsor onlyapplied research in support of their current policies andto rely on funding for fundamental research to be providedthrough the Research Councils.

3.2.2 In August 2000, Drysdale and Davis wrote to theGovernment’s Chief Scientific Adviser alleging that aconsequence of the above trend in the context of fireresearch had been that Government funded fire researchhad become fragmented and limited in scope so thatsupport for fundamental, underpinning research hadseriously diminished.

3.2.3 In response, Government formed what hasbecome known as the Inter-Departmental Fire ResearchGroup (IFRG), which acknowledged that both chargeshad some basis. In response to the issue offragmentation, a website [www.ecommunities.odpm.gov.uk/fire-research/index.asp] which lists all current (andsome past) Government-sponsored research has recentlybeen developed and established. This will now bemaintained by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister asthe repository for details of all present and futureGovernment-sponsored fire research.

3.2.4 The problem of dwindling support for fundamentalunderpinning research is more problematic. Since theSecond World War the fire community looked to the FireResearch Station (FRS) to carry out such work. However,the FRS became part of the Building ResearchEstablishment, which was eventually privatised in 1997deflecting FRS away from longer-term research towardscommercially driven consultancy and testing.

3.2.5 This issue has been considered by IFRG. Astrategy paper entitled ‘Fire Research in the UK’

identifying the issues and the research needs wasprepared by that Group (Annex B). Furthermore one TaskGroup member has suggested a proposed NationalModel of Fire Research. An alternative figure relatingfundamental and applied research, science andengineering was produced in 2001 by Croce anddelivered at Interflam 2001:

3.2.6 Essentially, in tackling the issue of underpinningresearch, the Fire Research Task Group has distinguishedtwo broad categories of Government-sponsored fireresearch:

• Demand-led applied research that is identified andsponsored by a variety of (Government and non-Government) user communities.

• Fundamental research, carried out almost exclusivelyby academia.

3.2.7 The subjects pursued within the applied researcharea are seen as being very much the business of thesponsoring communities, but it is recognised that, withoutaccess to a sound programme of fundamental research,the health of the applied research will eventually suffer.There is already evidence that some computer fire models(on which performance codes for fire safety in thebuildings are based) are unreliable, at least in somepractitioners’ hands. Failure to address these basic issuescould lead to serious deficiencies in the UK building stockin due course.

3.2.8 This, and related concerns, is seen by the IFRG asthe responsibility of Government (regulators), Academia(research) and Industry (particularly the constructionindustry). The plan was (albeit delayed by the fire servicepay dispute during the second half of 2002) to enlargethe Group to include senior members of all threecommunities. To date the original (Government)membership has been enlarged and now includesmembers of the Fire Engineering Research Network(FERN) (academia). The next step is to secure industrialrepresentation.

3.2.9 The purpose of the group will then be to specify,and subsequently to oversee, a national programme offundamental fire research, which is already in draft as aresult of discussion in the Group. All parties will then beable to draw on this long-term research to assist appliedresearch in support of their respective communityinterests.

3.2.10 A number of user communities sponsor fireresearch in the pursuit of their specific interests andbusinesses, for example:

Applied fireresearch

programmes ofindependent user

communities

National programme of underpinning

fundamentalresearch


3.2.11 How each organises its fire research is a matter forthe user community concerned. For example, for manyyears the Home Office sponsored and managed aprogramme of research essentially for the fire service,although occasionally also commissioning research insupport of policy. (Over the last 2-3 years this programmehas largely condensed into a programme of researchconcerned with the review of fire cover.)

3.2.12 However, the recent Independent Review of theFire Service recommended that the fire service should beable to draw on a programme of innovation, research, andhorizon scanning. This recommendation is likely to lead tothe recreation of arrangements for research not dissimilarto those that existed some years ago under the aegis ofthe Central Fire Brigades Advisory Council, when a rollingprogramme of research into matters such as the designand development of appliances, equipment (includingpersonal equipment) and uniform, fire servicemanagement and efficiency issues, communications, firebrigade operations, etc was undertaken. How this will beorganised and managed has yet to be decided, but it islikely to form part of the process of revitalisation of theFire Service College as a centre of fire serviceexcellence.

3.2.13 There is an essential requirement that if such acentre of excellence is established research competentpersons should lead and supervise activities in theresearch field. In the academic environment this would bea person of significant experience with at least a researchdoctorate. The process of research would itself alsorequire the verification normally applied in academia, iepeer group review and publication within scientificliterature.

3.3 An Insurer Perspective

3.3.1 Appreciating that enforced Government legislationcaters generally for the protection of life, the UK insuranceindustry has actively promoted additional riskmanagement and risk reduction measures to encouragethe implementation of sound property and businessprotection. Part of this risk reduction process is achievedby supporting relevant activities that in turn, underpin theproduction of key documents that promote good practiceand cover problematic areas not dealt with elsewhere.

3.3.2 Examples of these publications include the ‘LPC

Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations’ whichdescribes additional requirements over and aboveBS5306 (‘Fire extinguishing installations and equipmenton premises Part 2. Specification for sprinkler systems’)incorporated as a series of Technical Bulletins; and ‘TheLPC Design Guide for the Fire Protection of Buildings2000’ describing passive fire protection techniques formodern buildings. Additionally a plethora ofrecommendation documents also exist as a stand-aloneseries tackling a very diverse range of specific subjects.

3.3.3 One of the main advantages of this approach isthat these documents may be very quickly updated in thelight of new information and research; development ofnew fire protection and prevention technologies; and newbuilding practices and products. This is seldom the casefor BS; ISO and European publications, which by the verynature of their development require wider industry andregulatory consensus, a process, which is itself, timeconsuming.

3.3.4 This practice has served the insurance industrywell over the years but by definition these publications arehighly prescriptive in their approach, which is not inkeeping with the move to fire engineered solutions.

3.3.5 Problems do arise when insurers feeluncomfortable with the methodology used to protect orconstruct buildings. Insurers currently have an unfortunatesituation where finding insurance for some buildingconstructions and associated work practices is verydifficult and this will obviously impact upon the owner’sability to do business. These concerns are backed up bysome very large losses in recent years for which theinsurers have had to pay dearly.

3.3.6 To avoid potential problems in the future it will beimportant to seek the co-operation of the UK insuranceindustry during the development of fire engineeringmethods so that the end product is acceptable to allparties that it impacts upon.

3.3.7 The ABI commissioned a study into theimplications of fire engineering for insurers and thefindings are published in the ABI General InsuranceResearch Technical Briefing Note ‘Fire Safety Engineering(FSE): Guide for insurers’. The conclusions were asfollows:

• Fire safety engineered buildings tend to be prestigiousand thus large well-maintained risks. Hence, a reducednumber of fires are anticipated. However, the problemsof a large fire event remain a possibility.

• The small number of fire safety engineered buildingsand hence lack of experience makes estimation of lossdifficult. Greater use of engineered and hazard/consequence calculations will be required.

• Fire safety engineering is a highly specialised discipline.It is the application of scientific/engineering facts todesign. It requires extensive knowledge, data and firemodelling competency. In addition, the professionalqualification ‘chartered status’ and the ability tounderstand the criteria of the FSE study (i.e. life safetyand property conservation objects) are essential.

• Early participation by insurers at the design stagewhen applying fire safety engineering to buildingdesign will assist the client by ensuring that the finaldesign is acceptable to an insurer. Some features andarrangements may result in the building being deemeduninsurable.

• Quantification of FSE should consider the full period ofa possible fire event, from ignition to fireextinguishment, salvage and clean up, for designswhere property conservation is to be considered.

Location Fire Research User Community

Central Government ODPM- Building Regulations

Fire Service Research ProgrammeDTI Consumer SafetyHSE HSLMoD

Industry SectorInsuranceConstruction CompaniesFirefighting Vehicle Manufacturers AssociationFire Extinguisher Trade AssociationResidential Sprinkler AssociationBritish Fire Protection Systems AssociationBAFE

Risk MitigationMaterialsConstructionRetailTransportOil and gasEngineering andautomotiveEtc


• Conformance to the fire safety manual and ‘in use’management procedure (e.g. for ‘change of use’) willbe essential for the continuous acceptance by insurersof fire safety engineered buildings.

• An emphasis on simple and reliable fire protectionsolutions will be viewed favourably by insurers.

3.3.8 The additional business and property protectionmeasures requested by the insurance industry over andabove statutory life safety measures will obviously benefitGovernment also in assuring the robustness of UKbusiness against fire events and is a sound footing forfuture co-operation in FSE development.

3.3.9 Fire research provides a foundation for this addedbenefit of having a safer society and built environment.

3.4 Fire Protection and Detection Industries’ Perspective

3.4.1 The fire protection and detection industry is keento support the initiative to bring together the interestedparties concerned with utilising science and technologyto address ways and means to reduce the annual lossesof life and property through fire.

3.4.2 It is particularly in the area of applied researchwhere industry has an important role to play together withGovernment, research establishments and other keyparties. However, it is important that in any fundamentalresearch, consideration should be made for itsapplication. Equally, any applied research should have alink back into the fundamental principals. It is important ina framework to ensure there is close co-ordination orinterlinking between fundamental and applied research.

3.4.3 Ideas for target goals for the strategic frameworkinclude (this would also use the basis from the UKstatistics in developing these goals):

• Reduction in lives lost and injuries due to fire.

• Reduction in property lost due to fire.

• Improvements in the safety and construction ofbuildings.

• Reduction in the overall cost to the UK due to fireincluding associated costs due to aspects such asfalse alarms and arson etc.

• Improvements in passive and active systemsassociated with fire protection and prevention.

• Preservation of the environment.

3.4.4 The commercial aspects of companies within thefire industry, particularly related to fire research, need tobe considered. There will always be companies who carryout private and confidential research for the application ofexisting or new products in order to benefit the futurecommercial position of the company. It would be difficultto include such research within the framework due to theconfidential nature. However, within the strategicframework, there should be a link through the industrybodies and organisations such as Fire Industries Counciland British Fire Protection Services Association (BFPSA)in order to identify, stimulate debate and co-ordinate thedirection for fire research both in the fundamental and theapplied areas.

3.4.5 This co-ordination role through the industry bodycould also extend using the European industryassociations. In addition, consideration should be madefor the improvements in regulations. EU Directives andEuropean Norms (EN) have an increasing affect in allaspects of the fire and construction industry, not only thedesign of product and systems.

3.4.6 It is recognised that general public domainresearch is undertaken to establish or validate basic

principles and/or a general technical approach andsolutions. This is work done to provide the basis for settingof performance and approval standards. Private researchis also funded to provide specific, product based,solutions and to inform interest groups’ internal decisionmaking i.e. Association of British Insurers/Factory Mutual.Private research work in the recent past, which is notnecessarily related to publicly funded research, hascovered such topics as:

• Tunnels.• Explosion attenuation.• Hyperbaric chambers.• Room integrity testing.• Environmental aspects of fire fighting foams.• Sprinkler modelling.• Design fires.• Inerting systems.

3.4.7 Industry bodies, it is suggested, should also takea lead role in application type research. Two examplesare:

• The work that is being carried out right across the fireorganisations into the reduction of false alarms.

• The proposal with BFPSA on how a reduction in arsonmay be achieved by the application of fire detectionsystems.

3.4.8 Other commercial industries such as electronicsand health appear to commercially exploit fundamentaland applied research very successfully (for example newsilicon processes, information communicationstechnology and new drug treatments). There is a largefinancial/commercial drive by those industries but therecould, however, be something to learn with regards to howthe link works between research and application and weneed to develop a clear picture from an industryviewpoint.

3.4.9 At present there is no database that exists toindicate what may be going on elsewhere in our industryand throughout Europe,

3.4.10 The provision of means for the detection andattack of fire, without the need for reliance on humanintervention, can reduce the fire losses suffered annuallyby ‘Great Britain plc’; however, research is needed toensure that the fire detection and suppression modellingtools are available to those formulating the firemanagement strategies at national and local levels.

3.5 Fire Service Perspective

3.5.1 Chief and Assistant Chief Fire Officers Association

3.5.2 Fundamental and applied research enables thefire service in the UK to improve and extend servicedelivery to the community. The fire service has no realcapacity for fundamental research and has a limitedcapacity for applied research. CACFOA recognises thatsome fire research will be determined by commercialconsideration, however, the fire service would wish todetermine the direction of non-commercial research andplay a part in assisting with applied research whereappropriate. More direct reference to this need for appliedresearch is explained by CACFOA in the section relatingto Applied Research.

3.5.3 The Fire Service College

3.5.4 Whilst the College is not regarded as a researchinstitution, applied research is nevertheless undertakenon a regular basis by students as part of their studies,particularly at senior level. The topics researched aremainly related to fire service management andoperational procedures. The total time devoted to this type


of research effort represents a considerable resource. Itmay be possible to harness some of this effort within anational programme if one were to be established.

3.5.5 This work has a very variable impact, even in thefire service to which most of it is related. This is probablydue to the generally limited publication it enjoys and thelimited recognition it enjoys in academic circles. TheCollege has, however, made considerable efforts toprovide a wider audience for this and other fire relatedresearch through its quarterly technical publication ‘FireSafety Technology and Management’, available onsubscription, and the annual Fire Service CollegeResearch Event. The qualifications made earlier in thisreport, relating to supervision, peer review andpublication in wider scientific literature, are especiallyrelevant if the Fire Service College is to become a centreof excellence in fire research.

3.5.6 Falling under the heading of demand led, appliedresearch is also what might be described as informalresearch. That is to say without having beencommissioned or funded by any agency but beinginitiated within an organisation in response to changingdemands being placed on that organisation. While thisresearch may in reality be of value to the wider firecommunity, its initiation will probably be just to serve theimmediate needs of the organisation carrying it out.

3.5.7 An example of this was the Fire Service Collegewhich was faced, in the mid 1990’s, with an expectationthat they would teach practical fire risk assessmenttechniques to fire service students without there beingany established framework or any repository ofexperience available to them.

3.5.8 The College undertook to review the work whichhad been done on the subject of risk assessment, bothfire and non-fire related, both in the UK and internationally.From this work the College has developed the teaching ofthe theory and application of fire risk analysis andassessment.

3.5.9 In the event the most comprehensive workspecifically on fire risk assessment was identifiedoverseas and after being contextualised for UKapplication now forms the basis of teaching of thesubject.

3.5.10 While essential and urgent to support a need atthe time there are dangers in this informal and reactiveapproach. In the absence of any national co-ordination orrecord of research in progress the work may duplicate oroverlap with similar work being done by elsewhere.Additionally the results may remain ‘local’ to theorganisation doing the research, either because it is notformally published or is not recognised by Government.

3.5.11 In the specific area of fire risk analysis andassessment there is still no coherent methodology widelyaccepted in the fire service and even less acceptancethat an underpinning academic understanding of firebehaviour and the calculation of probability is required tounderpin an integrated risk management system.

3.5.12 Clearly a body of expertise on technical mattersas suggested by The Independent Review of the FireService College could act as a focus point for all fireservice related research and bring an appropriate level ofacademic appreciation to the challenges of managing ina modern technical profession provided it wasestablished as a research centre as outlined earlier in thisreport.

3.5.13 The Brigade Command Course, currently the mostsenior level of fire service officers’ development training inthe UK, is also co-ordinated and delivered by the Fire

Service College. Students on this course are required toconduct an international research project. Projects areexpected to be innovative, consistent with the interestsand stage of development of each individual and be ofrelevance to the sponsor brigade or the wider fire servicecommunity. Students frequently obtain degrees as a resultof their projects. Examples of recent Brigade CommandCourse international projects are given in Appendix 1.

3.5.14 The Fire Service College annual Research Eventprovides a forum for the discussion and dissemination ofresearch projects being carried out both within andwithout the service in relation to fire-related interests. Itwas initiated in 1996 with the broad aims of encouragingfurther research-informed policy and developing the linksbetween researchers and senior policy-makers.

3.5.15 The Research Event has evolved into a two-dayprogramme of presentation and discussions attractingboth British and international participants. Theserepresent the research interests of the fire service, the fireindustry, the research community and other areas of theprivate or public sectors with ‘safety critical’ concerns.The event provides an opportunity to discuss currentmethodologies and results of various types of researchfrom formal academic work at the level of Honours degreeprojects and above to empirical research of all kinds,project reports and reviews.

3.5.16 The event provides a unique opportunity as theonly fire-related research-based event of its kindencompassing interests as broad as behavioural studiesthrough to operational and highly theoretical modellingissues. It also provides an opportunity for dissemination ofthe research interests being pursued by candidates onthe Brigade Command Course. To date, however, theevent has remained relatively small, attracting around 60delegates each year, and organisers face an ongoingchallenge in identifying research-based activitiesthroughout the fire service and beyond for presentation.Part of the problem seems to be disseminatinginformation about the event through the communicationstructures within and outside of the service andchallenging the perception of the event as being forresearchers only rather than being of more universalrelevance.

3.5.17 A summary of papers presented at the ResearchEvent between 2000 and 2002 is included in Appendix 2.

3.6 Fire Experimental Unit

3.6.1 A major contribution to understanding fire-relatedmatters is made by the work undertaken by the FireExperimental Unit, which is located at the Fire ServiceCollege in Moreton-in-Marsh.

3.6.2 In planning for fire service interventions in fires,there are a number of implicit assumptions made by thefire protection industry about the fire service, and by thefire service about the design of the buildings where firesmay occur. These may be based on considerations, whichhave not stood the test of time.

3.6.3 Building design requirements assume, for example:

• A maximum height that the fire service can reach withladders. This is founded on equipment and practiceswhich are no longer used and would probably be ruledout on health and safety grounds today if they were.This assumption governs the maximum permittedheight of building before additional design features arerequired, purely on firefighting grounds.

• That firefighters can gain access through windows,even when modern designs can make this virtuallyimpossible.


• A maximum height at which the fire service canmaintain a reasonable firefighting jet, using dry risers.Even in those circumstances where high-pressurehosereel branches, which cannot be fed via dry risers,are not the preferred firefighting option, currentfirefighting practices require higher performancebranches, which, in turn, require higher operatingpressures.

3.6.4 A review of these considerations is under way buteven if changes to building design requirements wereagreed, it would be many years before the effect of thesechanges began to be felt.

3.6.5 Firefighting practices are based on the fireservice’s experience of tackling fires in existing buildingstock. However, building design is in a state of continuousevolution, and the introduction of new concepts offers thepotential for new hazards, or for existing occasionalhazards to become more likely. For example:

• Backdraught has always been a hazard but, as itrequires the presence of a fire in an oxygen-starvedcompartment, this was a very occasional event.However, as buildings become more airtight, thepotential for backdraught is increasing. Firefighters needassistance in eliminating the potential for such incidentsby good building design, in being able to identify thepotential for a backdraught behind a closed door, and inbeing able to defuse a backdraught where the potentialfor one has been identified.

• Much of building fire safety design is built around theconcept of standard size fires. These govern thecapacity of smoke clearance devices, the structuralintegrity of the building at a given time after a fire hasstarted, and the capacity of sprinkler systems to controlfires until the fire service can arrive. However, there arecertain types of occupancy where there is the potentialfor fires to be much larger than this standard.

• Building materials may have been designed for oneapplication, where they are considered safe from a fireservice point of view. However, their application in anew way may not be as safe, and the building designermay not have thought through the implications for thefire service.

• Where there has been an attempt to validate computermodelling of large-scale fires, it has been shown thatsuch models do not serve well as a predictive tool fornew circumstances. If a model has been designed toaccount for a specific set of circumstances, and hasbeen validated experimentally for these circumstances,it can serve to predict the consequences of smallvariation from the norm. Any model is only as good asthe simplifying assumptions which it employs, andconsiderable expertise is required to identify thesignificant parameters in specific circumstances. Itwould be a foolhardy designer who claimed that anovel design had been tested and found safe, basedon computer modelling alone.

3.6.6 The evolution of building design is always likely tobe faster than the evolution of firefighting equipment andtactics.

3.6.7 A particular building design in one part of thecountry may be acceptable on the basis that theproposed building is in the centre of a major conurbationand that, in the event of a fire, sufficient appropriateresources can be assembled relatively quickly. However,in another part of the country this may not be the case. Inrural areas, it may not be practicable to get more than asingle fire appliance to a fire within 20 minutes, and thebrigade may not even possess aerial appliances.

3.6.8 Where necessary, the building design should allowfor the likely arrival time of the fire service and theprobable weight of their initial attendance. Considerationneeds to be given to how fire safety measures can providethe additional protection to the occupants and thebuilding.

3.6.9 Traditionally, water damage and flame damage areheld to be the major causes of loss in fires. However,research indicates that smoke damage can equal orexceed these. Business continuity loss, whilst not a directfire loss, is now recognised as a potentially significantelement in any insurance claim. Where the life safety is nota factor, the fire service attempts to stop fire and smokespread, but there is the opportunity for greater co-operation between the fire service and the buildingoccupier, to identify key areas, and to allow for these inany firefighting plan.

3.6.10 The size of a fire, and the implications for lifesafety, can vary significantly between day and night.Where a building is not occupied at night, clearly the liferisk reduces but, conversely, the time to detect a fire willincrease, particularly where there is no automatic firedetection. Thus the fire may be larger by the time the fireservice arrives. However, the task facing the firstattendance will be that of tackling the fire, rather thanassisting people to escape from the building.Consideration needs to be given to whether the responsewould be reduced as the risk to life reduced, and theattendance time would become greater as resources arecommitted to areas of higher risk. Alternatively, the risk ofproperty loss may increase so that extra resources couldbe justified in cost-benefit terms.

3.7 Brigade Based Research

3.7.1 Much of the applied fire research carried outunder the auspices of fire brigades themselves tends tobe conducted by officers undertaking the Divisional andBrigade Command Courses detailed elsewhere in thisreport. Some work is, however, carried out ‘in-house’.Examples of research carried out within brigades aregiven in Appendix 3.

3.8 Research in Higher and Further Education

3.8.1 Fire Engineering or Fire Safety Engineering isbeing taught at several Universities within the UnitedKingdom. Without exception, these Institutions areresearch led and the teaching is firmly linked to theresearch activities of the respective institutions. Theprojects range from what may be perceived to be highlyspeculative and academic through to topics which aremore clearly related to practical issues, such as‘Suppression’, ‘Mitigation of Backdraught’, etc. Inevitably,the spread of research topics is highly diverse and canbest be summarised by listing research topics which havebeen carried out recently by final year fire engineeringstudents who have been studying at these institutions.These are shown in Appendix 4, listed under theassociated University. These are supervised by academicstaff and in many cases Research Fellows and studentsstudying for their doctorates. In other words, they arecarrying out their research in a research environment.

3.8.2 Fire Research is carried out in a number ofInstitutions which are not running Fire Engineering DegreeCourses. These are almost too numerous to mention, butthe most prominent are Heriot Watt University, Universityof Sheffield, University of Manchester, University ofSalford, Bolton Institute and University of Aston. Theexistence of these pockets of activity are a reminder ofthe role that Fire Research Station and the BuildingResearch Establishment played many years ago when


they sponsored research at these Institutions. They arehighly dependent on the presence of key personnel manywhom are sadly approaching retirement. Only a few willcontinue to be involved with this work in the future.

3.8.3 Perhaps the most satisfactory way of identifyingthe research activities at the various Universities is to listrecent PhD theses which have been published. Such a listis contained in Appendix 5. An alternative way to reviewthe current activities would be to search for recentpublications of relevant individuals. This may be carriedout by accessing University web sites which frequently listthe publications of members of staff.

4. International Overview 4.1 Fire Research has been active on an internationalscale since the early 1950s. It was spearheaded by nationallaboratories such as the Fire Research Station (UK), theNational Institute of Standards & Technology (formerly theNational Bureau of Standards) (USA) and the Fire andBuilding Research Institutes of Japan. Internationalcollaboration naturally followed and was formalised in the1980s by the formation of the International Association forFire Safety Science (IAFSS). This international bodyorganises a symposium every three years attended by 300-350 delegates. Around 25 nations are represented and theextent of the research covered is wide and its quality,ensured by the peer-review of papers published, high. Themembership of the organisation represents an internationalresource ready to be tapped as and when necessary. TheUK has been a prime mover in the establishment of theIAFSS providing, for example, the first and current Chairmen.

4.2 The IAFSS is the only formal association of fire researchscientists, although there are several events taking place on asemi-regular basis that draw the community together. Theseinclude the Interflam series of conferences and workshopsorganised under CIB W14. These events are usually wellattended and reveal the strength of the internationalcommunity in fire research. There is very little internationalfunding apart from the occasional project supported throughthe European Union. International collaboration used to becommon with government supported fire researchlaboratories. Such collaboration allowed very large projects tobe carried out, for example, the study of compartment firebehaviour carried out under the auspices of CIB W14 in the1960s. There is still a need for such work, but thecommercialisation of all these laboratories virtually precludesthis type of collaborative work at the present time.

4.3 The Institution of Fire Engineers is also active at aninternational level providing a forum for exchange in theapplied research area. Around 12,000 individuals in 20generally English-speaking countries are involved. Symposiaand international meetings are frequently held to enablereviewers and researchers to promulgate information.Attendance at these events can be significant, 400 peoplefor example to consider operational studies, or limited to lessthan 100, for example to review risk-based fire cover.Although the Institution has an established EngineeringCouncil Division and registers academics and charteredengineers there are few active linkages between essentiallyengineer practitioners and research scientists.

4.4 The International Organisation for Standardisation(ISO) with strong UK support and under UK Chairmanshiphas also taken the lead in advancing the need for morescientifically robust fire safety standards in support of thepractice of Fire Safety Engineering. This requirement hasbeen brought into particularly sharp focus by the collapse ofthe World Trade Centre. ISO TC92 has developed aframework for the development of new standards that makea strong demand for the needs for fundamental fire research.

5. European Overview 5.1 The main source of funding for research from theEuropean Commission is through the Framework Programmemanaged by EC DG Research. First calls for work under the6th Framework Programme (FP6) were made in late 2002.FP6 will last for 4 years with a budget of 16 Billion Euros.

5.2 To assist DG Research in finalising its priorities for FP6it invited submissions of ‘Expressions of Interest’.Unfortunately, this exercise was probably too successful andsome 14 000 were submitted, making it an impossible taskfor EC experts to even scan these never mind take anydecisions on them other than on a macro scale.

5.3 Amongst the Expressions of Interest submitted werethose in support of Fire Safety Engineering from the FireResearch Station, European Fire Research Network(EFIRES), University of Ulster, European Fire EngineeringResearch Network (EUROFERN), The Warrington FireResearch lead Consortium on The Potential Benefits of FireSafety Engineering in the European Union Group (BeneFEU).In addition, there had been frequent attempts to drawattention to the importance of fire research, particularly insupport of performance-based regulation (through, forexample, European Network of Building Research Institutes(ENBRI) and European Council for Construction Research,Development and Innovation (ECCREDI). ECCREDI’srecommendation, led by the UK, that the EC fund a cohesivefire research programme that would cross industrial sectorboundaries was published in the Final Report of the ECResearch Directorate’s Targeted Research Action onConstruction Technologies.1

5.4 Despite these actions, fire safety has not been cateredfor in the identified priorities for FP6. Whilst fire safety intransport could be identified within the transport section, themajor sector of fire safety in buildings could not. Indeed inthe 40 pages identifying the priorities there was no clearlyidentified section on ‘construction’, the nearest being ‘newproduction processes and devices’ under priority 1.1.3‘Nanotechnologies and nanosciences, knowledge basedmultifunctional materials and new production processes anddevices’. However this was targetted at more “blue skies”research priorities rather than those needed to support firesafety engineering.

5.5 Bearing these points in mind the clear advice from DGResearch to the European fire community has been to submitone very large project covering all interests of Europe, pureresearch, applied research, networking etc.

5.6 DG Research has indicated they are looking for a(relatively) small number of very large projects to fund (25million euros +). It was suggested that in the fire area a single‘Integrated Project’ was prepared and this could form anumbrella for smaller pan European research projects (bothpure and applied) and also Network activities betweennational centres of excellence covering similar areas.

5.7 Another Directorate of the EC, DG Enterprise, whichco-ordinates construction aspects and organises meeting ofnational fire regulators does recognise the need for researchbut has very limited funds for small projects. DG Enterpriserecognises importance of developing fire safety engineeringas the underpinning science for performance basedregulations. In pursuance of this it funded a projectundertaken by a pan European Consortium lead byWarrington Fire Research on the ‘Benefits of fire safetyengineering in the EU’ (BeneFEU). One of the

_____1 ECCREDI Final Report. TRA-EFCT Fire Cluster,

December 2001


recommendations of the BeneFEU project2 was the need forresearch to be undertaken to support fire safety engineering.Initially it was hoped that DG Enterprise might be able toinfluence the 2nd call for projects under FP6 to include aspecial project relating to fire (under priority 8), however thishas not yet proved to be possible. One of the delayingfactors is the commitment from national fire regulators to thisaction. The UK regulator has already indicated its supportand it is hoped others will follow.

5.8 In the light of these factors it is not certain if it iscurrently worthwhile to develop a submission under thecurrent FP6 programme for the following reasons:

• There is very good communication between fireresearchers within the EU (and beyond) so co-ordinating and developing a proposal can be done, butit would be a very time consuming activity and, withoutany indication of priority for the topic from the EC, noorganisation has the resources it is prepared to risk toco-ordinate such an activity and develop a proposal.

• Current wording of the priorities do not indicate firesafety would be favourably received without politicalpressure being placed on DG Research, either directlyor through DG Enterprise, or the European Parliament.(The Forum for construction in the EuropeanParliament, FOCOPE, has been informed of therecommendations of the BeneFEU project).

5.9 It is suggested that, in the short term, UK efforts areconcentrated on influencing DG Research, through thepolitical routes open to HMG and together with Europeancolleagues through European Trade Associations.

_____2 BeneFEU Report, The potential benefits of fire safety

engineering in the EU, July 2002


6. Outcomes 6.1 Fundamental research is needed to enable Fire SafetyEngineering (FSE)1 to be applied effectively and withconfidence to the design of buildings in the United Kingdom.In May 1995 the DoE Construction Sponsorship Directoratepublished a document entitled ‘A Research Strategy for theFire Safety Engineering Design of Buildings’. That documentwas developed with advice from BRE/FRS, Home Office,Health & Safety Executive, university and industryrepresentatives. The industrial representatives includedArup, BAA and LPC. The document identified a ten-yearprogramme of research needed to enable fire safetyengineering methods to be applied effectively to the designof buildings in the UK. The programme was neverimplemented and the research identified at the time is noweven more urgently needed. The IFRG document brings thatreport up to date taking account of progress since 1995 andis reproduced within Annex B.

6.2 That there are now many fire engineering tools in use istestament to the substantial scientific progress that wasmade during 50 years of Government-sponsored fireresearch. However, much more is needed if the full potentialof FSE is to be exploited, since without a scientifically robustengineering discipline, there will remain uncertainties andrisks in the exploitation of performance-based regulations.Fire research is a crucial stage in the development of FSEeffectively underpinning the discipline and the FSE toolscurrently in use.

7. The Challenge 7.1 There are, however, observed weaknesses. Forexample, there is a need to introduce the probabilisticelement so that functional requirements may be set in explicitterms. Analytical methods need to be developed whichintegrate deterministic and probabilistic parts of the designso that the life risk can be assessed for multi-cell buildings.

7.2 It is essential that the UK remain at the forefront ofdevelopments to exploit the freedoms, which the regulationsalready provide in principle, and to allow those providingconsultancy services to compete with service providers fromoverseas.

7.3 Setting up, co-ordinating and monitoring a programmeof research with precisely defined aims and relatedtimescales is essential if FSE is to reach maturity where itcan be used with confidence for the design of buildings.

7.4 It is therefore important to take into account relatedwork being undertaken internationally. FSE research needsto be co-ordinated on an international basis to ensure thatgaps are filled and unnecessary duplication is avoided. TheUK is well placed in this regard being prominent withinIAFSS, ISO, FORUM, CIB etc. but many of UK contributionsare overly dependent on work done in the past byresearchers who are either retired, or within a few years ofretirement. FSE is therefore vulnerable.

7.5 In particular, each sub-system component of the FSEFramework (BS 7974) provides guidance on how a range ofparameters may be evaluated but some elements are notwell founded in research terms. For example, the sub-systemfor Initiation and development of fire states how the followingcan be evaluated as time proceeds: heat release rate, smokeproduction rate, carbon monoxide production rate, roomtemperature, time to flashover, area of fire involvement, andflame size.

7.6 Each sub-system requires inputs and providesoutputs. An output from one sub-system may be the input toanother sub-system. This is a critical factor in determiningfuture research.

7.7 The research requirements within each of thesecomponents were presented in the original DoE Documentand are summarised in Table 1. They are also in updatedform in Annex B.

7.8 Any fundamental research programme needs to bebuilt up from these components. All must eventually bebrought into maturity for FSE to be robust in itself, since FSEcalls on the integrated outputs from the differentcomponents. These different topic areas can be advancedand applied and linked with other areas on a developingbasis. The strategy to be adopted must therefore:

• fill more urgent knowledge gaps in component areaswhere immediate applications can be made toadvance FSE development; and

• develop longer term research where there is a lack ofwell founded knowledge which is needed to supportthe later years of the programme of integration andapplication.

7.9 However, it must also be recognised that the researchareas are very different in their complexity, the disciplines onwhich they call, and the data that must be available tosupport them. It also presupposes that it is known where FSEis ‘insecure’ and where the research is required. There areareas where there is no underpinning research, or where it issuspected that the research is questionable. In thesesituations it is obvious that research must be carried out, butthere is a danger that where the underpinning research isperceived to be satisfactory, it will be assumed that furtherinvestigation is not required.

7.10 Finally, on the question of costs to improvefundamental research at a UK level, the estimate in 1999 wasaround £12 million over 3 years. That is less than 0.2% of theUK fire losses.

_____1One Definition of Fire Safety Engineering

The International Standards Technical report on Fire SafetyEngineering (ISO TR 13387-1) defines it as:

'The application of engineering principles, rules and expertjudgement based on a scientific understanding of the firephenomena, of the effects of fire, and of the reaction andbehaviour of people, in order to:

• save life, protect property and preserve theenvironment and heritage;

• quantify the hazards and risk of fire and its effects;and

• evaluate analytically the optimum protective andpreventative measures necessary to limit, withinprescribed levels, the consequences of fire.'

Section B: Fundamental Research


• To understand the processes whichdetermine the initiation and growth of fire atthe internal (and external) surfaces ofbuildings and to identify the materialproperties which contribute to theseprocesses.

• To develop suitable methods for measuringkey material properties which contribute tothe determination of fire development.

• To develop methods for predicting fire spreadfrom the first item ignited and hence initialgrowth rates for fires developing withinspaces.

• To understand the processes contributing tofire spread in ducts and cavities (includingcorridors and staircases) and to developpredictive methods.

• To develop methods for predicting the rate ofproduction of smoke and combustionproducts from burning contents and buildingfabric.

• To provide validated models for the predictionof the movement of hot and cool smoke bothwithin and outside the space containing thefire of origin, and hence to provide methodsof smoke control in order to allow occupantsto escape and the fire to be fought.

• To establish methods for assessing thetenability of atmospheres containing productsof combustion.

• To develop an improved basis for design toensure that fully developed fires are containedwithin the compartment of origin.

• To develop improved and well validatedmethods of predicting the response ofstructures to fire.

• To identify the characteristics of detectorsystems of different types and provideguidance to designers on their reliability,including non-availability and false alarmgeneration, and application.

• To develop new forms of detector andassociated systems and investigate theintegration of fire detection and alarmsystems with systems serving other buildingservices.

• To provide guidance on the optimum locationof detectors for particular applications.

• To develop an improved understanding of theinteraction of water sprays and mists withfire, and as a consequence, to provideguidance on the design of systems tailoredto specific needs, and the level of heat outputand the nature of combustion products fromsprinklered fires.

• To develop improved technical guidance forthe design of smoke control systems.

• To provide guidance on the interaction ofsprinklers with smoke layers and on itsimplications for evacuation and for the designof active fire protection systems.

• To develop models to allow the estimation ofthe time taken to evacuate a building in theevent of fire and to provide data necessaryfor the application of such models.

• To provide data on UK buildings (includingoccupancy and contents) which is needed forfire safety design.

• To provide data on the effects of fire and fireproducts on people, and their ability toescape.

• To provide data on the performance ofbuildings and building components and thebehaviour of people in fires, and the factorswhich influence fire initiation, growth andspread, based upon both the directinvestigation and the analysis of recordeddata concerning real fire occurrences.

• To develop methods for integrating thevarious components of the fire safety systemin order to allow the risks associated withparticular design choices to be evaluated.

• To identify the characteristics of human andparticularly firefighting intervention by the fireservice and other persons, evaluatingperformance and application to reduceenvironmental damage, improve intervention,equipment and techniques.

• To investigate human behaviour in firesituations interviewing survivors and throughevaluation of observed evacuation under trialconditions, to develop improved education,modelling and design applications.

• To improve fire investigation into materials,structures and human behaviour to generallyaid fire research.

FSE Component

AimsFSE Component

Aims

Fire initiationanddevelopment

Combustionproducts andsmokemovement

Passive fireprotection

Detection

Active fireprotectionsystems.

Evacuation

Characteristicdata

Fire statisticsandinvestigation

Riskassessment

The impact ofpeople on fire

TABLE 1 - a summary of proposed areas for future fundamental fire research.


8. A Fire Service View 8.1 The list of applied research categories identified in theMethodology section above includes ‘risk management’.CACFOA considers it may be better to identify this asintegrated risk management, ensuring that risk managementin all its fire service applications is included.

8.2 Whilst human behaviour is included in the list offundamental research, its importance should be alsoincluded within the list of applied research. Indeed a numberof fire services are beginning to gather data on humanbehaviour and would be keen to see wider support. There ismuch of practical benefit to learn from applied research intothis subject.

8.3 The Independent Review of the Fire Service Report (inparagraph 7.5) suggests ‘the fire service requires a body ofexpertise on technical matters and business processeswhich can indulge in theoretical [the Task Group would usethe term ‘fundamental’] and applied research on new waysof delivering the service’s objectives.’ Clearly this has asignificant synergy with discussions on fire research. If sucha body were to be set up, it would be an ideal way ofbringing some structure and focus to the process of definingand delivering the fire service research needs, takingaccount of the wider fire safety engineering research needsagenda. Given the close working relationship envisagedbetween brigades and this future body, properly co-ordinated, the capacity of the UK Fire Services to supportthis kind of research would be improved.

8.4 The development of the integrated fire riskmanagement approach within the Home Office, Departmentof Transport Local Government and the Regions (DTLR) andnow the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) hasbeen following a structured and scientific approach. TheIndependent Review report recommends that ODPM issuethe necessary guidance to implement a risk based approachto fire cover as a matter of urgency. Whilst the principles ofthe integrated risk management approach are wellunderstood and supported, it is clear that there is little in the

way of objective evidence to provide the basis for balancingthe role of fire safety education, fire safety (protection) andoperational resources. In preparing the proposed FireAuthority Integrated Risk Management Plans, pragmaticdecisions will be made, using the judgement, against that thecriteria that any (proposed) arrangements are ‘clearly better’.However as such plans come under greater audit andscrutiny in the future, the need for objective evidence ofeffectiveness will grow. It is suggested, therefore, thatresearch be undertaken into the effectiveness of fire safetyenforcement programmes and fire safety educationcampaigns and their effect on reducing the demand foremergency intervention, to better inform decision makersallocating resources and preparing future plans.

9. An Insurer’s View 9.1 This section aims to describing current insurer practicein the funding of fire research in the UK. Additionalinformation is given in respect of the insurer’s standpoint onthe management and presentation of derived information.

9.2 Historically the Association of British Insurers (ABI) hasallocated an annual budget on behalf of its members topursue fire related research with an aim to mitigating loss.More recently the responsibility for collecting and allocatingthis funding has been passed to the Fire ProtectionAssociation (FPA). Where applicable the FPA is keen toexplore opportunities to co-fund projects with otherorganisations to fulfil its commitments to finding cost-effective research solutions; subject to insurer’s agreement.

9.3 Under a lead panel of the biggest UK insurers and FPAan Insurer Fire Research Strategy Group (InFiReS) has beenestablished. Three principal steering groups have beenformed under InFiReS to manage the review and researchprocess:

• Active• Passive• Process

Current Deliverables

InFiReS

ActiveSteeringGroup

PassiveSteeringGroup

Ad-hoccross overWorkingGroup

ProcessSteering Group

Deliverables:LPC Rules for Automaticsprinkler installations• Technical Bulletin

development• Technical Bulletin

maintenance• Relevant representation• Experimental project

support

Deliverables:LPC recommendationseries• Development• Maintenance

Deliverables:LPC Design Guide for theFire Protection ofBuildings 2000• Development• Relevant representation• Experimental project

support

Section C: Applied Research Outcomes


9.4 Each steering group comprises insurance experts inthese fields supplemented by additional bought-in expertiseas required. Manufacturers and lobby groups do not formpart of the membership although pre-publication copies ofdeliverables are distributed widely for comment in therelevant industry prior to release. Insurers intend many ofthe outputs for their use only.

9.5 To help illustrate this process the key deliverables ofeach of these groups is as shown above, however manyother topics are covered and allocated as required:

9.6 Project proposals designed to assist the insurancesector usually stem from:

• Observed market trends (FPA manages the insurancestatistics database).

• Insurer and surveyor experiences.

• Changes in building construction techniques andmaterials.

• New fire prevention and protection technologies.

• Changes in political policy.

• Changes in environmental policy.

9.7 These proposals are categorised as shown inAppendix 6 with preference being placed on projects thatmay mitigate problems before they manifest themselves inthe market place (Predictive projects). A list of topicsundertaken is shown in Appendix 7.

9.8 The work conducted by the 3 management steeringgroups is underpinned by insurer representation on keystandards bodies. Much of the research work is tabled atthese meetings in support of insurer requirements and isoften some of the best quality and best-funded workavailable. The current groups supported by the insurers areshown in Appendix 8. Influencing research using theseworking groups, since they do not commission researchdirectly, is a key feature of the representation.

9.9 Often the outputs from experimental investigations arehighly technical and do not describe in generic terms therelevant issues to the end user. For this reason the‘translation’ of outputs is a key deliverable; there being nopoint in doing the work if the envisaged end user cannotmake use of it.

9.10 Typically the work will be presented in a number offormats including:

• Technical scientific papers for presentation atappropriate forums.

• Insurer research reports highlighting specificimplications to the insurance business.

• Surveyor reports for in-field interpretation.

• Guidance notes for public use to help meet insurerrequirements.

9.11 In the reporting of information it is vital to consider allof the legal implications involved especially where specificproducts of manufacturers are involved. Insurers are keento reward sound fire protection and prevention practice andthis inevitably leads to favouring particular buildingconstruction and fire fighting systems. History shows thatthis can impact enormously on a company’s business andnot surprisingly they may be keen to undertake legalproceedings to level the playing field in which theycompete. The costs of defending (or just dealing) with thesesituations may easily outstrip the cost of the originalresearch and the associated delays in publications meansimportant information is often delivered very late to the endusers.

10. A Fire Engineer’s View 10.1 There has been a natural and inevitable developmentin FSE moving away from the prescriptive based codeswhich have proved to be too restrictive for large modernbuildings and structures. More and more frequently, theprescriptive based approach required relaxations to bepermitted, which were accepted on the basis of qualitativeor poorly defined quantitative arguments. FSE provides aframework for the logical alternative in which engineeringanalysis is used to demonstrate compliance with fire safetyrequirements. As an engineering discipline, FSE is youngand much closer to the research by which it is underpinned.Unlike the established engineering disciplines, there is stillan essential need for a highly active dialogue between thepractitioners and the researchers. For this reason, FSE willwither on the vine unless the roots of fire research are wellnourished.

10.2 FSE encompasses a wide scope of activities including:

• fire hazard identification (requiring a fundamentalunderstanding of the fire process);

• fire detection and alarm (combined with anunderstanding of human behaviour under fire andemergency conditions);

• the fire safety design of large complex structures; and

• issues relating to the control and extinction of fire(normally associated with the activities of the fireservices).

In the engineering approach to fire safety, these cannotbe considered in isolation, each one having an influence onall of the other parts of the fire safety system.

10.3 Much of the current fire ‘research’ in the UK wouldmore properly be classified as ‘testing’ or ‘investigation’,carried out by manufacturers and suppliers who have verydifferent objectives. It is conducted on an ad hoc, short-termbasis, free of the responsibility of having to consider publicsafety. There has been considerable growth in researchdesigned to satisfy international standards, but the resultsremain confidential and have been obtained with therestricted view of product development. The work oforganisations such as the Loss Prevention Council and othertesting laboratories fall into the same category of“commercial in confidence”, and although individualprojects may provide useful insights into fire behaviour, theperformance of materials, and the effectiveness of fireprotection systems, the results are not in the public domain.

10.4 There is a serious danger that fire policy will bedeveloped on the basis of work carried out in the “marketplace” rather than being underpinned by research that hasbeen subjected to the full process of academic rigour andpeer review. This must be avoided at all costs and seriousconsideration be given to the development of a broadstrategic and proactive approach to underpinning Fire SafetyEngineering for the whole of the UK.

11. The Challenge 11.1 Applied research requires the underpinning scienceidentified in the fundamental research section of this report.It also requires a close understanding between researchersand practitioners to enable empirical and engineeredsolutions to be developed, their performance in use reportedand improvements quantified.

11.2 Fire safety engineering can only make its realcontribution if applied research is conducted within anenvironment that matches the rigour and quality offundamental research. The avoidance of misunderstandings


and adoption of the holistic concept of a fire community ofshared interests is the most important feature of this work.The example of Sweden, where students for the fire serviceand industry are educated at one university, indicates oneoption in bridging the gap created by language and differentinitial disciplines. In the UK we need to urgently address theissues and close the gap in our joint learning andknowledge. Table 2 provides some insight into the importantthe issues discussed in this area.

12.Summary 12.1 The Task Group welcomes the current incorporation offire research information resources into the new Governmentwebsite. It was important, however, that information, heldrespectively by industry, academia and the Government, bebetter integrated. Some bibliographic errors had arisen andaccuracy needed to be improved on the website.Professionals, and the public, need to be able to access acommon network database and development of the currentwebsite would be helpful.

12.2 The integrity of fire research in the UK contexthighlighted the requirement to work through Government to

obtain the essential funding. The strategic purpose outlinedby the Task Group in the task analysis and the earlier reviewof fundamental research illustrated the need for anoverarching body to co-ordinate efforts.

12.3 The accessibility of the language used in reports isalso an important consideration. The insurance industry hadfound that certain research findings needed to be written upin various forms, with differing levels of technical detail andlanguage, depending on the intended audience. The TaskGroup supported this view, adding that care should be takento ensure that documents placed on any network werewritten in such a way as to be readily understandable bynon-specialists. The Task Group accepted that researcherswere not always the correct people to write the finaldocuments. ‘Translation’ was therefore recognised as a keyto future success.

12.4 The Task Group agreed on the importance ofstakeholders from the varying sectors sharing data. Whilst itwas accepted that publishing the findings of commerciallyconducted research remained the prerogative of the projectclient efforts should be made to encourage the sharing ofinformation. Even if owners of certain data choose not tomake it generally available, a record stating that the research

• Comparable measures of prescriptivesolutions.

• Material components performance.• Regulatory approaches desired to satisfy

requirements.• To measure the effectiveness of emergency

intervention.• To understand the factors affecting speed

and weight of emergency responses.• To assess the value of measuring outcomes

against inputs - What effects are theintervention responses having?

• To identify and evaluate the impact ofoffensive and defensive firefighting strategies.

• To devise Strategic Risk Assessments - Whatis the risk to society?

• To assess the societal tolerability of risk fromfire.

• The identification of effective risk-reduction(non-intervention) strategies.

• To establish the effectiveness of fire safetyenforcement and fire safety educationactivities in reducing the need for operationalintervention.

• Information Technology - How can access toservice users be improved upon?

• To identify effective information sharing anddatabase options.

• To track the levels of risk of fire againsttechnological advances in detection andautomatic protection.

• To develop methods of evaluating trade-offsbetween various active and passive fireprotection methods.

• To understand the performance of traditionalforms of construction under actual fireconditions.

• To analyse fires in historic buildings with aview to identifying particular risk factors.

• To identify new fire protection techniques,technologies and systems that can be appliedto historic buildings with minimaldisturbance to the building fabric.

• Establishment of the true environmentalimpacts of fire related incidents.

• To assess the effects of fire service activitieson the natural environment.

• To risk assess the environmental effects ofintervention against non-intervention in firesituations.

• To identify the strategic personnelmanagement needs of fire authorities.

• To identify suitable recruitment, assessmentand development strategies.

• To identify the public administrationrequirements of principal managers withinfire authorities.

• To assess the personal protective equipmentneeds of firefighting personnel.

• To find and evaluate safe systems of work forfire services - the identification of bestpractice.

• To measure the value of employee/employerco-operation in effective risk control.

Applied Research Component Aims Standards

Applied Research Component Aims Standards

Fire ServiceResponse

RiskManagement

Fire ServiceTechnology

HeritageProtection

EnvironmentalManagement

ManagementSciences

IndustrialProtection

TABLE 2 - a summary of proposed areas for future applied fire research.


has been carried out should exist in order to avoidunnecessary duplication of work.

12.5 The Fire Engineering Research Network (FERN) wouldbe aware of all fire related research carried out byuniversities. Identifying research carried out by commercialindustry (or even universities on behalf of commercialindustries) was recognised as more problematic.

12.6 The Task Group agreed that each specific community(fire, building standards, insurers, protection systems, etc)should be responsible for maintaining awareness of theresearch emanating from their own area and then bringingthis information to a central point.

12.7 Initially this central point should be theInterdepartmental Fire Research Group, which hadestablished a discussion forum amongst part of the firecommunity. Extending this forum was therefore a keycomponent of achieving an integrated UK fire researchplatform.


13.Discussion 13.1 Task Group members considered the examples andillustrations offered in terms of current activities about bothfundamental and applied fire research. They expressed theviewpoint that in many areas activities undertaken as fireresearch did not have the rigour and sustainability appliedby academic institutions and in many areas did not advancethe knowledge of life safety fire science. What was neededwas long-term funding for well-targeted research intofundamental aspects of fire science.

13.2 There was clearly a weakness of translation ofacademic research into working practices. It was clear thatpractitioners in particular had a great deal to contribute andit was essential a process of two-way communication,through which both the researchers and the practitionerscontributed understanding to the body of knowledge, wasrequired. There was also a view that collaborative researchwas not well represented in the review that had beenundertaken. Examples existed of independent organisationsconducting their own research, whilst others might beworking within the same field. The concept of jointdevelopment of research programmes did not appear to bewell established.

13.3 A further illustration of the difficulties now confrontingfire research was the diminution of those resources thatallowed research to be undertaken. A prime and recentexample here was the capability for large-scale tests, whichwas shortly to be lost with the removal of the CardingtonResearch Laboratories.

13.4 Whilst understandably a high level emphasis had to beplaced on life safety, the fundamentals of fire scienceapplied to this and the much broader level of application.

13.5 The consensus view of the Task Group was that it wasimportant to go through the process of mapping the variousresearch being undertaken with the objective of providingstructural mechanisms, which might better engage widerpartnerships in the management of fire research.

13.6 Effectively there was a need to expose expertise to awider audience and the illustrative examples gave evidenceof common concerns as well as showing the diversity ofactivity. The existing initiatives, such as the Inter-Departmental Fire Research Group and the Fire EngineeringResearch Network, helped provide some mechanism. Butthis was too limited and did not involve the wider industrialsector. If fire safety engineering was to move away fromprescriptive codes towards the creation of a life safetyenvironment that could support wider sustainablecommunities, then further scientific research work needed tobe undertaken.

14. A Suggested Approach 14.1 The Task Group discussed a number of approachesthat might achieve the desired integration of fire safetyscience. The concept that emerged was that of a FireResearch Academy. A conceptual rather than physical reality,this body would draw together the wide range of intereststhat the review had illustrated already exist. This Academywould provide direction for UK fire research, helping identifyconsensual priorities for fundamental research, whilstproviding a supportive mechanism to integrate that researchwithin the UK. Its objectives would be to help develop aprogramme of fire research, which had the broadest level ofconsensus. It would act as a review and motivational

influence that would innovate and provide the sort of qualityassurance that is needed within fire research.

14.2 A key part of the Academy’s objective would becommunication. This communication would both seek toinform those within and outside the fire research world of thevalue and contribution made by fundamental research and itwould also seek to engender understanding of theimportance of fire safety engineering. The work alreadyundertaken by FERN and the Inter-Departmental Group haslaid some of the foundations needed by such a ResearchAcademy.

14.3 The Task Group’s conclusion was that the ResearchAcademy would then be able to help draw together thepartnered working and collaborative working required tosustain a UK fire research programme. It was the consensusview that without such a mechanism fire research within theUK would decline still further and that UK fire would beunable to make its fullest contribution to fire research on aglobal scale. More importantly the belief existed amongst allTask Group members that, without fundamental fireresearch, significant dangers existed within currentaccepted fire safety engineering practices and theunderpinning science, which made fire safety engineeringless positive than had originally been contended.

Section D: The Way Forward


Appendix 1

Brigade Command Course International Projects

Mobilising the community: forging links, adding value,bringing volunteers into the fire service to makecommunities safer.

Funding the future: an exploration of the methods usedby public fire services to generate additional income.

The price is right? An investigation examining theprocurement of goods and services in the fire service:-What is best value and how can you recognise it

The generic firefighter - a realistic proposition? Aninvestigation into the application of the competenceframework to the part-time fire service within the UK.

Domestic fire sprinklers - who needs them?

Developing a safe community - which way forward

Aerial appliance fire cover: case studies of deploymentby fire brigades.

Operational incidents can be measured too!

‘Role call’: a comparative study of the purpose and roleof Station Commanders in England and Denmark.

Empowerment in the fire service fact or fiction.

An assessment of international fire fighting tactics invery large single storey buildings.

Redressing the balance - improving the service: a studyof methods of recruitment and retention of women inthe UK fire service.

Firefighter to Chief Fire Officer in the 21st century: factor fallacy.

2000-01

Reading the riot act: reducing the risk to firefighters atcivil disturbances.

An evaluation of the role of the United Kingdom fireservice in international search and rescue operations.

Community planning: the effective involvement andengagement of local fire fighters, local communities andother agencies working together to reduce the risk fromfire and other emergencies.

Meaningful public consultation in the fire serviceappearance or reality? A study into the nature of fireservice consultation with the general public and itsimpact on the decision making process.

Specialist or generic? A research project to considerwhether UK firefighters should become morespecialised in their operational duties.

The wind of change: a study investigating theimplementation strategies and usage of positivepressure ventilation in the United Kingdom fire services.

Community fire safety: effective outreach. Influencingthe lifestyles, attitudes and behaviour of the ‘hard toreach’ so as to reduce their level of risk from fire.

First line equipment for a diverse workforce.

Are the fire service discipline regulations stillappropriate for controlling conduct in the modernisedfire service.

Employing women firefighters: critical success factors.

Community planning: the effective involvement andengagement of local fire fighters, local communities andother agencies working together to reduce the risk fromfire and other emergencies

Responding to offshore marine incidents is safetycompromised

Influencing the European agenda.

Assessment for development: a study of assessment aspart of an integrated strategy for development andprogression in the UK fire service.

Improved calculation of firefighting water-flowrequirement - the key to strategic management of firehydrant provision.

Developing situation awareness for structuredcommand in the UK fire services.

2001-02


The role of carpets in domestic fires.

Practical fire trials to assess the effects of positivepressure ventilation on single storey domestic dwellings.

Essential Fire Data Analysis for Informed BrigadeManagement.

Fire Service Emergency Cover Review - update onprogress.

The effectiveness of smoke alarm policy.

Child behaviour in fire.

Safety and effectiveness of acetylene cylinderprocedures.

Life safety sprinkler systems.

The efficiency of Fast Suppression Units.

Performance trials of commercially available smokedetectors for the protection of shipboard electronicscabinets.

Enhancing emergency preparedness through theapplication of Strategic Management tools.

The creation of swirling fire plumes - initial results.

Fires in commercial premises: probability data.

Anthropometry and its application to PPE.

2000

Critical/Crisis Management .

Fire Risk Management.

A comparative study of the ways in which men andwomen approach firefighting.

The fire resistance of medium-rise timber framebuildings.

Best Practice for the use of CFD Software to SimulateFires.

Managing a Modernised Fire Service - the contributionof stakeholder theory.

Stress debriefing for firefighters.

The effectiveness of PPV by the use of ComputationalFluid Dynamics.

Fire and social deprivation in South Yorkshire.

Fire, Fire Research, and the Fire Service: ChangingPerspectives.

The fire and explosion hazards of meat and bone meal.

The efficacy of water mist fire suppression systems.

Experimental and numerical study of whirling fire inenclosure.

Performance Indicators and Management.

Smoke Ventilation of Fire-Fighting Shafts.

Fire Service Volunteers - Mobilising the community.

Educational Technology in Fire Related Studies.

A study of whether comparison improves stationperformance.

Fire service emergency cover planning.

Command Training: a new evidence base.

New approaches to Emergency Management Training.

2001

Psychological aspects of crisis management.

Cultural auditing an understanding of how fire serviceculture operates and levers for change.

Influences to maintain good quality output at the rescuescene and combating negative stress.

Identification of prevalence of predictors inoccupational and traumatic stress in firefighters andcontrol room staff.

Creating broad consensual vision and identifying criticalelements of the organisation.

Review of advice and action on the discovery of fire andselection and use of firefighting equipment in threedomestic environments - the United Kingdom, Norwayand Sweden.

Remote Intelligent Management Support and Training(RIMSAT).

Using thermo-regulation to prevent physiological stressfrom fluid losses and heat illness.

Self-contained breathing apparatus and the effects ofinspiratory muscle training upon maximal exerciseduration in the laboratory.

Human behaviour and learned irrelevance.

Investigations into correlation between lumbar stabilityand exercise.

Reducing Diesel particulate emissions.

Fire brigade operational response and building design.

Using real life data for community fire safety purposes.

Design of mobile information technology (IT) basedapplications and services for the FRS.

A study of watch commander management styles in theLondon Fire Brigade.

An analysis of how the arson reduction team wasestablished in the London Fire Brigade.

Innovative application of smoke management systems.

Predictors of stress and job satisfaction amongMalaysian firefighters.

Suppression of backdraughts through the use of afirefighting dry powder.

Role-related competence framework for the EmergencyFire Service Industrial Sector.

Formation and operation of search and rescue divingunits in the fire service.

Incident management - process, procedure, people andthen technology.

2002

Appendix 2

Fire Engineering and Operations Papers presented at the Fire Service College Research Event


Attracting diversity? Analysing and learning ofcommunity perceptions of the fire service.

Effect of introducing new learning model into the firebrigade on the people involved.

Modelling complex failures methodology for improvinglearning and understanding.

Feasibility of integration between the emergencyambulance and fire services in London.

Lifestyle and fitness of new recruits and experiencedfirefighters in Northern Ireland.

The role of physical fitness screening in the recruitmentof Irish fire fighters.

Efficiencies and deficiencies confronting police, fire andhealth in ‘massive disasters’.

Fire service emergency cover.

Policy implications of globalisation for a local authorityFire Brigade.

Effect of wearing protective clothing and self-containedbreathing apparatus on heart rate, temperature andoxygen consumption.

Exploration of the relevance of branding for the fireservice.

Critical situations reaction and performance.

Fire tests and performance-based design.

Coping in the face of disaster: the importance of theWatch.

The history of the Fire Service.

Effects of occupational traumatic exposure.

Fire risk assessment of catering extract ventilation.

Fire Brigade operational response and building design.

Recognising personal and professional development atwork.

The following are Brigade Command Course projects whichwere unpublished at the time of writing this report but whichwere presented at the FSC Research Event 2002:

Consideration of an alternative work pattern at part-timefire stations.

Recruitment barriers.

Keeping pace with employment legislation.

Domestic sprinklers - achieving stakeholder buy-in.

Safeguarding the built heritage.

The role of local authority fire brigades in theemergency planning framework.

Barriers to the successful regionalisation of England’sfire brigades.

Staff forecasting methodology in a fire serviceenvironment.

Creating an intelligence-led approach to community firerisk management.

Compressed Air Foam Systems.

Comparison of the UK and US response to the terroristthreat.

Training volunteer firefighters.

Prevention of violence to firefighters.

The effectiveness of fire hydrants.

Public-private partnerships.

The role of the Fire Service in local strategicpartnerships.

Examining if partnerships in industrial relations lead tothe sharing of goals.

Control and governance of public services.

2002 (cont.)


Appendix 3

Examples of Research carried out within fire brigades

International Study of Combined Control Rooms(Shropshire)

Various studies into the use of Positive PressureVentilation (Lancashire)

• PPV in a post-fire compartment.

• Effects of PPV upon conditions within the post-firecompartment.

• Design, development & use of scale models toassess the effectiveness of PPV.

• Evaluation of the effectiveness of PPV in a scalemodel building.

• Trials to assess the effect of PPV on compartmentfires in single-storey domestic dwellings.

• Trials to assess the effect of PPV on compartmentfires in two-storey domestic dwellings.

• Trials to assess the effect of Water Mist PPV oncompartment fires in two-storey domestic dwellings.

Fire Service Response and Risk Management (Lothianand Borders)

The Noise at Work Regulations and their impact atincidents. (Cumbria)

Fire evacuation and human behaviour (Mid and WestWales)

Examples of research carried out within fire brigades


Appendix 4

BEng and MEng Final Year Dissertations (2002-03)

University of Central Lancashire

Adrian Brown (2002) An investigation into the use of fluorescence and the detection of residual condensation phase hydrocarbon arson accelerants

Aishad Mahmood (2002) Interaction of statutory control and fire engineering design

A S Grant (2002) The quantification of turbulent diffusion jet flames produced by LPG

Chan H-W (2002) Study of smoke control system at atrium building with shopping mall in Hong Kong

Chan K-W, James (2002) A study of smoke control and safety evacuation in a basement fire

Choi C-M (2002) Feasibility study on total evacuation from refuge floor by emergency elevator evacuation system

Siu H-Y, Edmond (2002) Evaluate the fire hazard on double decker bus passenger compartment

Gareth R Shone (2002) An analysis of fire risk and control in an oriented strand board timber mill

G D Olorenshaw (2002) Sprinkler and water mist suppression systems for domestic dwellings

Lam K-P, Jacky (2002) Control of ventilation airflow for tunnel fire in Hong Kong

Jane Johnson (2002) An investigation into the implementation strategy of positive pressure ventilation within the British fire service

John P Sheridan (2002) Fires in inclined trenches the dependence of critical angle on the position of the roof

Karl Bischoff (2002) Fire investigation into both fire protection and suppression methods in large buildings

Keung T-M, Edmond (2002) A feasibility study for fire evacuation by elevators at Hong Kong high-rise residential buildings

Lee Goodrick (2002) Fire protection in buildings, the use and implications of compartmentation

Les Agate (2002) Firefighter behaviour in the firefighter training environment

Leung K-Y (2002) Air supply rates in vestibule pressurisation smoke control system

Leung Y-S (2002) Safety case study of a optical fibre factory

Liu K-F (2002) Evaluation of smoke extraction system for hotel guest room corridor

Lo K-H (2002) Fire engineering approach for dynamic smoke extraction system in Tiu Keng Leng railway station

Loo W-K, David (2002) Smoke control in train depot building by using computer fluid dynamic simulation

Mak S-K, Peter (2002) Investigate the methods to eliminate the spreading of smoke for confined spaces

Mohammed Rashid Humaid Fire in housing in sultanate of Omanal-Shamsi (2002)

N J Ingham (2002) An investigation to assess the effect of a domestic sprinkler system at reducing carbon monoxide production during a domestic dwelling fire

Paul Molloy (2002) The use of fire fighting powders when dealing with fires in compartments

Ronald Wong (2002) An evaluation of the effectiveness of three dimensions (3D) water-fog techniques to counterthe hazard associated with flashover in compartment fires

So K-Y, Kevin (2002) A study on the application of deterministic computer fire modelling as a tool in compartmentfire investigation

Steve Adams (2002) A theoretical engineered solution to reduce the number of fire related fatalities

Tang K-W (2002) Fire risk assessment and analysis of fire services control centre

Tse K-K (2002) Fire engineering approach and CFD study on fire spread between two floors of residential building in Hong Kong

Wong C-K (2002) Analysis on tunnel fire modelling by computational fluid dynamic

Wong C-M (2002) Fire engineering review of evacuation and fire safety provisions for existing railway stations

Amelie Peyrelongue (2003) Fire safety in hospitals

Celine Joubert (2003) Fire safety in night-club

Franck Navel (2003) Fire safety in the oil tanker

Frederic Pischon (2003) Fire safety on offshore production platforms

Lee John Morgan (2003) An investigation into the adequacy of fire precautions required by the building regulations 2000 for tall buildings

Mathieu Geoffroy (2003) Safety and protection strategies in road and rail traffic tunnel

Michael Coakley (2003) Genetic analysis of built environment fires

Paul Murley (2003) The behaviour of sandstone in fires and its relevance to archaeological fire investigation

Pierre Galante (2003) The fire safety in stadia


Appendix 4 (continued)

University of Edinburgh

Rooney and Cameron (2003) Oxygen consumption calorimetry revisited

Chow and Denzer (2003) Fire behaviour of sandwich panels

Flint and Fletcher (2002) Spread of flame on wall lining materials

Bird and Booth (2002) Spontaneous combustion of linseed oil-soaked rags

Cunniffe and Jones (2002) Thermal damage to skin

Shang and Sim (2002) Fire behaviour of thermoplastics

Pallett and Mowat (2002) Modelling of smoke propagation in atrium buildings

University of Leeds

G Ainley (2003) The modelling of conduction through a layered specimen under external flux taking into account convective losses.

Nicholas P Gavriel (2003) A comparison of the burning characteristics of different surfaces on chipboard.

Stuart J Hawkins (2003) The effect of flame-retardants on the burning behaviour of wood.

Craig Howard (2003) Zone modelling of fire and smoke spread in a shopping mall fire - computer simulation.

Warren G. Porter (2003) CFD modelling of fire in a passenger train compartment

Joe Storey (2003) Predicting the dry-film thickness of intumescent materials required on steel structures

Scott P. Witham (2003) Determining flammability using the limiting oxygen index.

Iain S. Macfarlane (2003) Fire resistance testing using a standard indicative furnace.

Andrew P.B. Scott (2003) Forensic investigation of fire debris using the enclosed fire facility for the initial fire.

Christopher J. Taylor (2003) Analysis of soot deposits in enclosed fires for accelerants.

Stacey L. Heathershaw Hydrogen bubble gas leak explosion experiments.(2003)

Emma Nuttall (2003) The effect of surface coatings (varnish) on the ignition of wood samples - also the heat release rate of smoke yield, etc.

James Bertwistle (2003) Flame speeds in biscuit flour dust explosions

Simon P. Goodhead (2003) CFD modelling of a fire in a passenger plane

Alec T. Storey (2003) Evacuation modelling of buildings.

Robert R. Ley (2003) CO, HC and particulate yields from enclosed air-starved pool fires.

Simon Davison (2002) Comparison of 2-zone model computer codes for simulating fire and smoke movement.

Pierre C. Gaston (2002) Stratified hydrogen/air and methane/air explosion.

Oliver J. Lisles (2002) Comparison of a 2-zone model computer codes for simulating fire and smoke movement - Fire Wind and FAS 3D.

Toby J. McCorry (2002) The effect of flame-retardants on the burning behaviour of wood.

Jason G. Taylor (2002) Phosphorous compounds in intumescent systems

Samuel Liptrott (2002) Flame speeds in dust explosions.

Matthew Chapman (2002) Evacuation modelling in buildings.

Mnana B. Dlamini (2002) Forensic investigation of fire debris using GC and GC/MS

Isaac N. Gamedze (2002) The spontaneous combustion of materials (coal).

Jon G. Reynolds (2002) Comparison of commercially available APP and their effect on intumescent behaviour.

Tom Mason (2002) A review of dust explosion suppression systems.

Simon L Mathieson (2002) Fire and smoke movement in a shopping mall fire - computer simulation.


Appendix 5

PhD, MPhil and MSc (by research) Theses (from 1995)

Aston University

Bahjat Husayn Khalafallah Coupled Heat and Mass Transfer in Concrete exposed to Fire .(2001)

Suryawan Murtiadi (to be Behaviour of multi-storey, multi-bay concrete frame structures under localized fire scenarios.submitted Sept 2003)

Bolton Institute

Dawn L Roberts (1998) A study of the environmental effects of the production of flame retardant cotton

Ming Liu (2001) Novel back-coated flame retardant treatments for textiles containing reduced amounts ofantimony and bromine elements (project carried out at the University of Huddersfield)

Shonali S Gawande Investigation and prediction of factors influencing flammability of nightwear fabrics

Susan Neininger (2002) Mathematical modelling of intumescent-interactive flame retardant composites

University of Central Lancashire

Zhaohui Huang (1995) A Study of the performance of Reinforced concrete structural elements subject to fire conditions

Tony Lee Graham (1998) Modelling of Ignition and Fire in Venting Enclosures

Abongwa Ndumu (1999) Interacting Neural Networks: an Architecture for Modelling Distributed Parameter DynamicalSystems

Paul Haydock (2000) (MSc) Interaction between occupants and fire alarm systems in complex buildings

Keith Parsons (2000) (MPhil) Using Historic Buildings as Contemporary Workplaces

Bronislav Librovich (2000) Modeling of Group combustion droplets in spray fuel cloud

Mark Yau (2001) The Application of Positive Pressure Ventilation to Firefighting

Michael Dennet (2003) An exploration of the basis of calculation of standards of fire cover in member states of the European Union and the potential for a rational economic model

Cranfield University

M J Lewis (1998) Field Modelling of Flame Spread for Enclosure Fires

S M Hyde (2000) Field Modelling of Carbon Monoxide Production in Vitiated Compartment Fires

V E Sanderson (2001) Turbulence Modelling of Buoyant Jets and Compartment Fires

J B M Pierce (2003) Prediction of Smoke Properties and Obscuration in Compartment Fires

J A G Worthy (2003) Large Eddy Simulation of Buoyant Plumes

University of Edinburgh

Marianne Foley (1995) The use of small scale fire test data for the hazard assessment of bulk materials

Barbara Lane (1997) The response of steel frame structures under fire conditions

Kuang-Chung Tsai (2001) Upward flame spread on vertical surfaces

Susan Lamont (2002) The behaviour of multi-storey composite steel framed structures in response to compartmentfires

Jo Sherratt (2002) The effect of thermoplastic melt flow behaviour on the dynamics of fire growth

Heriot-Watt University

Jaime Santos-Reyes (2001) The development of a fire safety management system model

R O Carvell (to be The role of ventilation and geometry in tunnel firessubmitted in Sept 2003)

Imperial College, London

Hafizah Ramli-Sulong (ongoing) Structural fire performance of steel connections

Ehat Omer (ongoing) Behaviour of floor slab systems under fire conditions

Kingston University

Feng Liu (2001) Turbulence Modelling of Buoyancy-driven and Fire-induced Flows

L Y Huang (2000) The application of CFD to offshore compartment fires

J Wen (1996) Numerical modelling as a practical aid for the development of smoke control strategies in buildings

J P Zhang (ongoing) Numerical modelling of flame spread

Y Kang (ongoing) Large eddy simulation of fire plumes and turbulent non-premixed flames

G Boustras (ongoing) Development of fire growth models based on stochastic analysis and zone modelling

S Ferraris (ongoing) The dynamics and critical phenomena of under-ventilated compartment fires

M Manganaro (ongoing) Large eddy simulation of clean room fires

(To start in 2004) The behaviour of glazing under restricted ventilation fire conditions


University of Manchester/UMIST

H B Wang (1995) (JMD) Heat Transfer Analysis of Components of Construction Exposed to Fire -A Theoretical, Numerical and Experimental Approach

D W Dewhurst (1997) The Influence of Fire on the Design of Polymer Composite Pipes and Panels for Offshore Structures

Simon J Walmsley (2000) A computational and experimental study of the sprays produced by fire suppression sprinklersystems

P M Currie (2003) Thermal, Mechanical and Structural Performance of Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic CompositeStructural Elements at Elevated Temperatures

M Q Feng (ongoing) Behaviour of cold-formed thin-walled steel columns and stud panels in fire

P M H Wong (ongoing) Experimental and numerical investigation of the behaviour of Glass fibre Reinforced PlasticComposite Columns at elevated temperatures

C N Ang (ongoing) Numerical heat and mass transfer analysis of hydroscopic materials at high temperatures

A Fajemirokun (ongoing) Risk-informed fire engineering

Y Z Yin, (ongoing) Advanced behaviour of steel and composite beams in fire

B Salhab (ongoing) Thermal and structural behaviour of thin-walled steel thermal studs in fire

J Ding (ongoing) Advanced behaviour of composite steel and concrete columns in fire

G Daniels (ongoing) Fire engineering based design of means of escape in high-rise residential buildings

Nick Pope (ongoing) CFD Modelling of Compartment Fires

Queen Mary, University of London

V. Rajandram (to be Direct Numerical Simulation of Fire Dynamics submitted in Dec 2003)

Salford University

J M Lowens (2001) The assessment of the Purser furnace as an experimental technique and its relevance to the study of fire

Y Liu (2001) A study of the burning behaviours of flame retarded polyurethane foams and foam fabric composites

K Bullett (2002) Flame retarding acrylic and styrenic polymers by modification with phosphorus-containing compounds

E Elhadi (2003) Thermal Analysis and Kinetic Studies of the decomposition of some high performance polymers

C L Wills (due 2004) Determination of combustion-toxicity of polymeric materials under different fire conditions

L K Cunliffe (due 2004) Laser-pyrolysis and thermoanalytical studies of fire retardant behaviour

R Quinn (due 2004) A study of intumescence in fire resistant glazing materials

E O Elakesh (due 2004) The effect of phosphates and iron on the decomposition and flammability of chlorinated PVC

T A Artingstall (2003) Investigation of Additives for use in Halogen-Free Flame Retardant Cable Materials (Ongoing) Formulations.(M Phil)

Sheffield University

G Bailey, (1995) Simulation of the Structural Behaviour of Steel Framed Buildings in Fire

V A Oven, (1996) The Behaviour of Composite Beams with Partial Interaction at Elevated Temperatures

L C Leston-Jones, (1997) The Influence of Semi-Rigid Connections on the Performance of Steel Framed Structures inFire

M.Z Abu Bakar (1999) A Study of the Effect of Tunnel Aspect Ratio on Control of Smoke Flow in Tunnel Fires

P S Rose, (1999) Simulation of Steel/Concrete Composite Structures in Fire

P G Shepherd, (1999) The Performance in Fire of Restrained Columns in Steel-Framed Construction

K S Al-Jabri, (2000) The Behaviour of Steel and Composite Beam-to-Column Connections in Fire

S Y Wong, (2001) The Structural Response of Industrial Portal Frame Structures in Fire

H. J. Xing (2001) Dynamics of Confined Fire Plumes - A Study of Interactions between Fires and Surfaces

Jun Cai, (2002) Developments in Modelling of Composite Building Structures in Fire

S Spyrou, (2002) Development of a Component-Based Model of Steel Beam-to-Column Joints at Elevated Temperatures

A A Allam, (2003) The Large-Deflection Behaviour of Structural Frames in Fire



South Bank University

G A Murray (1996) Investigation into fire safety surveying procedures

D R Osgood (1996) The detection of the early stages of fire

C B Lacy (1997) Thermal response of pressurised storage vessels by jet fire impingement

N R Steiner (1998) Lessons from the investigation and analysis of real fires

P Balendran (1999) Flammability of endotracheal tubes

S A Colwell (2000) The characteristics of vented dust explosions and their effect on structures

S E C Court (2001) The ignition of polymeric materials in high pressure oxygen

S Gregory (2001) The use of cone calorimetry and associated techniques in the determination of fire hazards

J D Pepper (2002) The interaction of sprinklers and vents and their effects on hot fire gases

E M F Price (2003) On the mechanisms of extinction of fire by the application of water sprays

University of Ulster

T. McClintock (2002) Optimising Exit Choice During Emergency Evacuations from Large Closed Environments

P. Lennon (2002) An Experimental Evaluation of the Impact of Ventilation Opening Geometry on EnclosureFires.

P. Vivenkandara-Smidt Differential Effects of Simulated Visual Impairment on Locomotion and Eye Movement.(2002)

Che-Tzu Lin (2002) Interaction of Fire With Forced Downward Airflow in a Cleanroom Model.



Appendix 6

Insurance Sector Research Proposal Categories

Description:

Topics covering up-and-coming issues that may have adetrimental impact upon insurer business if not managedin good time.

Examples:

• Proposed changes in legislation and design codes.

• Proliferation of Fire Engineered solutions.

• Forthcoming changes in environmental policy thataffect fire fighting techniques (i.e. Halon, AFFF, Greenhouse gases, post fire clean-up).

• Changes in risk / insured value with new constructionsand storage techniques (i.e. plastic pallets, plastic binstorage).

• New construction techniques and development ofassociated fire protection and fire fighting techniques(i.e. Tunnels, Multi-storey buildings).

• Performance of novel fire fighting products (active andpassive) that may benefit the insurance community.

• Lobbying activities.

• Promotions.

Description:

Topics that address current issues that are impacting uponinsurer business

Examples:

• Risk assessment / reduction / evaluation tools.

• Investigation of current large loss areas (i.e. sandwichpanel buildings).

Deviations from anticipated fire protection measures (i.e.Reduced water supply pressures affecting sprinklerssystem and brigade operations, other disruptions to fireservice operations, Disposable buildings).

Description:

On-going topics where insurer interests must be maintained.

Examples:

• Maintenance of key insurer documents (Sprinkler Rulesand Design Guide).

Committee representation in support of insurer interests(i.e. BSI, ISO, CEN, CEA, NFPA, CFPA etc.).

Predictive Reactive

Maintenance


• Supporting the reform and development of UK firelegislation

• Cost/benefit aspects of fire protection decision makingby businesses

• Fire engineering - preparation of guidance for insurers

• Fires in multi-storey buildings

• Fires in multi-storey buildings - promotion of ABIresearch findings

• Fire performance and cost/benefits of sandwich panels

• Design Guide maintenance and technicalrepresentation

• Sprinkler Rule maintenance and technicalrepresentation

• Maintaining insurance input to standards

• Fire protection technologies

• Fire research - CFD modelling for fire engineering

• Verification of the effectiveness of increased sprinklerspacing

• Insulated panels - Verification of fire performance andcost effectiveness

• Smoke damage from fires - scoping study

• Enhancing the fire protection of schools

• Halon alternative - Further research

• Rack sprinkler protection using ADD techniques

• Sprinklers and smoke ventilation

• The reality of fire protection in industrial buildings

• The impact of fire engineering solutions on values ofproperty damage

• Sprinkler video 1 - why you should sprinkler protectyour property

• Sprinkler video 2 - how to maintain your sprinklersystem

• Fire risk of communication cables

• Potential fire risk from plastic storage pallets

• Risk assessment for kitchen extract ventilation (BSRIAproject)

• PODs - Risk assessment

• Low cost high hazard ceiling/roof sprinkler protection

• Development of an expert system for the LPC DesignGuide

• Insurance surveyors guide

• Large scale test on sandwich panels

• Effect of major fire on the local community

• Internet access to Fire Brigade data

• Guidance on protection of Electronic Data Processing(EDP) facilities

• Refrigerant fire risk

• Property damage and consequential loss adjunct to HOguidance on the FP regulations

• Ultra fast dry-pipe sprinkler system

• Home office fire cover review - Implications for domesticfire claims losses and ‘out of town’ and ‘rural’commercial premises

• Fire protection technologies - Fire safety data on theweb

• Assessing the risk posed by plastic storage pallets

• CFD modelling of LPS 1181 test program

• Introduction of low cost ordinary hazard sprinklerprotection for buildings

The measurement of concealed and recessed sprinklerthermal response

Appendix 7

Insurance Sector Research Projects


Appendix 8

Research related Working Groups supported by the Insurance Industry

Active Working Group

BS FSH18 Fixed fire fighting systems

BS FSH18/2 Sprinklers

CEN TC191 Fixed fire fighting systems

CEN TC191 WG5 Sprinklers

CEN TC191 WG5 Sprinkler rules panel

CEN TC191 WG5 Sprinklers components panel

CEN TC191 WG5 Pumps panel

CEN TC191 WG5 Water mist panel

CEA GEI3 Sprinkler components

CEA GEI4 Sprinkler rules

NFPA 13 Sprinkler Technical correlating committee

ISO TC21 SC5 Sprinklers

Halon Alternative Group (HAG)

LPCB Panel C Sprinkler products and Panel B Gas Systems

CEA GEI 7 Gas Extinguishing Installations

BSI FSH 18/6 Gaseous Extinguishing Media and Systems

ISO TC 21 SC8 Working Group on Fire Tests

Passive Working Group

FSH/22 Fire resistance testing

SH/22/2 Calculation methods for fire resistance

FSH/22/3 Penetration and fire stopping systems

FSH/22/4 Fire dampers

FSH/22/9 Fire resisting ducts and shafts

CEN TC 127 European fire resistance tests

AD-HOC 11 European tests for ducts and dampers

AD-HOC 27 Extended field of application for ducts and dampers

ISO TC 92/SC2 International committee dealing with fire resistance

IFSA Intumescent fire seals (fire stopping/seals etc)

EOTA/BBA European approval for passive systems

LPCB PANEL D Passive fire protection systems

ASFP Association Specialist Fire Protection

GGF Glass and glazing federation

IACSC/ABI Food industry/cold storage

BRUFMA.EURISOL Material manufacturers non-combustible/comb

Process Working Group

EECS Advisory Committee.

BSI FSH/23: “Fire precautions in industrial and chemical plant”

Review of unspecified draft standards

BSI FSH/22/7 Multi-storey facades

FSH/14 Building standards

Development of LPS1214 (Computer Security)

Others

CEA GEI 2 “CEA Specification for planning and installation for Auto

CEA GEI 1 “Fire detection components”

CEA Installation Guide for fire detection and fire alarm systems


Annex A

THE INSTITUTION OF FIRE ENGINEERS

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF FIRE SAFETY

SCIENCE

July 2000

Sir Robert May

Government Chief Scientific Adviser

1 Victoria StreetLONDON SW1H 0ET

Dear Sir Robert

FIRE RESEARCH IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Both Nationally and Internationally, there is a commitment to move towardsperformance based fire regulations or codes. That this is possible is a testament to the

quality and standard of the fundamental research into fire and fire safety engineering

that has been carried out since the 1940s. This was led by the pioneering work at Fire

Research Station in the four decades from 1950.

The enormous advances that have been made during the last four decades can be

attributed to a commitment to fire safety issues at research level in Sweden, the USAand Japan, aided by the availability of sophisticated instrumentation and powerful data

logging and computing equipment. From early in the 1970s, it became clear that fire

and its effects need no longer be viewed as “unpredictable”, but could be addressed by

a more rational approach, applying the results of the extant body of research literature.This has become embodied in “Fire Safety Engineering” (FSE), the formalised

engineering discipline that will permit the implementation of performance based fire

codes.

This was a natural and inevitable development, moving from the prescriptive based

codes which have proved to be too restrictive for large modem buildings and structures.More and more frequently, the prescriptive based approach required relaxations to be

permitted, which were accepted on the basis of qualitative or poorly defined

quantitative arguments. FSE provides a framework for the logical alternative in which

engineering analysis is used to demonstrate compliance with fire safety requirements.As an engineering discipline, FSE is young and much closer to the research by which it

is underpinned. Unlike the established engineering disciplines, there is still an essential

need for a highly active dialogue between the practitioners and the researchers. For thisreason, FSE will wither on the vine unless the roots of fire research are well nourished.

Historically, in a great many of the developed countries, particularly the UK, the USA,

Japan and Sweden, fire research has been supported by Central Government. As an


example par excellence, Fire Research Station (originally the Joint Fire Research

Organisation, JFRO, supported by Government and the Insurance industry) was aunique establishment in which

all areas of fire research that were considered to be relevant to our understanding of fire

in the context of the safety of life and property were pursued with academic rigour. Abrief inspection of some of the Fire Research Notes published between 1950 and 1975

show the scope of work carried out, from studies of ignition, flame spread and

flashover, to fire detection and suppression, properties of smoke (obscuration andtoxicity) and matters relating to building performance, including fire resistance. Fire

statistics were analysed by a team at Fire Research Station and were used effectively to

identify national problems. No other organisation anywhere in the world has had the

unique combination of talent and expertise that existed at Borehamwood during thisperiod.

It is unrealistic to expect a centre of excellence such as FRS to exist indefinitely, In theearly 1 970s, the testing section of Fire Research Station was separated out as the Fire

Insurers Research and Testing Organisation (FIRTO), heralding the demise of FRS as a

world class research establishment and sending the UK commitment to fire research ona downward spiral. Privatisation in 1997 of the Building Research Establishment has

dramatically shifted the capacity and capability of Fire Research Station (now part of

BRE) to carry out the research that is vital to underpin fire safety engineering in its

broadest sense. Consequently, the research effort within the UK has diffused outwardsto the Universities who are now technically in competition with the Fire Research

Station for ever diminishing research funds. While it may be argued that advantages

would accrue from the involvement of a much wider sector of the UK’s academiccommunity, a serious consequence of this is the loss of a focus for fire research at a

time when such a focus is essential.

The process of “translation of research into practice” has been ongoing in the context ofbuilding design for at least two decades (The Fire Research Station, is credited with the

development of the first “engineering tool” derived from fundamental fire research in

the early 1960s). Equally, the fire service is a principal user of fire research, with aresponsibility both for mitigating the effect of fire and for enforcing fire safety

management of buildings. The service needs to ensure that it is sufficiently advanced

technologically to be able to utilise modern developments in fire risk assessment which

will lead to better provision of fire cover and to more effective fire safety educationtraining in the community and the workplace.

Fire service research has hitherto concentrated upon aspects of fire brigade operationswith facilities funded by the Home Office at the Fire Service College at Moreton-in-

Marsh. When appropriate, external contracts have been awarded to deal with specific

issues or concerns which have been identified. Such studies have placed considerableemphasis upon the health of firefighters exposed to the fire environment but

unfortunately such studies suffer from the fact that they are short-term and the results

are often inconclusive because they address only small parts of a much larger problem

which must be addressed holistically. Consequently, there is a continuing lack ofunderstanding of the basic physiological effects of the fire environment upon the

firefighter.


Indeed, research funding from Government Departments has been whittled away during

the past decade to a bare minimum, capable of supporting little more than the individualdepartment’s immediate needs. This is particularly true for the Home Office. The

Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) has a policy for

awarding research contracts (under the “Partners in Technology” initiative) which

encourages collaboration between academia and industry. This has a focus but lacks along term strategic view. Proposals are invited in specific, but usually unsolicited,

research areas leading to projects of limited duration (typically I to 3 years) which may

or may not provide long-term benefits. In view of the importance of the development offire safety engineering in the context of the building regulations, it would be anticipated

that DETR would recognise the need for a strategic plan which would allow fire

research to continue to develop and underpin fire safety engineering more soundly. It is

our perception that the fire research funded by DETR is tactical rather than strategic,reactive rather than proactive.

The reduction in support for fundamental research has produced an unexpected effect,namely to encourage individual fire brigades across the UK to undertake their own

research. This is wasteful for a number of reasons, the most obvious being the need to

ensure that each brigade has the capability to undertake research at a level that will beacceptable to the wider fire community. A number of attempts have been made to co-

ordinate such work but no comprehensive system has yet been established. There is no

central database which would allow the research of other brigades to be accessed.

These and other concerns have prompted the Local Government Association (LGA)and the Chief and Assistant Chief Fire Officers’ Association (CACFOA) to approach

the Central Fire Brigades Advisory Council (CFBAC) and discuss the lack of co-

ordination as well as serious problem of research funding.

Much of the current “research” in the UK would more properly be classified as

“testing” or “investigation”, carried out by manufacturers and suppliers who have very

different objectives, more interested in improving their share of the market than inunderstanding the fire process. It is conducted on an ad hoc, short-term basis, free of

the responsibility of having to consider public safety. There has been considerable

growth in research designed to satisfy international standards, but the results remainconfidential and have been obtained with the restricted view of product development.

The work of organisations such as the Loss Prevention Council and other testing

laboratories fall into the same category of “commercial in confidence”, and although

individual projects may provide useful insights into fire behaviour, the performance ofmaterials, and the effectiveness of fire protection systems, the results are not in the

public domain.

Thus the perception that there is a lot of activity in fire research is misleading and

misguided. The fact that the perception exists within the fire sector is an indicator of the

lack of understanding of the importance of research and of the advantages that canaccrue through proper application of research results. A good example is in the

understanding of human behaviour during fire situations. The physiological effects of

the fire environment on firefighters has already been mentioned, as have equipment

evaluations and investigations. The need for co-ordination and dissemination ofresearch information is also demonstrated in the activities of fire and arson

investigators. The learning circle, involving those who have carried out the fundamental

research and those who observe the fire phenomenon and its effects needs to be closed.


‘I

Providing the science that helps develop a true understanding of fire behaviour and

provides the means by which new technologies can be developed leads directly tohelping to the prevention of fires and national tragedies such as the fire at the King’s

Cross Underground Station in 1987 or on the Piper Alpha Offshore Platform in 1988.

There is a serious danger that fire policy will be developed on the basis of work carriedout in the context of the “market place” rather than being underpinned by research

which has been subjected to full process of academic rigour and peer review. This must

be avoided at all costs and serious consideration given to the development of a broadstrategic and proactive approach to underpinning Fire Safety Engineering for the whole

of the UK. Otherwise we have a crisis in the making: depending on one’s viewpoint it

may be already be in full flood.

Fire safety engineering encompasses a wide scope of activities including: fire hazard

identification (requiring a fundamental understanding of the fire process); fire detection

and alarm (combined with an understanding of human behaviour under fire andemergency conditions); the fire safety design of large complex structures; and issues

relating to the control and extinction of fire (normally associated with the activities of

the fire services). In the engineering approach to fire safety, these cannot be consideredin isolation, each one having an influence on all of the other parts of the fire safety

system. Clearly, it is unfortunate that the expertise that exists is now scattered

throughout the UK and there is no focal point (such as that once provided by Fire

Research Station) to assist in the overall management of a strategic fire researchprogramme for the United Kingdom.

It is essential that this issue be addressed in the shortest possible time. There are severalfundamental problems here: Responsibility for different areas of fire safety in the

community is divided between different Government departments who have difficulties

with collaboration and communication. The Research Councils (particularly EPSRC)

are the main funding bodies for the Universities, but do not consider fire research as ahigh priority. Indeed, EPSRC is very unlikely to provide funding for consolidation

studies which are essential if research work is to be accepted by the engineering

disciplines. It is also worth noting that the effect of scattering the expertise is greatlyexacerbated by the way that Universities are now funded: it does not encourage inter-

University collaboration.

New thinking is required. We would respectfully suggest that a national body beformed to address the following agenda:

(a) Identify the research that is underpinning fire safety engineering and where thegaps lie.

(b) Prioritise the research needs, focusing on the objective of securing the future of

fire safety engineering and performance based fire codes.(c) Make recommendation to Government how such research should be funded for

the benefit of the nation and fire community.

(d) Establish a level playing field for Universities, Research Organisations, the Fire

Service and other agencies seeking to conduct research.

The opportunities and benefits are great, not only for the safety of life and the

protection of property in the event of fire, but also for the entire fire sector of British


Industry, The UK has the expertise and the facilities to move forward on a broad front,

producing the high quality research that is needed at this critical time and re-establishing Word pre-eminence in fire safety. Initiatives to assist this process are

underway at the University of Ulster which has recently been awarded £6 million

through the Joint Infrastructure Fund to provide new facilities to underpin their research

and teaching in Fire Safety Engineering; the University of Edinburgh which isappointing new staff and commissioning a new laboratory t6 consolidate their long-

established Fire Safety Engineering group within the Division of Engineering; and the

Universities of Leeds and Central Lancashire who have both rapidly expanded researchand teaching activities with close links to the fire service. These centres, along with

Fire Research Station/BRE, will, however, only survive if research funding is available

and they can only effectively function in the national interest if there is agreement on

the route ahead. This, we would suggest, can only be mapped out by taking a broadoverview of the national needs, matching them to the skills and expertise that are

currently available and nurturing the research ethos within the entire fire community.

We remain committed to this endeavour and would wish to seek an early meeting with

you and your advisers on how best we might redress this imbalance of research to

support public safety. We have copied this letter to the Permanent Secretaries at theHome Office and the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions, given

their respective responsibilities, and look forward to your reply.

Professor D DrysdaleEuropean Vice-Chairman of the

International Association of

Fire Safety Sciencee-mail: [email protected]

D T DavisChairman of the Executive

Committee of theInstitution of Fire Engineers

e-mail: [email protected] Upper New Walk

LEICESTERLEI 7QB

Tel: 01162553654Fax: 01162471231


Annex B

FIRE RESEARCH IN THE UK

Fire Safety Research needed in support of Fire Safety Engineering

This paper has been prepared to help identify the research that is needed to enable FireSafety Engineering (FSE) to be applied effectively and with confidence to the design ofbuildings in the United Kingdom. It draws heavily on a document published in May 1995 by theDoE Construction Sponsorship Directorate entitled "A Research Strategy for the Fire SafetyEngineering Design of Buildings". That document was developed with advice from BRE/FRS,Home Office, Health & Safety Executive, University and Industry representatives. TheIndustrial representatives included Arup, BAA and LPC.

The objectives of Fire Safety Engineering are the safety of life, property, heritage and theenvironment, achieved through performance-based regulations which provide increasedfreedom of design by quantification of fire risk which allows the solution to a fire safetyproblem to be optimised. In effect, this formalises the process of “relaxation” which has hadto be applied to many large modern buildings which clearly cannot be designed under theprescriptive regulations.

That there are now many fire engineering tools in use is testament to the substantial scientificprogress that was made during the decades of Government-sponsored fire researchfollowing the Second World War. However, much more is needed if the full potential of FSEis to be exploited. The purpose of this paper is to address the basis for deciding priorities forresearch.

Without a scientifically robust engineering discipline, there will remain uncertainties and risksin the exploitation of performance-based regulations. While there are other areas ofresearch that are needed and desirable, it is our view that those supporting FSE are the mosturgent. To neglect fire research at this crucial stage of the development of FSE willeffectively halt the underpinning of the discipline, with consequences that are difficult topredict but are likely to be unacceptable. Indeed, it can be argued that the FSE tools currentlyin use still require further examination and verification. This has to be conveyed to Fire SafetyEngineering students currently attending University (specifically, Ulster, Central Lancashireand Leeds) in order that they can apply these tools properly, taking into account theuncertainties that still exist.

The challenge

Each year fires in buildings in the UK result in more than 600 deaths and over 15 000 injuries.Fire causes major property loss - more than £1000 million direct loss per annum in the UK -and can pollute the environment via contaminated firefighting water and the emission ofparticulates and toxic species into the atmosphere. Fire can also destroy our pricelessheritage. The total cost of fire to the country is typically estimated to be just under 1% GDPannually.

The effects of fire in or near buildings are mitigated by national regulations and codes ofpractice. Over the past two decades the Building Regulations in the United Kingdom havemoved from comprehensive prescriptive regulations to brief functional (“performance based”)regulations which are supported by non-mandatory detailed technical guidance. Historically,the UK has a good record for fire safety but it is accepted that as buildings become larger,less compartmented and more complex, more people are placed at risk from fire than before.


An acceptable level of fire safety cannot be designed into large modern buildings without theapplication of Fire Safety Engineering.

There is a need to introduce the probabilistic element so that functional requirements may beset in explicit terms. Analytical methods need to be developed which integrate deterministicand probabilistic parts of the design so that the life risk can be assessed for multi-cellbuildings.

It is essential that the UK remains at the forefront of developments to exploit the freedomswhich the regulations already provide in principle and to allow those providing consultancyservices to compete with service providers from overseas.

Definition of Fire Safety Engineering

The International Standards Technical report on Fire Safety Engineering (ISO TR 13387-1)defines it as:

'The application of engineering principles, rules and expert judgement based on a scientificunderstanding of the fire phenomena, of the effects of fire, and of the reaction and behaviourof people, in order to:

• save life, protect property and preserve the environment and heritage,

• quantify the hazards and risk of fire and its effects,

• evaluate analytically the optimum protective and preventative measures necessary to limit,within prescribed levels, the consequences of fire.'

The benefits of fire safety engineering Fire Safety Engineering has many benefits. It: • forms the basis of design for fire safety of large construction works, including airport

terminals, stadia, convention centres and large atrium buildings which, by virtue of theircomplexity, cannot be designed easily using present technical guidance,

• provides the designer with a disciplined approach to fire safety design,

• allows the safety levels for alternative building designs to be compared,

• facilitates more cost effective design of complex buildings while retaining safety levels,

• enables drafters of regulations and codes to improve the consistency of information andjustify the amendment or removal of outdated traditional measures,

• provides a quantitative basis for trade-off between active and passive fire protection,

• overcomes the restraints on design imposed by prescriptive regulations/codes andremove obstacles to innovation for construction products and building design

• offers the prospect of reduced insurance premiums,

• assists British consultants working abroad to acquire and maintain leading edge expertisein fire safety design,

• facilitates fire investigations through an improved understanding of events in a firedisaster,

• assists in the development of fire tests, and

• assists in the management of fire safety for a building during its whole life cycle, includingthe construction phase, taking account of changes of building use.


The benefits offered by performance-based regulation can only be achieved throughexploitation of Fire Safety Engineering. As a consequence, the ISO TC92 Committee hascompletely restructured itself to provide greater emphasis and opportunity to FSE in itsStandards-making activities. It is also in the process of establishing a framework for thefuture standardisation of fire safety which is heavily biased towards, in particular, the needsto develop new fire test methods that can be used in FSE. None of the existing standardtests, with the possible exception of the Cone Calorimeter, meet these requirements. Objective The FSE package should be strongly influenced by the specific UK needs of those involved inthe design, construction, occupancy, management and policing of buildings. Thus thepackage needs to address and resolve the sometimes conflicting needs of the regulationdrafters, building control authorities, fire brigades, building designer, building materialproducer, building constructor, building user, building manager and insurer. This goal can only be reached by setting up, co-ordinating and monitoring a programme ofresearch with precisely defined aims and related timescales. However, a great deal ofresearch needs to be carried out to bring Fire Safety Engineering to a maturity where it canbe used with confidence for the design of buildings. It is therefore important to take into account related work being undertaken internationally.Fire Safety Engineering research needs to be co-ordinated on an international basis toensure that gaps are filled and unnecessary duplication is avoided. The UK is well placed inthis regard being prominent within IAFSS, ISO, FORUM, CIB etc. but many of our contributionsare overly dependent on work done in the past by researchers who are either retired, orwithin a few years of retirement. Concept The Fire Safety Engineering Framework developed in the UK and presented in BritishStandards documents (BS 7974) uses a "sub-systems" approach to fire safety design. The sub-systems identified are: • Initiation and development of fire in room of origin,

• Spread of smoke and toxic gases within andbeyondroom of origin,

• Fire spread beyond room of origin,• Detection and activation,• Fire service communication and response,• Evacuation.

Each sub-system provides guidance on how a range of parameters may be evaluated. Forexample, the sub-system for Initiation and development of fire states how the following canbe evaluated as time proceeds. Heat release rate, smoke production rate, carbon monoxideproduction rate, room temperature, time to flashover, area of fire involvement, and flame size.

Each sub-system requires inputs and provides outputs. An output from one sub-system maybe the input to another sub-system.

The current document uses these sub-systems to identify research needs although they arefurther refined into nine distinct components are identified. These are:


1. Fire initiation and development, 6. Evacuation,

2. Combustion products and smoke movement, 7. Characteristic data,

3. Passive fire protection, 8. Fire statistics and investigation

4. Detection, 9. Risk assessment.

5. Active fire protection

The research requirements within each of these components were presented in the original DoEDocument and are given in the Appendix below.

The overall research programme needs to be built up from these components. All must eventuallybe brought into maturity for FSE to be robust in itself, since FSE calls on the integrated outputsfrom the different components. These different topic areas can be advanced and applied andlinked with other areas on a developing basis. The strategy to be adopted must therefore:

• fill more urgent knowledge gaps in component areas where immediateapplications can be made to advance FSE development,

and • develop longer term research where there is a lack of well founded

knowledge which is needed to support the later years of the programme ofintegration and application.

However, it must also be recognised that the research areas are very different in theircomplexity, the disciplines which they call on and the data which must be available to supportthem. It also presupposes that it is known where Fire Safety Engineering is “insecure” and wherethe research is required. There are areas where there is no underpinning research, or where itis suspected that the research is questionable. In these situations it is obvious that research mustbe carried out, but there is a danger that where the underpinning research is perceived to besatisfactory, it will be assumed that further investigation is not required. The International Perspective Fire research in support of public safety has traditionally tended to be conducted largely atpublicly-funded research institutes. Often there is one such laboratory (US, Sweden, Finland,Holland etc) or sometimes two serving the needs of the "building" and "home security" or"transport" ministries (Japan, Australia, France, etc). Many, but not all of these, have been, likeFRS, or are now, like BRI and FRI in Japan, in the process of "commercialisation" of some sort.Already this is having a significant impact on the free flow of information between laboratoriesand indeed their involvement in international co-operation of various kinds may be declining. In addition to the Research Institutes, fire research is carried out in many Universities, fundeddirectly by the granting bodies, through the Research Institutes themselves (e.g. NIST in the USA,and formerly by FRS), and by Government Departments. This work has tended to be of a morefundamental level, often providing much needed diffusion of technologies from higher techapplications into fire research. There are, though, now a growing number of fire-specificUniversity groups (eg Lund, Sweden; Ghent, Belgium) who, in addition to providing much needededucation and training, cover similar research territory to the historical work of the researchinstitutes. There are several international bodies with a responsibility for fire safety. The InternationalAssociation for Fire Safety Science was established in 1985 to help raise standards and tostimulate the establishment of a firm scientific foundation for making fire safety decisions. TheConseil International du Batiment (CIB) has a working Commission on Fire. This provides a vehiclefor identifying and undertaking co-operative research work in support of building fire safety and itwas here that Performance-based fire regulation began to emerge as an idea. The InternationalFORUM for Fire Research is an informal group consisting of heads of fire research laboratorieswho discuss research strategy and attempt to optimise the use of nationally funded research


5

programmes and experimental facilities. There are also CEN and ISO committees devoted to firesafety. There is a strong atmosphere of co-operation between specialists but without internationalfunding this is living on borrowed time. For example, there has been no programme of researchidentified for support by the European Commission in the Fifth Framework Programme. Indeed thisoversight was drawn to their attention by a group of ENBRI (European Network of BuildingResearch Institutes) representatives at the time of publication of that Programme. The response ofthe Commission was to establish a "Fire Cluster" within a Thematic Network devoted toConstruction research. This does provide a useful vehicle for discussion between fire researchprojects funded by the EC but these have not been funded in response to a strategy but simply onthe basis of uncoordinated "bottom-up" proposals. The EC has though recently funded two large projects on tunnel fire problems, one a Networkanother a RTD project presumably largely in response to the very unfortunate spate of recentserious fires. The issues raised in this document are not parochial they also of concern in the internationalarena. At a recent meeting of the (US) United Engineering Foundation, the new Chairman of TheInternational FORUM for Fire Research, Dr Paul Croce of FM Global stated: "Fundamental scientific research focused on user/customer needs is not beingidentified, supported, done and/or effectively implemented!" His paper goes on to quote from the FORUM position paper on the "Evaluation of Productsand Services for Global Acceptance": • "Approval tests get ingrained. Once established it is difficult if not impossible to remove or

even revise them. Also, they create burdensome legacy issues.• FORUM members should encourage and advocate use of the most practicable scientifically-

based technology.

• In moving from prescriptive towards performance-based codes and standards morescientifically-based tests are required to provide data required for predictive models.

• The intent is to move towards the provision of tools - accurate data, tests - as the basis forequitable performance levels needed to support performance-based codes and standards.

• Rather than accede to tradition we bear responsibility to demonstrate the value of using the

most practicable technology.• Research labs need to serve the interests of all parties - industry, regulatory, and society.

• Research laboratories have the further responsibility to advance science needed for

progress."

The need to provide more scientifically based fire tests identified here is already being pursuedwithin ISO TC92.

Costs"Historical levels" of support for the totality of fire research which have always been regarded asinsufficient were "less than" 0.2% of fire losses annually. This would amount to "less than" £12million per year based on the 1999 losses in England & Wales alone.

DETR funding, traditionally the largest funder of fire research in the UK, has dwindled from over£4 million per year in 1995 to just over £1 million in 2001.

There have been very few "impact" studies on the benefits of fire research. One conducted in theUS [Shaenman, 1991] demonstrated an estimated annual saving of between $6-9 billion (in a total£128 billion loss) from the NIST "base" programme costing around $9 million per year-a gearing ofbetween 500 and 1000. The author states that "the savings would be considerably greater ifsecondary impacts were considered on business interuption, insurance and fire service costs".He goes on to say that the impacts tend to be long-lasting, "virtually every major contribution fromthe 1970's still is paying off".


Approximate costings for the work proposed here in support of fire safety engineering have beenattempted against each item listed in the Appendix. These are based on "fully commercial" ratesfor work undertaken by skilled staff. Where work could be undertaken by postgraduate studentsin Universities then these costs may be reduced.

Conclusion

There must be a change in attitude which incorporates an appreciation of the fact thatresearch relevant to the support of Fire Safety Engineering must be open to the academicand engineering community and subjected to a rigorous peer review process. There are anumber of instances where this has not occurred. Perhaps the most striking is the CBUFProject (Combustion Behaviour of Upholstered Furniture – European CommissionMeasurement and Testing Report EUR 16477 EN) which was published in a form that hidesthe fact that there was no peer review. Should the outcome of this research be adopted bythe European Commission to control upholstered furniture, then there would be justifiableopposition in view of the fact that several of the conclusions are based on dubious logic.

Conventionally, “research” can be regarded either as “academic” (“pure”) or “applied”.Academic research is the mainstay of Universities who will seek funding from bodies suchas EPSRC which is attracted by leading-edge research. Often EPSRC-funded fire projectsare seen to be rather esoteric from the point of view of the practising Fire Safety Engineer.These include the development of radiation models for computational flow dynamicspackages and the application of sophisticated diagnostic techniques to explore the structureand nature of flames. While such work is essential and should be encouraged for its longerterm contribution to the engineering approach, there is less glamorous work that must becarried out before this type of work can be “applied”. Occasionally, academic research isdriven by funding availability (such as EPSRC initiatives), but otherwise the academicresearcher has to use his skills to persuade EPSRC and other bodies to support differenttypes of activity. These may be derived from major incidents (for example, the Kings Crossfire and the Piper Alpha Disaster) where rapid advances in our understanding may be made,but there is no strategy behind such an approach – it is responsive and not proactive. Theterm “use-inspired fundamental research” was used recently to describe what is required.Clearly there is a need to identify the “use”.

Different sectors of the fire community have different views of what is meant by “FireResearch”. However, there is a fundamental level of research which is common to all theseinterests and it is only at the application stage that we see the various streams beginning todiverge. An extreme example would be to consider the concerns of the Fire Service whowish to improve the safety of the Fire Fighter carrying out his day to day duties. Thisrequires research, but it must be well-founded on existing reliable data obtained by the othercommunities working in association. Certainly, the perceptions of different governmentdepartments are diverse, but their needs must be underpinned by the same body offundamental research. This emphasises the fact that fundamental research must be done. Itis a highly cost-effective way forward as the derivative streams of applied research thatflow from it will then be well-founded and will be universally applicable. Generic fireresearch projects can be applied in different and various fields, whereas if these differentorganisations tackle it a less fundamental level they will be reinventing the wheel.

On a final note, it is appropriate to re-emphasise the need for a significant change of attitudeto Fire Safety Engineering. For example, a sector of the FSE community quite rightly pointsout the value of sprinklers. It would be tempting to rely on sprinklers as the only means ofdefence, but the Fire Safety Engineer should view the operation of the sprinkler system as apartial failure of his Fire Safety Engineering design. In the same way, if the fire resistance ofthe building structure is required to “perform”, then this is a clear indication of the failure ofother systems upstream (detection and alarm, sprinklers, etc) which should have prevented


the fire reaching a stage where the structure itself is threatened. The practitioner must bealert to new knowledge as it becomes available and so change his views and his priorities.

Professor G Cox, Chairman, ISO TC92 (Fire Safety)

Professor D D Drysdale, European Vice Chair, International Association for Fire SafetyScience, Edinburgh University

12 December 2001

Reference

Shaenman P, Estimated impact of the Center for Fire Research program on the costs of fire,US NIST GCR 91-591 (1991)


APPENDIX A-Some Generalities

Appendix B details the research requirements but here a summary is provided by attemptingto identify three "top level" research priorities with their potential pay-offs and costs for thefirst three years. These are supplemented by a cross-cutting priority for mathematical firemodelling. Each topic has been listed with the "prize" associated with its "solution", thebranches of science and engineering that it requires and some sense of the effort required interms of duration, the risks and costs involved.

The topics are:.• The fire “source”

– ignition, flame spread, fire chemistry

• Impact of fire on people & environment

– smoke movement, human factors

• Impact of fire on structures

– structural response

• Mathematical modelling is cross-cutting

• The “fire source”ignition, flame spread, fire chemistry

Prize: use/develop fire safe materials & products. With sufficient control we would “solve”-certainly minimise the whole problem

Research needed: Heat transfer, fluid mechanics, turbulent combustion, materials science,new meaningful tests, modelling

Long term 10-15 years; huge rewards; high risk

£3.5m-first 3 years

• Impact on people & environmentsmoke movement, human factors

Prize: innovative, safe & cost effective design (optimise escape route, fire protectionsystems etc)

Research needed: fluid mechanics, heat transfer, toxicology, psychology, wayfinding,signage etc

a) physical science-short term 5 years, high rewards, low riskb) social science-medium term, medium rewards, high risk


£2.8m-first 3 years

• Impact on structuresstructural response

Prize: optimised structural design; evaluation of sustainable structures

research needed: heat transfer; structural engineering; properties of materials, newmeaningful standard tests: modelling

short to medium term, medium rewards, low risk£1.75m-first 3 years

• Mathematical modelling

Prize: universal tools enabling integrated assessments of all areas

research needs; CFD, FEM, seamless integration of gas and solid phase models, PRA riskassessment methodologies

long term/continuous return; high rewards, low/medium riskcrosscutting £2.8m over 3 years

APPENDIX B-The Detail

This Appendix is taken from the original DoE Report “A Research Strategy for the Fire SafetyEngineering Design of Buildings”, published in 1995. The original report made no attempt toprioritise beyond what it felt were urgent and longer term requirements. Although there hasbeen some activity since then on a few of the "shorter term" items listed the coverage hasbeen patchy and does not reflect any prioritisation which will ensure that Fire SafetyEngineering will progress in a secure manner.

The original report made no attempt to estimate the cost of individual research items. In fact,the costs will be closely linked to the complexity of each item and the duration of eachassociated project. The report laid out a 10 year plan. It may be possible to complete someof the individual items within a short period of time (say 1 or 2 years), but others will takemuch longer (5 years or more). Some may have to await the outcome of others before theycan be started. In the following pages, an attempt has been made to estimate (a) the cost ofeach item and (b) the likely duration. For the moment, the question of prioritisation is left forfuture discussion but we have here tried to give some overall estimates of costs andduration.

A common theme is the continuing development and validation of computer simulation models(eg CFD, FE) for a variety of the research items listed and it may be more sensible toseparate this from the components listed below and to focus effort at a generic level.

1. Fire initiation and development

Aims

1. To understand the processes which determine the initiation and growth of fire at theinternal (and external) surfaces of buildings and to identify material properties whichcontribute to these processes.


2. To develop suitable methods for measuring key material properties which contribute to thedetermination of fire development.

3. To develop methods for predicting fire spread from the item first ignited and hence initial

growth rates for fires developing within spaces. 4. To understand the processes which contribute to fire spread in ducts and cavities

(including corridors and staircases) and to develop predictive methods. 5. To develop methods for predicting the rate of production of smoke and combustion

products from burning contents and building fabric.

Background

The development of a fire is a complex process. It may start accidentally or may be the resultof deliberate action. In the past most consideration has been given to the former, althoughwith the increase in arson it may be appropriate to consider the latter, especially for somebuildings (eg schools). Once started, the way in which a fire develops is crucial to the time itmay take to be detected, the time available for escape and the resources and time required tocontrol it.

Within an enclosed space fire growth rate is a determinant of the onset of flashover (ie fullinvolvement of all combustible material). The nature and rate of production of combustiongases and smoke are closely related to fire growth.

In relation to Building Regulations, the principal concern at the initial stages of fire growth hasbeen with the reaction-to-fire performance of lining materials and laboratory tests have beenderived to assess fire spread and heat release. However, these only provide a basis forranking and classifying materials. More recently ‘second generation’ test methods (such asthe Cone Calorimeter) have been developed which provide characteristic properties ofmaterials and can more readily provide a basis for predicting performance in real conditions.Although not part of the fabric of the building, the fire performance of contents cannot beignored. Apart from forming the principal fire load once the fire in a space approaches fulldevelopment, items of contents are usually the first to be ignited and provide the ignitionsource for the surface linings. The interaction of items of contents with each other and withthe fabric, is a major determinant of fire growth rate.

Strategic research items

Short term

1. Review the existing theoretical approaches to ignitability and the prediction of flamespread at combustible surfaces. Identify test methods (including the ISO reaction-to-fire‘Toolkit’) necessary to provide characteristic material properties and extend the theoreticalmethods, if necessary, to supply models for predicting initial fire growth rate.

100k (1 year)2. Identify and investigate the factors which determine fire spread from one object to

another (including spacing, configuration and ignitability of the contents, and buildingparameters such as ceiling height which affects downward radiation from the hot gaslayer), in order to develop generalised rules for fire growth within an enclosure.

200k (2 years)3. Identify contents typical of particular types of building. Review available data on the

combustion characteristics of contents. Extend these data, as necessary,bymeasurements, using a large calorimeter. Derive typical fire growth rates, togetherwith information on smoke and toxic gas production.

250k (3 years)


4. Carry out small-scale and large-scale experiments to investigate the effect of reducedoxygen supply on the combustion characteristics of typical building materials, as a basisfor predicting smoke and toxic gas production in poorly ventilated fires.

500k (3 years)5. Carry out full-scale experiments to measure fire growth rates both to provide data for

design purposes and to validate predictions from small-scale studies.500k (2 years)

Long term

1. Develop theoretical models for surface flame spread which combine fundamentals ofheat transfer and combustion chemistry with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysisof the gas flow, to produce a method for predicting flame spread and fire growth rate fora range of scenarios. Most likely this will involve the coupling of modelling and newgeneration test methods (see ISO TC/92 "Framework for the future of fire safetystandardisation" proposals) for real products.

200k (3 years)2. Using a combination of theoretical and experimental studies, investigate the factors which

govern fire spread in horizontal and vertical ducts (including ceiling voids, staircases andcorridors).

300k (3 years)

Total 2050k


2. Combustion products and smoke movement

Aims

1. To provide validated models for the prediction of the movement of hot and cool smokeboth within and outside of the space containing the fire of origin, and hence to providemethods of smoke control in order to allow occupants to escape and the fire to be fought.

2. To establish methods for assessing the tenability of atmospheres containing products of

combustion.

Background

Exposure to the products of combustion, rather than to the fire itself, is the principal cause ofinjury and death in fires. This is exacerbated by the presence of smoke which limits visibilityand hence inhibits escape. It is, therefore, important both to be able to predict the movementof fire products within a building and to have methods for assessing the effect on occupantsof exposure to these products.

A combination of experimental studies, principally using scale models but also including full-scale measurements and theoretical modelling has provided the basis of methods forcalculating entrainment into fire plumes and rate of development of hot gas layers in enclosedspaces. The principal areas of application have been large spaces such as atria, shoppingmalls and industrial buildings.

Despite the progress made over recent years, there are still some areas of uncertainty,leading to differences in design approach. These include some aspects of entrainment intofire and smoke plumes and the interaction of plumes with hot gas layers.

Zone models provide a basis for predicting smoke movement in simple enclosures, but formore complex and large volume spaces methods using computational fluid dynamics (CFD)will be required. At present there are relatively few suitable data available for validatingeither approach, particularly CFD.


Short term

1. Carry out a detailed review of experimental data on entrainment into fire and smokeplumes of different configurations and their interaction with hot gas layers. Identify andclarify, by further experiments if necessary, any anomalies.

200k (3 years)2. Develop further the use of computational fluid dynamics methods for predicting smoke

movement in complex spaces. Validate results against specially designed full-scaleexperiments.500k (3 years)

3. Develop methods, including the use of computational fluid dynamics, for predicting smoke

movement in complex buildings, including linked spaces, taking into account heat transferfrom hot gas layers to adjacent surfaces.

250k (3 years)4. Review methods for assessing tenability of atmospheres containing combustion products

and provide guidance for use by designers.100k (1 year)

Long term


1. Develop reliable analytical methods (involving CFD) for predicting the generation andtransport within buildings of non-equilibrium products of combustion (eg carbonmonoxide).

200k (3 years)2. Explore the contribution that "next generation" Large Eddy Simulation CFD modelling can

make100k (2 years)

Total 1350k


3. Passive fire protection

Aims

1. To develop an improved basis for design to ensure that fully developed fires arecontained within the compartment of origin.

2. To develop improved and well validated methods of predicting the response of structures

to fire.

Background

If a fire grows to a sufficient size within a compartment then it may breach the boundingwalls (or floors/ceilings) and spread to other parts of a building. In order to prevent this fromoccurring, or to delay its occurrence sufficiently to allow occupants to escape from otherparts of the building, bounding elements are designed to have a given level of fire resistance.Fire resistance relates to the ability of the element to retain its integrity and loadbearingcapacity, and to provide sufficient insulation. Fire resistance is measured by subjectingelements to a standard temperature/time profile in a furnace and is expressed as the time atwhich failure occurs. While furnace-testing has been extensively employed for many years,it is known that the same specimen may appear to behave differently in furnaces of differentdesign (construction, burner arrangement, fuel), despite the use of a commontemperature/time profile. This is a particular matter of concern in relation to the harmonisationof fire test methods within the European Union.

In general, real fires do not follow the standard time/temperature curve, and simpleprescriptive requirements based upon a minimum time to failure in the furnace test mayoverestimate the level of protection required. Methods of calculating fire severity taking intoaccount factors such as fire load, level of ventilation, etc are available and form the basis of‘time-equivalent’ approaches, but these need further development before they can be usedwith confidence. Further, these approaches generally assume full involvement of allcombustible material within the compartment and uniform temperatures. This may not be truein some situations, particularly for large or poorly ventilated spaces. This requires furtherinvestigation, in conjunction with work on the mechanisms of fire spread. Ventilation plays akey role in fire development within a space and in the estimation of fire severity.

Often this requires assumptions on when (and whether) windows will break. There are,however, only limited data on which to base these assumptions.

While furnace tests are likely to continue to be required for proving integrity, computer-basedcalculation methods are now becoming available which allow both the temperatures andstresses within building elements to be predicted for a given fire exposure. Such methodscan both contribute to improved assessments of the performance of elements in lieu ofcarrying out furnace tests, and predict the effect of fire on complex structures. However,the methods do need to be validated and the user-friendliness of the software improvedbefore they can be used more generally.


Short term

1. Review current approaches to furnace testing. Establish, by experimental and theoreticalinvestigations, the principal causes of variability between furnaces of different design,and develop methods to ensure harmonisation.

300k (3 years)


2. Develop, using both experimental and theoretical approaches, improved methods forestimating fire severity, including the effects of distribution and nature of fire load, andventilation.

500k (5 years)3. Develop, and validate by full-scale experiments, theoretical methods for predicting the

effect of fire on complex structures.500k (5 years)

Long term

1. Develop methods for assessing the performance in fire of separating elementssubstantially larger than can be tested in conventional furnaces, and produce designguidance.

200k (3 years)2. Develop integrated gas/solid phase models using CFD and finite element analysis for

predicting structural response.150k (3 years)

Total 1650k


4. Detection

Aims

1. To identify the characteristics of detector systems of different types and provideguidance to designers on their reliability, including non-availability and false alarmgeneration, and application.

2. To develop new forms of detector and associated systems and investigate the integration

of fire detection and alarm systems with systems serving other building services. 3. To provide guidance on the optimum location of detectors for particular applications.

Background

There are three principal types of detector based upon the ability to sense convected heat,convected smoke or flame. They need to be sufficiently sensitive to respond quickly to thepresence of fire but not so sensitive that they are triggered by other events, giving rise tofalse alarms. Response time depends both upon the characteristics of the detector and itsposition relative to the fire. Detectors may be used in conjunction with alarm systems or toinitiate fire suppression or smoke control systems.

Key issues for the designer are the reliability of detectors, and their associated signalprocessing software and correct choice of type and location.


Short term

1. Investigate the levels of reliability and performance (in particular, in relation to responsetime and false alarm) of existing and future detection systems, including both detectorsand associated signal-processing software, when exposed to conditions typical of realfires.

200k (3 years)2. Develop, in conjunction with the fire protection industry, detectors based upon fire

products other than heat and smoke.100k (3-5 years)

Long term

1. Investigate, both experimentally and using theoretical air flow models, the optimum sitingand spacing of detectors in relation to potential fire sources and building features(including HVAC systems and ceiling geometries). The use of CFD models on a case bycase basis may suffice

250k (3 years)2. Investigate the possibility and advantages of including fire detection systems together

with sensing systems concerned with other aspects of building performance(temperature, humidity, plant operation, etc) to form a single integrated system.

300k (3 years)

Total 850k


5. Active fire protection systems

Aims

1. To develop an improved understanding of the interaction of water sprays and mists withfire and, in consequence, to provide guidance on the design of systems tailored tospecific needs, and the level of heat output and the nature of combustion products fromsprinklered fires.

2. To develop improved technical guidance for the design of smoke control systems. 3. To provide guidance on the interaction of sprinklers with smoke layers and on its

implications for evacuation and for the design of active fire protection systems.

Background

The development of a fire may be controlled by the use of suppression systems (generallybased on water but also, where water is inappropriate, on gas, foam or powder). Operationmay be by a simple mechanical system operating at a given temperature (bulb or fusible link),or by combination with a remote detector. Standard sprinkler systems are widely used andguidance and design rules exist for their specification in relation to the probable fire hazard.The need to replace halon systems, in the light of the Montreal Protocol, has led to increasinginterest in fine water sprays (with droplets an order of magnitude smaller than conventionalsprinklers).

Despite the widespread use of water as a fire suppressant, knowledge of the actualphysical mechanisms is limited. A better understanding would provide for more effectivedesign and the tailoring of systems to particular needs. More urgently, there is little availableinformation on the effect of sprinkler systems on fire growth rate. Simplified assumptions onheat release are made for design calculation purposes but have not been adequatelyvalidated. Little information is available on the effects of fire load configuration, notablywhere ‘sheltering’ occurs.

The other principal form of active fire protection is smoke control by channelling and venting.The background to smoke movement is covered in Component 2. In order to prevent smoke-logging and to maintain clear escape routes, smoke may be removed by natural or mechanicalventing. In the former case the driving mechanism is the buoyancy of the hot gas layerformed beneath a roof or ceiling. The design of such systems depends upon the basicknowledge set out in Component 2, but their operation may be affected by a number offeatures including external wind; flows generated within the hot, buoyant layer; incoming airflows through doorways and other openings; ‘plug-holing’ and, not least, interaction withsprinkler systems (which may cool the hot layer, reducing the effectiveness of the system).A second approach to smoke control, particularly used to protect vertical escape routes suchas staircases, is to prevent smoke entry to the escape route by application of mechanical air-handling systems, to create a pressure difference across any openings to the firecompartment.


Short term

1. Carry out both theoretical and experimental studies to improve the understanding of thesuppressant action of water droplets on fires. Provide guidance on the optimisation ofthe design of sprinkler, water mist and related systems.

250k (3 years)


2. Carry out experimental and theoretical studies, applying the result of work carried outunder Component 2 where appropriate, to improve the efficiency and reliability of smokeventilation systems and provide guidance for designers.

200k (3 years)3. Carry out experimental studies to establish the effect of sprinklers on fire growth rates

(and associated production of smoke and toxic gases) for selected typical fire loads.Investigate the effect of fire load configuration. Provide guidance for design purposes onfire growth rates, and production rates of smoke and toxic gases.

250k (3 years)4. Investigate the reliability of sprinkler systems.

200k (2 years)5. Carry out experimental and theoretical studies to investigate the interaction of sprinklers

and smoke control systems.200k (3 years)

Long term

1. Develop comprehensive modelling capability for predicting the interaction of droplets of allsizes with combustion products.

200k (3 years)2. Develop and validate improved guidance on smoke control, based upon improved methods

for predicting smoke movement in spaces with complex configurations.200k (3 years)

Total 1500k


6. Evacuation

Aims

To develop models to allow the estimation of the time taken to evacuate a building in the eventof fire and to provide data necessary for the application of such models.

Background

The time taken for the evacuation of an individual occupant is the sum of the time taken toreact to a fire threat and the time taken to reach a place of safety. The former will dependupon the nature of the warning signal and the receptiveness of the occupant, while the latterwill depend upon the availability of escape routes, signals concerning the fire location,familiarity of the occupant with the building, mobility of the occupant, and the number andmobility of other occupants using the same egress routes. The efficiency of evacuation willin many instances depend not only on building-related features but on the quality of firesafety management (including training, maintenance of escape routes and signage).

Research strategy items

Short term

1. Review information on the range of methods available for alerting occupants to fire, inrelation to efficacy, cost and complexity. If necessary undertake further research,including full-scale trials if appropriate, to supply additional information.

150k (3 years)2. Investigate the human and external factors which determine choice by occupants of an

evacuation route and their behaviour following a fire alert and during evacuation(including their need to search for or assist others).

100k (2 years)3. Construct, and validate with information from actual fires and from trials, models to enable

evacuation times to be estimated.250k (3 years)

Total 500k


7. Characteristic data

Aims

1. To provide data on UK buildings (including occupancy and contents) which are neededfor fire safety design.

2. To provide data on the effects of fire and fire products on people, and their ability to

escape.

Background

Many factors which affect the possible development of fire within a building, its subsequentgrowth and the escape of occupants are determined by considerations other than firesafety. These factors include, in particular, the fire load quantity (and arrangement ofcombustible contents at given locations), the characteristics of occupants (including mobilityand familiarity with surroundings) and the number of occupants present at any given time.

For particular cases these factors may be known in some detail but very often assumptionswill need to be made for design purposes. These may take the form of single design valuesrelated to the use of the building or, for probability-based design, a distribution of values.

A number of surveys of the contents of buildings have been made, often in conjunction withother studies (such as floor loading), in order to provide data on ‘fire load’ in connection withassessment of the potential of severity of fully developed fires. In general, these haveprovided a satisfactory basis for this purpose but are unlikely to furnish the detail necessaryfor determining conditions which depend upon the juxtaposition of contents (ie, initial firegrowth rate and fire spread in large compartments where all of the combustible material is notinvolved at one time) or their protection from fire (material in cabinets) or sprinklers. Further,a watching brief is required as the predominant materials from which contents are fabricatedmay change with time (eg plastics vis-à-vis wood).

In relation to evacuation in the event of a fire, it is essential to know both the likely numbers ofoccupants affected and their ability to escape, which will in turn depend upon mobility, ageand familiarity with surroundings. While some data on occupancy levels are known andgeneral assumptions may be made on the nature of the occupants of some types of building(offices, schools, etc), there are areas where knowledge is limited and could be improved.


Short term

1. Review existing data and devise a methodology for characterising combustible material(and its arrangement) in buildings of selected types. Carry out pilot and full-scalesurveys (possibly in conjunction with surveys carried out for other purposes) tocharacterise fire loads (including composition, disposition and degree of ‘shielding’ fromsprinklers) and possible areas of ventilation opening, including the likelihood of doorsbeing open.

150k (1.5 years)2. Review existing data on occupant numbers in buildings of selected types. Identify gaps

in knowledge. Design and carry out surveys to provide data on numbers and nature ofoccupants (able-bodied/infirm; level of familiarity with building, etc).

100k (2 years)


3. Review information on the effect of smoke density on visibility (for both directly andindirectly lit objects). Devise and carry out experimental trials to confirm or enhanceexisting data.

150k (2 years)Long term

1. Monitor changes in building design and use which could render data acquired under (1)and (2) above out-of-date, and carry out further surveys as required.

(continuous)

Total 400k


8. Fire statistics and investigation

Aims

To provide data on the performance of buildings and building components and the behaviourof people in fires, and the factors which influence fire initiation, growth and spread, basedupon both the direct investigation and the analysis of recorded data concerning real fireoccurrences.

Background

Because of the nature of fire, full-scale tests are relatively expensive and the opportunity tocarry out experimental investigation in real buildings is rare. However, much can be learnedfrom real fires.

National data, systematically sampled and recorded, can provide a valuable database fromwhich information on the probability of occurrence of key factors, such as those whichdetermine fire initiation and fire growth rate, can be determined for buildings of differenttypes. The principal source of such data results from routine reports required of firebrigades concerning fires which they attend. These data are collected and collated by theHome Office. Other surveys could be carried out, using appropriately selected samples, orby inclusion of fire-related components in surveys (such as the English House ConditionSurvey) carried out for other purposes.

Specific on-side investigation of major fires, or fires of special interest, can provide valuabledata both to identify possible scenarios for fire growth and spread, and for comparison withpredictions from theoretical models which form the basis of Fire Safety Engineeringcalculations. To carry out such investigations requires an experienced team, available toattend fires at short notice as well as having a close liaison with the fire brigades and otherswho may be involved, including insurance and forensic investigators.


Short term

1. Review the information, suitable for use in both deterministic and probabilistic approachesto fire safety design, which can be obtained from the statistical data collated by the HomeOffice from fire brigade reports. Carry out further analysis, if necessary, to identify, interalia, the frequency of occurrence of fire starts, sources of ignition, rates of fire growthin different types of building and the reliability of active and passive fire protectionmeasures.

200k (3 years)2. Identify key areas not covered by Home Office data and, where possible, devise surveys

or other approaches, to obtain the information required. 50k (0.5 years)

3. Prepare guidance on fire investigation and associated techniques and equipment, toensure that as much useful information as possible relating to fire safety design isobtained from real fires. Carry out a continuing programme of fire investigation.

100k (1 year)Long term

1. Continue to review sources of data and update analysis and surveys as required. 50k (continuous)

2. Continue to support the systematic investigation of real fires, and develop a bank of datafor use in defining fire scenarios and validating models of fire development.

100k (continuous)

Total 500k


9. Risk assessment

Aims

To develop methods for integrating the various components of the fire safety system in orderto allow the risks associated with particular design choices to be evaluated.

Background

The ability to quantify fire safety in buildings is still at an early stage. To do so requiresadequate models of the individual processes and the means of integrating these andappropriate data. The assessment of risk associated with a particular fire safety designprovides the basis for comparison with the ‘level’ of fire safety associated with existingregulatory requirements or for comparison with other risks to which people may be exposed.

A number of approaches to risk assessment are possible, ranging from relatively simplemethods, based on expert assessment and decision-tree techniques, to full probability-based, simulation approaches. A start has been made in the UK and in other countries todevelop frameworks for fire safety assessment based on simulation models. These needfurther development and exposure to design (and regulatory) scenarios before they can beused by designers, regulators and fire safety professionals to form the basis of a practicaltool. Consideration needs to be given to the acceptable levels of risk which may apply to firesafety.


Short term

Develop existing risk assessment frameworks and, using data and theoretical modelsderived, where appropriate, from other components of the research programme, apply theseto the assessment of alternative approaches to fire safety for selected, initially simplebuildings, including comparison with guidance associated with fire safety regulations.

200k (3 years)Long term

Continue to develop risk assessment frameworks, including probability-based simulationmethods, for application to the design of complex buildings.

250k (3 years)

Total 450k


The Impact of People on Fire

Following further discussion of the original paper this additional section was added by D TDavis, Chairman of Institution of Fire Engineers Management Committee, to research both theapplication and performance of FSE as impacted upon by people when in use under activeconditions.

Aims

1. To identify the characteristics of human and particularly firefighting intervention by thefire service and other persons, evaluating performance and application to reduceenvironmental damage, improve intervention equipment and techniques.

2. To investigate human behaviour in fire situations interviewing survivors and thoroughevaluation of observed evacuation under trial conditions, to develop improvededucation, modelling and design applications.

3. To improve fire investigation into materials, structures and human behaviour togenerally aid fire research.

Background

Fire safety engineering includes a recognition that human behaviour will have an influence onthe chosen design. This influence may be positive or negative. Understanding whatchanges have occurred since the design stage in how the building has been used, the FSEsystems operated, the assembled materials affected fire growth, the use made of the modesof evacuation installed and the fire service response and actions, are important, both inreducing probabilistic modelling and environmental damage and improving actual performance.Fire investigation is the tool used for this review and learning from actual fires. Statisticaldata and the techniques used to ensure common understanding are central to thisinvestigation.

Key issues will include improvement in public education and staff training; development of fireservice equipment and operational techniques; better escape planning and information to aidthose escaping, usable data and networking between researchers and witnesses to fire andhuman behaviour under actual circumstances. This impact is central to the applicationprocesses of FSE and risk assessment.


Short term

1. Investigate the performance of current evacuation systems with specific emphasis onthe experience of the World Trade Centre .

200k (2 years)

2. Improve fire investigation techniques in the context of ensuring data is available fromfire brigades to the research community

100k (1 year)

3. In conjunction with the industry review the effectiveness of evacuation controlsystems in complex buildings.

100k (3 years)

Longer term


1. Develop new firefighting equipment and techniques to improve firefightingeffectiveness by fire services

250k (3 years)

2. Evaluate and inform FSE design engineers, through modelling and other guidance, onthe appropriate values of suppression and ventilation systems

150k (3 years)

3. Develop risk assessment models and programmes to improve fire service responseand reduce environmental damage.

200k (3-5 years)

Total 1000K


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