FORUM

Finding Archaeological Relevance during a Pandemic and What Comes After

Lynn H. Gamble , Cheryl Claassen, Jelmer W. Eerkens, Douglas J. Kennett, Patricia M. Lambert,Matthew J. Liebmann, Natasha Lyons, Barbara J. Mills, Christopher B. Rodning, Tsim D. Schneider,Stephen W. Silliman, Susan M. Alt, Douglas Bamforth, Kelley Hays-Gilpin, Anna Marie Prentiss,

and Torben C. Rick

This article emerged as the human species collectively have been experiencing the worst global pandemic in a century. With along view of the ecological, economic, social, and political factors that promote the emergence and spread of infectious dis-ease, archaeologists are well positioned to examine the antecedents of the present crisis. In this article, we bring together avariety of perspectives on the issues surrounding the emergence, spread, and effects of disease in both the Americas andAfro-Eurasian contexts. Recognizing that human populations most severely impacted by COVID-19 are typically descendantsof marginalized groups, we investigate pre- and postcontact disease vectors among Indigenous and Black communities inNorth America, outlining the systemic impacts of diseases and the conditions that exacerbate their spread. We look at howmaterial culture both reflects and changes as a result of social transformations brought about by disease, the insights thatpaleopathology provides about the ancient human condition, and the impacts of ancient globalization on the spread of diseaseworldwide. By understanding the differential effects of past epidemics on diverse communities and contributing to more equit-able sociopolitical agendas, archaeology can play a key role in helping to pursue a more just future.

Keywords: infectious diseases, COVID-19, epidemics and pandemics, inequality, Indigenous and Black communities, paleo-pathology, climate change, marginalization, material culture, history of disease

Este articulo surgió a medidas que atravesamos la peor pandemia mundial de un siglo. Con visión a largo plazo de factoresecológicos, económicos, sociales y políticos que promueven el aparecimiento y propagación de enfermedades infecciosas, los

Lynn H. Gamble (gamble@anth.ucsb.edu, corresponding author) and Douglas J. Kennett ▪ Department of Anthropology,University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USACheryl Claassen ▪ Department of Anthropology, Appalachian State University, Box 32016, Boone, NC 28608, USAJelmer W. Eerkens ▪ Department of Anthropology, One Shields Ave, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USAPatriciaM. Lambert ▪Department of Sociology, SocialWork, andAnthropology, 0730 OldMain Hill, Utah State University,Logan, UT 84322-0730, USAMatthew J. Liebmann▪Department of Anthropology, HarvardUniversity,11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge,MA 02138, USANatasha Lyons ▪ Ursus Heritage Consulting and Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, 11500 ColdstreamCreek Road, Coldstream, British Columbia, V1B 1E3, CanadaBarbara J. Mills ▪ School of Anthropology, PO Box 210030, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0030, USAChristopher B. Rodning ▪Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, 101 Dinwiddie Hall, 6823 Saint Charles Avenue,New Orleans, LA 70118, USATsim D. Schneider ▪ Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USAStephenW. Silliman▪Department of Anthropology, University ofMassachusetts, Boston, 100Morrissey Boulevard, Boston,MA 02125-3393, USASusan M. Alt ▪ Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USADouglas Bamforth ▪ Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0233, USAKelley Hays-Gilpin ▪ Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5200, USAAnna Marie Prentiss ▪ Department of Anthropology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USATorben C. Rick ▪ Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC 20013-7012, USA

American Antiquity 86(1), 2021, pp. 2–22Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the

Society for American Archaeology. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and

reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.doi:10.1017/aaq.2020.94

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arqueólogos están en buena posición para examinar los antecedentes de la crisis actual. En este artículo, presentamos unavariedad de perspectivas sobre cuestiones de aparecimiento, propagación, y efectos de enfermedades en las Américas yAfro-Eurasia. Reconociendo que las poblaciones humanas más afectadas por COVID-19 suelen ser compuestas de descen-dientes de grupos marginados, investigamos los vectores de enfermedades pre y post contacto entre las comunidades indígenasy negras en Norteamérica, describiendo los impactos sistemáticos de las enfermedades y las condiciones que agravan su pro-pagación. Examinamos como la cultura material refleja y cambia como resultado de las transformaciones sociales provocadaspor la enfermedad, los conocimientos que provee la paleopatología sobre la antigua condición humana, y los impactos de laantigua globalización en la propagación de enfermedades en todo el mundo. Al entender los efectos diferentes de epidemiaspasadas en diversas comunidades y al contribuir a agendas sociopolíticas más equitativas, la arqueología puede tener unpapel importante en formar un futuro más justo.

Palabras clave: enfermedades infecciosas, COVID-19, epidemias y pandemias, desigualdad, comunidades Indígenas yNegras, paleopatología, cambio climático, marginación, cultura material, historia de enfermedad

Ideas for this article emerged as we experiencethe worst global pandemic in a century. It hasaffected all aspects of life—political, religious,

economic—and social structures have been chal-lenged at multiple levels. The primary goal of thisarticle is to encourage scholars to consider thebroader issues that the world confronts today andhow we, as archaeologists, contribute to a greaterunderstanding of similar issues that occurred inthe past (Trigger 2006:546–548). Archaeologistsare well positioned to examine the ecological, eco-nomic, social, and political factors that promote theemergence and spreadof infectious disease over thelong term. We hope to encourage scholars to usearchaeological knowledge by applying it to broadertopics of current significance in the world and tostimulate thinking on significant issues we facetoday—in this case, disease.

The ongoing COVID-19 global pandemicprovides the most recent example of the eco-nomic devastation and human suffering causedby the rapid spread of infectious disease, expos-ing long-term weaknesses in infrastructure.Irrational behaviors—such as berating construc-tion workers installing 5G networks because ofthe belief that they cause the virus, or suggestionsby world leaders that the ingestion of bleachcould be a cure for the disease—materialize aspeople cast blame, unable to believe or copewith scientific explanations. This pandemicillustrates how people do not always do the saf-est or most sensible things. Instead, long-termsocietal fractures are exposed and amplified.Events of the present provide an opportunityto tack backward and forward in time and usetoday’s lessons to humanize archaeological

analysis and contextualize the factors thatdrive human actions.

In this article, we begin with an examinationof the historic period and the social issues sur-rounding the emergence, spread, and effects ofdisease. Inequality is a central concern in thesediscussions. Although inequalities are known tohave developed within long-lived cultural tradi-tions (Flannery and Marcus 2012; Kohler et al.2017), they are most strongly associated withcolonial situations. Human populations mostseverely impacted by COVID-19 are typicallythe descendants of those groups (Dávalos et al.2020). We address epidemic (outbreaks affectingcommunities or regions vs. pandemics that areinternational in scale) disease among Indigenousgroups in North America and Mexico, outliningsystemic impacts of diseases and the conditionsthat can exacerbate their spread. The importanceof mobility as a disease vector and as a strategy ofavoidance and even resilience is also investi-gated. We then examine impacts of disease onBlack communities as an effect of vulnerabilityand marginalization.

In the second part of the article, we addressthe interplay of material culture, palaeopath-ology, and demography. We investigate howmaterial culture both reflects and changes as aresult of social transformations brought aboutby disease. In addition, we examine new insightsthat paleopathology provides about the ancienthuman condition via traditional, recent, andemerging analytical techniques, with examplesof diseases from the Americas both before andafter European contact. The final section mirrorsmany of the issues in the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Here, we consider how the spread of infectiousdisease was particularly rampant among ancientsocieties, and how this spread was exacerbatedby climate-induced crop failures that made popu-lations more susceptible to disease. We concludewith thoughts about how the archaeologicalstudy of disasters, such as pandemics, can con-tribute to the growth of an archaeology thatboth furthers our understanding of the majorchallenges that humanity faces and supports thecreation of equitable and scientifically supportedagendas and solutions.

This article was written by the members ofthe American Antiquity Editorial Board duringand in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.Through data, research, and analytical techniques,the texts that follow bring together different per-spectives on the current situation and the waythese relate to human actions of the past. The arti-cle provides a multivocal commentary that hasthe goal of providing insights that are useful innew research on human-disease interactions.

Epidemic Disease among Indigenous Peoples,Black Communities, and Other

Underrepresented Groups

Best-selling books such as Jared Diamond’s Pu-litzer Prize–winning Guns, Germs, and Steel(1999) and Charles Mann’s 1491 (2005) drawattention to the devastation of Indigenous com-munities due to epidemic diseases introducedthrough European colonialism. These workshelped to popularize the notion that Indigenousdepopulation was a natural outcome, due to par-ticularities of geography and genes. Althoughbiology and geography may have laid the foun-dations for what followed, this naturalizationseparates the actions of people from the spreadof disease, shifting blame from European settleronto microbes and genetics.

Sustained archaeological research from acrossNorth America over the past 30 years demon-strates that the spread of epidemic diseases inthe wake of European colonialism was complex(Hull 2009:220–282). Diseases did not spreadindependently from the actions of colonialagents, as hypothesized by a previous generationof scholars (e.g. Dobyns 1983). Advances in dat-ing and spatial analytics show that epidemic

diseases lagged behind initial contacts in manyareas, rather than advancing in a wave ahead ofEuropean traders, settlers, and missionaries inthe sixteenth century. In the U.S. Southwest,for example, the earliest evidence for postcontactPueblo depopulation occurs nearly a centuryafter first encounters with Europeans and Afri-cans, and more than three decades after the estab-lishment of the first colonial settlements in theregion (Liebmann et al. 2016). Similarly, diseaseappears to have followed on the heels of colonialincursions in the U.S. Southeast, Northeast,Great Lakes region, and Far West, as well as onthe Canadian Shield and the Northwest Coast(Jones 2014). In other areas, there is strong archae-ological evidence of depopulation consistent withepidemic disease after initial contact but beforesustained settlement (for example, progressivereduction in settlement and house sizes; Collison2013; Kvamme and Ahler 2007).

The archaeology of colonial North Americasuggests that Indigenous depopulation due toinfectious disease is not a matter of simple expos-ure to new germs, as evidenced by the lagbetween first encounters and Indigenous depopu-lation events. Nor are infectious diseases autono-mous and wholly “natural” processes. Instead, asDale Hutchinson (2016) suggests, infectious dis-eases are also social processes, the consequencesof which are directly affected by human deci-sions and dispositions. Archaeology demon-strates that Indigenous peoples died in vastnumbers after 1492 not only because Europeansintroduced new diseases but because Europeansintroduced social structures that promoted newforms of poverty, famine, malnutrition, violence,and dislocation. These haunts of colonialism,termed “structural violence” by medical anthro-pologist Paul Farmer (2004), worked in concertwith disease to render Indigenous communitiesparticularly vulnerable. Instead of causing injurythrough direct physical actions, structural vio-lence refers to the economic, legal, political,and religious forces that place individuals andpopulations in harm’s way.

Historical narratives inform how we thinkabout Indigenous health and inequality today.The horrors of seventeenth-century “virginsoil” epidemics may appear to have been aunique occurrence—an accident of history (and

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biology) that could never occur again. But thisposition ignores the fact that Indigenous commu-nities have suffered disproportionately negativehealth outcomes for more than 500 years. ForIndigenous peoples living under colonialregimes, health disparities are a persistent factof life. Whether we are talking about smallpox,measles, and typhus in the seventeenth and eigh-teenth centuries; tuberculosis in the nineteenthand twentieth centuries; or COVID-19 in thetwenty-first. Today, Indigenous communitiessuffer deaths due to diabetes at more than threetimes and cardiovascular disease at twice therate of the rest of the nation, and infant mortalityrates double that of the rest of the U.S. population(Indian Health Service 2020). In the 1918 influ-enza pandemic, and again during the 2009 out-break of swine flu (also known as H1N1), thedeath rate for Indigenous groups that contractedthese diseases was four times that of all otherracial and ethnic groups combined (NationalLibrary of Medicine 2020).

Tragically and unsurprisingly, Indigenouscommunities have been hit particularly hard bythe novel coronavirus in 2020. In New Mexico,where Native Americans comprise 11% of thestate’s population, Indigenous persons accountedfor 57% of the state’s 4,863 COVID-19 cases asof May 10, 2020 (New Mexico Department ofHealth 2020). The Pueblos of Zia and San Felipereported some of the highest community infec-tion rates in the country, at 3.4% and 2.36%,respectively. Those rates exceeded that ofNew York City at the height of the spring 2020pandemic (Chavez 2020). Once again, this isnot a “natural” or inevitable situation. These sta-tistics should cause us to reflect on how Indigen-ous peoples came to be more susceptible toCOVID-19 than settler colonial populations.The novel coronavirus pandemic of 2020 shinesnew light on a terrible truth: the horrors ofseventeenth- to nineteenth-century epidemicsamong Indigenous peoples were not a unique,one-time accident of history. It behooves us tothink about how archaeologists can dismantlethe enduring myths that continue to be used torationalize health inequities in North Americatoday as well as how we can contribute to pro-cesses, resources, and agendas that challengethis system. The way we think about the earliest

days of European settlement in the Americasstructures the way we think about Indigenoushealth disparities today.

Mobility

When we consider the impact of epidemic dis-eases, we also need to contemplate mobility, orthe lack of it. In the spring and summer of2020, local and national news focused on thegrowing malaise of citizens who were feelingnot just increasingly frustrated about the uncer-tainty and tragedy of the COVID-19 pandemicbut also bottled up at home. With the spreadinginfluence of armed protesters seeking to “liber-ate” their home states from what they interpretedto be oppressive restrictions on their mobility andability to work during a global pandemic—alongthe way, grotesquely evoking the name and brav-ery of Rosa Parks to characterize their “plight”and resistance (Scott 2020)—some Californiansassembled for protests at the capitol in Sacra-mento. Others hit the beach. Warm weatherbeckoned many outdoors in numbers, even ifby doing so they not only defied the logic behind“flatten the curve,” “social distancing,” and“herd immunity,” but also outright ignored staterestrictions against gathering in public spaces.According to one analysis of cell-phone data(aggregated from an average of 18 million cellphones a day), differences emerged betweenthosewho dwell within densely populated metro-politan areas and “free-roaming” residents ofmany rural counties. A key social insight in thisresearch is this: “State orders don’t necessarilydictate behavior” (Schaul et al. 2020).

Mobility is at the core of human existence,and it is often infused with power and agencyas seen in archaeological examples from colonialNorth America. Beginning in the fifteenth cen-tury when European colonists first set foot onIndigenous homelands, Native peoples experi-enced spiritual and physical harm, theft of land,threats to their cultures and identities, and deeplywounding impacts to their lives and livelihoodsfrom invasive plant taxa, grazing livestock, andthe spread of introduced diseases. Indigenouscommunities continue to negotiate the aftermathof these earlier phases of upheaval as well as theongoing effects of sustained colonialism (Light-foot and Gonzalez 2018). In the face of the

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severely reduced situations of Indigenous com-munities, it is understandable why anthro-pologists working to “salvage” unadulteratedcultural knowledge from “vanishing” tribes inthe early 1900s viewed missions and religiousproselytizers as prime suspects in the story ofloss visited far too often on Native peoples ofNorth America. The adobe, stone, and thatchedwalls of missions came to define sturdy physicaland intellectual barriers between modernity and aspace where prehistory ends.

From mission “fortresses” described byborderland historian Herbert Bolton (1917:51)to the prison-missions narrated in the present(Madley 2019), popularized scholarly accountsof colonialism falsely depicted the immobilityof Indigenous peoples even when living Indigen-ous peoples—and mounting archaeologicalevidence—suggest otherwise. Crossing ancestrallands and waters, Michelle Lelièvre andMaureenMarshall (2015) note, the mobility of Mi’kmaqpeople represented important political acts ofsovereignty and emplacement that distressedCatholic missionaries operating in Nova Scotia.Mobilization to mesa-top refuges ensured accessto spaces of protection and spiritual strength forIndigenous peoples throughout the Southwestfollowing the 1680 Pueblo Revolt (e.g., Aguilarand Preucel 2019). Not to be caught flat-footed,Indigenous hunter-gather-fisher-managers ofCalifornia frequently sequenced their visits tocolonial missions—and their trips away fromthem—to coincide with seasonal harvests offood resources and to carry out mortuary rites,dances, and other social practices beyond thewalls (Schneider 2015).

These and other examples from archaeologyrepeatedly show that mobility may be an act ofagency in opposition to state control. Althoughsymbolic of the power of the state to control andconfine, walls do not necessarily dictate behavior.Stability of settlement in areas more remote fromcolonizing populations, particularly in the vastmajority of the continent where no missionswere ever established, underscores this. Euro-American settlement came late to the heart ofNorth America and, even faced with disease-driven depopulation, maize-farming communitieson the Great Plains retained their traditionalsettlements, lifeways, and territories until late in

the colonial era. These farmers built their ownwalls and resisted the changes around them fromwithin (Bamforth 2021).

People’s use of mobility as a political state-ment today is controversial but also acknowledgedfor just that—a conscious and empoweringaction against perceived state control. When con-sidering archaeological examples of Indigenousmobility, why are we so slow to apply a lens ofpower and autonomy? In these instances,sovereignty and agency were even more centraland consequential, and yet tropes of Indigenousloss and inaction endure. To be sure, these twocontexts are different in their root causes and rea-sons for mobility. Recent efforts at mobility inthe face of state-dictated restrictions, however,draw heavily on ideas of liberty and freedomfrom state oppressors. This sits in stark contrastto the archaeological interpretations of Indigen-ous mobility that largely downplay its signifi-cance, power dynamics, and sovereign politicalimplications.

Examples from Mexico

We see many parallels among Indigenous peo-ples of Mexico, further demonstrating that dis-ease does not stop at international borders. It isespecially instructive to look at the subtler rami-fications of the great death toll from numerousepidemics that hit central Mexico in the sixteenthcentury after contact between men from Europewith both women and men of Mexico living inurban settings. The resulting massive death tollbrought about significant changes and begs thequestion of how many other times in humanhistory similar changes—in regional settlementpatterns, rituals, foodways, age profiles, econom-ics, and political organization—have resultedfrom epidemics.

No fewer than four diseases—smallpox, mea-sles, typhoid, and mumps—hit central Mexicowithin a 70-year period, killing 90% of the popu-lation (Prem 1992). The first epidemic occurredin the middle of the first entrada (1520–1521),and the second one a decade later. Both epi-demics exacted their highest toll among youngIndigenous people. Some Spaniards died aswell. This high death rate among Indigenouspeoples of New Spain (central Mexico inparticular) and low death rate among Spaniards

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led to a number of assertions about the differ-ences between the Native’s body and the Span-iard’s body. Why was the Native body sofragile and the Spaniard so hardy? The Span-iards’ explanation was that the climate of centralMexico and the Caribbean (stars overhead, lati-tude, humidity) feminized a man, as did thediet of the Indigenous peoples (root crops, insects,rodents, algae, and maize), which upset thehumors. The European/Christian/civilized foodsof wheat, wine/spirits, and mammalian meatmade the ideal (masculine) body. The absence ofthese in New Spain eventually led to the rapidimport of European foods, forever altering nativefoodways and causing environmental degradationfrom domesticated animals (Earle 2012) and landgrabs for acreage within only a few decades.

Like COVID-19, the epidemics of the six-teenth century affected and stressed one segmentof the population much more than it did others: itwas members of the working class and the nativepopulation who died in astounding numbers(Earle 2012; Prem 1992). These deaths impactednot only rituals through the loss of practitionersand their esoteric knowledge, but also craftsthrough the loss of skilled craftspeople. Thehigh quantity of deaths—19million to 21 millionin 70 years in New Spain—led to depopulation ofNative settlements and, consequently, the loss ofelements of landscape and place that under-pinned ritual and identity. Spaniards and theSpanish language filled the vacant quarters. Insome cases, the Native populations that survivedremained in these places and repurposedchurches while developing new understandingsof ruins and their place in the cosmos.

Mobility was not an option for CatholicNatives, given that they were forced to work onmissions, for government officials, or for Span-iards in mines and ranches; attend daily prayersand lessons; and report to their priest each week-end in larger towns. In writing about Natives inJalisco, Gerónimo de Mendieta stated that“unlike other people in the world, they did notflee into the countryside when plague struck,instead staying together in their altepetl [towns]—only within the altepetl would they be assureda decent burial [Catholic procedure] and not dielike animals [pagan ancestors]” (1971:519).Hospitals had been built in nearly every doctrina

town by the 1580s, so for the later epidemics,these hospitals—as well as the desire for a properburial and access to provisions—attracted ruraldwellers to the doctrina and visita towns, increas-ing the density of population.

Eventually depopulation changed the abilityof Native peoples to pay tribute to their leaders,altering the quantities of goods, the variety ofgoods, and the geography and nodes of the trib-ute network. Similar to our current situation,these economic losses worked their way up thesocial hierarchy. The lack of goods from theirsubjects meant that the Native elite governorswere unable to meet Spanish tribute (goods andlabor) demands, costing them their favoredplace in the Spanish governmental hierarchyand the Native peoples their self-governance.Soon, the drastic decline in Indigenous laboravailable to work on ranchos and mines led tothe rapid importation of new laborers—Africans,creating yet another culture contact situation.

Inequality, Vulnerability, and Effects ofMarginalization on African Americans

Compared to the general U.S. population, theeffects of COVID-19 have been much greaternot only among Indigenous communities butalso among Black groups. There are many rea-sons why. Historically and structurally, Blackcommunities in the United States have had com-paratively less access to health care, nutrition andfresh foods (given the “food deserts” in someurban areas), safe housing and neighborhoodsthat enable healthy lifestyles, and educationaland employment opportunities that foster bothflexibility and choice in career paths and livingarrangements. These issues parallel those of Indi-genous, Latinx, and Asian groups in theUnited States. The lives of people of color aremore commonly affected by violent crime,aggressive and sometimes violent policing, andassociated stresses and stressors. Many BlackAmericans and members of other marginalizedgroups hold jobs that cannot be done fromhome and/or performed while consistently main-taining social distancing. Many also have lostjobs because of the economic fallout of the co-ronavirus crisis, and—in part because of otherfactors noted here—they sometimes cannot findother jobs easily, thereby compounding other

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sources of vulnerability and susceptibility todisease and poverty.

This constellation of issues stems from theother multigenerational pandemic it represents:long-standing and virulent anti-Black racismand the extensive systemic and practical effectsof white privilege and supremacy. Our duty asarchaeologists is to make sure that those historiesare not forgotten. They are precursors to the pres-ent, and these narratives and structural realitiesremind us that these conditions are not new norare they “over.” They have been present sinceAfricans were first brought to the Americas(see NewYork Times 2019) enduring the horrorsof the Middle Passage and perhaps never recov-ering entirely from the anguish and violenceof those experiences. Despite being far fromany place familiar or friendly, enslaved Africanpersons then carved out lives in new settings,maintaining some aspects of traditional Africancultural practices while adapting to Americanenvironments and landscapes of colonialismand imperialism. Archaeology sheds light onthe resilience, resistance, strategy, and evenopportunity pursued by African Americansin the plantation landscapes of the AmericanSouth, the Chesapeake, and the Caribbean(e.g., Barnes and Steen 2012; Brown 2004; Fer-guson 1992; McDavid 1997; Orser 1990, 1994;Samford 2007; Singleton 1985, 1995, 2010); inurban and rural settings in the American North-east (e.g., Delle 2019; Matthews and McGovern2015); and at sites associated with the Under-ground Railroad in the United States (e.g.,Graff 2019; LaRoche 2014) and in LatinAmerica (Balanzátegui 2018; Costa 2016;Weik 2004). Not surprisingly, bioarchaeologicalstudies of the health of both enslaved and eman-cipated Africans and African Americans shownotable bodily stresses from inadequate nutrition,poor dental health, lifelong manual labor, andinfection (e.g., Blakey 2001; de la Cova 2011,2014; Lambert 2006; Watkins 2012).

Emancipation of slaves in North Americabrought an end to the political imprimatur ofenslavement and extraction of slave labor andlives, and archaeologists have been able to high-light the struggles and triumphs of Black Amer-icans in the periods that followed, from Texas(Franklin and Lee 2019, 2020; Wilkie 2019) to

Massachusetts (Battle-Baptiste 2011; Lee 2019;Paynter and Battle-Baptiste 2019). However,violence and disenfranchisement of the rightsof citizenship in the United States—and obsta-cles to African Americans having access to“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”—per-sisted throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s(Barnes 2011; Botwick 2018). In ways that res-onate with the current COVID-19 context, thesedisparities can be tracked in the realms of healthand healthcare for Black populations and framedby gender and racial inequalities (e.g., Dunna-vant 2017; Franklin and Wilson 2020). Simi-larly, legacies of racism have contributed tostructural violence and persistence of povertyand oppression of African Americans in theUnited States since then (e.g., Fracchia 2019;Gray 2020). Clear examples highlighted byarchaeologists include the perpetual cycles ofviolence inflicted on Black communities in theearly twentieth century, such as the Tulsa RaceMassacre in Oklahoma in 1921 (Odewale andSlocum 2020) and the Rosewood Massacre inFlorida in 1923 (González-Tennant 2018).

Archaeology can reveal diverse forms ofoppression and marginalization in past societiesas well as ideologies that have promoted theinterests of some groups while extracting laborand resources (and sometimes lives) from others.The archaeology of enslavement reveals patternsof architecture and settlement layout that materi-alized and naturalized power relations, and thatenforced systems of discipline and surveillance,alongside evidence of many forms of resilienceand resistance. The archaeology of AfricanAmerican life during the past 400 years illus-trates important patterns and processes thatshape race relations in the United States currentlyand that contribute to the heightened vulnerabil-ity of Black Americans to the present pandemic.

Archaeology can amplify this knowledge byraising up the voices of Black archaeologistsand communities whose heritages are involved(e.g., Epperson 2004; Franklin 1997), followingthe #BlackLivesMatter movement and its inter-sections with archaeology (see also Rosenzweig2020). A virtual panel on June 26, 2020,“Archaeology in the Time of Black Lives Mat-ter,” drove home this point with six panelists(Justin Dunnavant, Ayana Flewellen, Maria

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Franklin, Alexandra Jones, Alicia Odewale, andTsonie Wolde-Michael) and more than 1,600online attendees. The current convergence ofthe twin pandemics of racism and COVID-19demands that American archaeologists engagewith this political moment. More than justresearchers or even allies, archaeologists canserve as accomplices, shining light into the shad-ows previously cast by toppling monuments ofcolonizers and slavers.

Epidemics, Pandemics, and Material Culture

Archaeologists are well positioned to assesschanges in material culture following widespreaddisease. Material culture figures prominently inpresent-day pandemic practices—such as theinnovation and adoption of different mask styles,many of which are actively used to express mem-bership in different social groups and sharedideologies. Perhaps even more than the hat stylesin the classic article by Martin Wobst (1977),many masks convey emblematic styles (sensuWiessner 1983) that explicitly reference politicaland ideological membership in social move-ments and other groups—such as Black LivesMatter (BLM) or Make America Great Again(MAGA)—as does even the choice of whetheror not to wear a mask at all. The rapidity withwhich specific manufacturing technologies(folded, seamed, draped, or tubular), icons, andcolors have been innovated and adopted inmask making and wearing provides an empiricalrecord for looking at technological andsemiotic networks. It also shows how style—both emblematic and assertive—goes beyondrepresentation to how our interaction with theseobjects creates and maintains new relationships,including membership in new social movements.

Ethnohistorically documented epidemics andpandemics also provide contexts for understand-ing their effects on material culture, such as thetransmission of knowledge about how to makespecific kinds of items, along with their distribu-tion, uses, and consumption. Diseases can di-rectly affect production by reducing the numberof producers, creating population bottlenecks,and causing the loss of skilled knowledgebearers. For example, in 1876, a smallpox epi-demic was introduced to Zuni by Mormon

settlers of nearby Savoia (Ramah) that lasteduntil 1879. One observer estimated about a50% loss in Zuni population (Baxter 1882). Intheir analysis of three consecutive museumcollections made at Zuni by Smithsonian Institu-tion anthropologists from 1879 to the mid-1880s,Margaret Hardin and Barbara Mills (2000) noteda strong pattern of change in vessel size and sym-metry, with smaller bowls and more asymmet-rical patterns predominating in the lastcollecting expedition of 1884–1885. They sug-gested that this was the result of the death ofolder, more skilled potters, who would havebeen the producers of larger vessels with morecomplex, symmetrical designs. Similarly, Sahn-ish (Arikara) pottery production shifted aftersmallpox epidemics of the late 1700s to a thicker,less carefully decorated pottery that is attributedto population loss, increasing warfare, andgreater labor demands on women (Krause andHollenback 2016). In another Plains case, Paw-nee potters stopped making cooking pots bythe mid-1700s, at least in part because of eco-nomic decisions to put more labor in bison hideproduction (Beck 2020). In all three of theseexamples, pottery production did not disappear.In fact, pots remained important objects that per-sisted—even in the face of massive Euro-American incursions—and promoted identitiesof resilience in Indigenous groups (see also Hol-lenback 2012). Potters had agency, and theirdecisions on what to make themselves andwhat to acquire by trade were a means of ensur-ing cultural persistence.

Epidemics and pandemics can inspire reli-gious innovations and changes in Indigenouspractices to control diseases. For example, newreligious movements have arisen out of “crisesresponses” to European-introduced diseases,such as the Chinigchinish religion in eighteenth-century California (Preston 2002:76). In anotherexample, John Creese (2017) cites the increaseduse of a particular style of effigy-smoking pipesby the Wendat following epidemics of Europeandiseases during the 1630s and 1640s. Theseobjects were used in rituals of healing thatinvolved smoking, an activity that by definitioninvolves breath in all its layered meanings.Changes in mortuary ritual have also been con-nected with seventeenth-century epidemics in

Gamble et al.] 9FINDING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RELEVANCE DURING A PANDEMIC AND WHAT COMES AFTER

southern New England, where Native Americansburied their kin with European cloth to create a“protective” layer to the body (Bragdon2017:122). Such changes are not simply accul-turative acts. They are the selective use of newkinds of objects by Indigenous groups becauseof those objects’ perceived abilities to affectwhat were dramatic transformations in theirrespective worlds.

Research worldwide demonstrates that mate-rial culture consumption may be used as an inde-pendent proxy for assessing the impact ofpandemics on population loss, but with caveats.In eastern England, archaeological contexts dat-ing before and after the Black Death showed a45% decrease in the amount of pottery deposited(Lewis 2016). By contrast, Lee Mordechai andcolleagues (2019) use material culture to argueagainst “maximalist” interpretations of mortalityfigures (cf. Meier 2016) during the JustinianicPlague of AD 541–544 in the Mediterraneanregion. Drawing on multiple datasets, theyshowed that the expected drop in frequencies ofcoins, inscriptions, papyri, and other well-datedmaterials did not occur during or after thepandemic. Their conclusions are supported bywell-resolved palynological records showing noevidence for “rewilding,” or decreases in agricul-tural production, as they did following the BlackDeath. The use of multiple environmental andmaterial culture datasets to challenge narrativesof disease has also been employed in NorthAmerica to demonstrate the resistance and resil-ience of Indigenous populations rather than theirdisappearance (Holland-Lulewicz et al. 2020).

Paleopathology and Insights into AncientHuman Disease

Paleopathology can provide crucial insights intothe history of human health and disease (Buikstra2010). Much of this research has focused onchronic diseases such as degenerative joint dis-ease, malnutrition, and dental caries—conditionsthat leave macroscopic markers on bones andteeth. By comparison, development of knowl-edge about the history of most infectious diseaseshas been slower. Historical texts, cases of pre-served pathological soft tissue (e.g., mummies),and macroscopic parasites recovered from

archaeological context have provided some keyinsights (Camacho and Reinhard 2020; Nerlichet al. 2006; Reid et al. 1999), but unfortunately,such materials are rare, or they are not systemat-ically sought from the archaeological record.

Advances in biomolecular analytical tech-niques have opened new windows into the studyof ancient disease, especially those of infectiousorigin (Nerlich 2018). Many of these techniqueswere developed within medical, forensic, andother STEM sciences, but they require uniquemodifications when applied to ancient materials.Together, they provide archaeology with new andindependent datasets to test hypotheses aboutthe long-term evolution of human disease andhuman–pathogen interactions.

Within this developing field, two mainapproaches are emerging. The first, and probablymost direct, is the detection of pathogens them-selves, typically by way of the unique biomolecu-lar signatures they leave behind. Paleogenomics,or the study of genetic material from ancientpathogens, has been the most fruitful of theseapproaches. Ancient DNA (aDNA) unique topathogens associated with tuberculosis (Mycobac-terium tuberculosis; Salo et al. 1994), syphilis(Treponema pallidum; Schuenemann et al.2018), Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi; Auf-derheide et al. 2004), and meningococcal disease(Neisseria meningitidis; Eerkens et al. 2018),among others, has been recovered from archaeo-logical human and animal remains in theAmericas. Although bones and teeth are mostcommonly studied, the recent recognition thataDNA and other biomolecules are well-preservedin dental calculus has opened large areas of theworld to this type of analysis (Warinner, Rodri-gues, et al. 2014).

At the same time, there is still a sizable gapbetween the screening of archaeological materi-als for aDNA of pathogenic microbiota and theultimate goal of making inferences about ancientepidemics and pandemics from such data. Thefragile nature of the double-helix DNA moleculemakes recovery of aDNA challenging (Pääboet al. 2004; Willerslev and Cooper 2005), andancient RNA–based viruses even more so (Smithand Gilbert 2019). Because aDNA fragmentsmust be compared to reference databases—which, in most cases, only include known modern

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pathogens—we are potentially overlooking awide range of unknown and more ancientpathogens and diseases. That said, there aresome recent successes, such as the extraction ofancient influenza from preserved human tissuesdating to the early 1900s (Kobasa et al. 2004).Beyond aDNA recovery, many microorganismsare opportunistic pathogens within the humanbody, causing no disease in the face of an activeimmune system but turning pathogenic in a wea-kened state (e.g., tubercular bacilli). As is evidentin the case of COVID-19, humans can be asymp-tomatic carriers of a pathogen, so simply detect-ing the aDNA or RNA of a pathogen does notindicate ancient disease, at least for the individ-ual from whom it was obtained.

Paleoproteomics is a second emerging biomo-lecular approach, although it is not as developedas paleogenomics. Once again, dental calculus isproving to be a rich source for a wide range ofancient proteins (e.g., Hendy et al. 2018; Warin-ner, Hendy, et al. 2014). Proteins have severaladvantages relative to aDNA in paleopathologyresearch. First, they are inherently more stablethan DNA—especially those that bind to mineralsurfaces in bone, dental tissues, or calculus—which makes their preservation in ancientsamples more likely. Tammy Buonasera and col-leagues (2020) recently showed that amelogeninprotein signatures in human teeth show negli-gible degradation over a 2,000-year window,whereas aDNA from the same set of individualsshows an order-of-magnitude decrease in signal.Second, proteins are produced by both pathogen(antigen) and host (antibody), potentially provid-ing greater insight into the interaction betweenthe two. For example, antigen proteins associatedwith sarcoma cancer have been identified inarchaeological bone (Bona et al. 2014), whereasJessica Hendy and colleagues (2016) recovered awide range of human antibody proteins frommummified lung tissue samples. Although theycan show an immune response to an infection,compared to DNA, proteins are often less indica-tive of a particular disease.

Reconstructing ancient outbreaks and epi-demics from the archaeological record usingpaleogenomic and paleoproteomic approachesis still quite difficult, especially in the absence

of written records. Of course, there are a numberof ethical and logistical issues to address withdescendant communities prior to commencingsuch studies, particularly when analyses are par-tially destructive (Bardill et al. 2018; Fox 2020).These issues aside, methodologically, one of themajor challenges is working with partial orincomplete data—not only in terms of biomo-lecular preservation and incomplete knowledgeabout possible diseases but also in terms ofarchaeological sampling. Most paleopathologysuccesses are at the scale of a single or smallnumber of individuals, and they employ multi-pronged analytical strategies. Using multiplesources of partial data, such as fragments ofaDNA, degraded proteins, nonspecific lesionson bone, and skeletal elements that happen tosurvive, we are able to make strong cases for par-ticular diagnoses. By contrast, documentingancient outbreaks and epidemics requires verifi-cation of synchronous infection across manyindividuals and/or sites. Another key concernhere is knowing the rate of false positives andfalse negatives, similar to the osteologicalparadox that challenges interpretations of osteo-logical data (Wood et al. 1992). This is especiallydifficult, for example, when a diagnosis is basedon osteological lesions in one skeleton, andaDNA in the dental calculus of another, whereasa third individual has neither osteological lesionsnor calculus. Without estimates for false positive—and especially for false negative—it is difficultto estimate the rate at which a disease affectedmembers of a population.

Rather than attempting to mimic modern epi-demiology’s focus on tracking epidemics bylearning a little bit (disease vs. no disease)about a lot of contemporaneous people, the realstrength of our discipline lies in learning a lotabout a select few individuals and then extendingthose results to the long timescales we are privyto. In this respect, documenting the origins ofdiseases as well as providing a rich social-material context for their subsequent develop-ment and geographic spread over centuries ormillennia are areas where archaeology canmake significant contributions, whereas estab-lishing morbidity rates within populations or R0

for ancient pathogens is not currently feasible.

Gamble et al.] 11FINDING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RELEVANCE DURING A PANDEMIC AND WHAT COMES AFTER

Infectious Disease in the Americas before andafter European ContactAs bioarchaeologists have long noted, the Amer-icas were not a disease-free environment beforethe arrival of Europeans (Larsen 1994; Martinand Goodman 2002; Merbs 1992), and, as else-where in the world, infectious disease likelyshaped the biocultural landscape of the Americasin ways that have yet to be fully understood.From the beginning, ancient Americans wouldhave carried microorganisms such as H. pyloriand other potentially pathogenic bacteria (e.g.,streptococci and staphylococci) and fungi (e.g.,Candida albicans) with them across the BeringLand Bridge or other routes of entry (Araújoet al. 2013; Darling and Donoghue 2014;Merbs 1992). Microbes such as these are com-mon components of human microbiomes (e.g.,oral, gut, skin), communities of microorganismsthat play a crucial role in human health and dis-ease (Lloyd-Price et al. 2016). Although weknow strikingly little at present about the micro-biota of ancient Americans, there is great poten-tial for their elucidation through the study ofaDNA in human coprolites and tooth calculus(e.g.,Warinner et al. 2015). Host-specific para-sites such as hookworm, pinworm, and whip-worm would also have traveled with humans tothe Americas, although the timing of their arrivaland routes of travel have yet to be clarified(Araújo et al. 2013). Early migrants may alsohave introduced anthrax to the Americas, trans-porting the bacteria on animal hides as early as13,000 BP and possibly contributing to Pleisto-cene extinctions—although, again, more workis needed to evaluate prehistoric human impactson pathogen–host ecology in North America(Nickell and Moran 2017).

Once in the Americas, human populationswould have been exposed to a range of newpathogens through their interactions with Ameri-can flora and fauna (Darling and Donoghue2014), including Lyme disease (Borrelia burg-dorferi; Margos et al. 2008), Carrion’s disease(Bartonella bacilliformis; Allison et al. 1974),salmonellosis (Salmonella sp.; Sawicki et al.1976), and tularemia (Francisella tularensis;Farlow et al. 2005). Protozoan diseases such asgiardiasis (Giardia sp.; Nickell and Moran

2017), leishmaniasis (Leishmania sp.; Costaet al. 2009), toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii;Lehmann et al. 2006), and Chagas disease (Tri-panosoma cruzi; Aufderheide et al. 2004) werealso present in some environments. Otherendemic pathogens, such as the spores of Cocci-dioides immitis and Blastomyces dermatitidis(Merbs 1992; Ortner and Putschar 1981), mayhave lain dormant in the ground until peoplebegan to disturb contaminated soils with the tran-sition to agriculture. Many of these diseaseswould have been localized to areas where patho-gens and insect vectors lived, although long-distance trade could have exposed traders fromdistant locales to “new” pathogens as they passedthrough affected areas (Merbs 1992). It is likelythat other pathogens, such as the widely distrib-uted hantaviruses, would have periodicallyaffected individuals and households throughinfestations by reservoir species (rodents), asoccurred in 1993 in the Four Corners region(Jonsson et al. 2010)—inexplicable events thatcould well have stimulated cultural responsessuch as the burning of affected houses andaccusations of witchcraft.

Domestic animals, a common source ofdisease in Afro-Eurasian contexts (Wolfe et al.2007), were rare in the Americas, and they donot appear to have served as major reservoirsfor pathogens affecting humans there. Thatsaid, turkeys and macaws may have exposed peo-ple in the American Southwest andMesoamericato avian-borne diseases such as psittacosis (Chla-mydia psittaci; e.g., Dickx and Vanrompay2011), and their feces (cf. Lipe et al. 2016)could have contaminated water or food supplieswith pathogenic bacteria. Human feces wouldalso have created health risks (e.g., E. coli andSalmonella infections) when people began tosettle into permanent villages, leading to diar-rheal disease and possibly spreading other infec-tions as a result of poor sanitation (as still occursin many world regions today).

Diseases transmitted directly or indirectlyfrom human to human (e.g., hepatitis B, seeRoman et al. 2014; Herpes simplex, seeWertheim et al. 2014) were also present in pre-contact North American populations (Merbs1992; Nickell and Moran 2017), although their

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presence has often been difficult to establisharchaeologically because few affect the bones.Treponematosis (Treponema pallidum subsp.?)and tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)are two infectious diseases that do have distinctosteological signatures and widespread distribu-tion, and both are well documented in the Amer-icas before contact (Baker et al. 2020; Harperet al. 2011; Powell and Cook 2005; Robertsand Buikstra 2003). These are chronic bacterialinfections that could be maintained in smallerpopulations through carriers and affected indi-viduals (Ortner and Putschar 1981; Powell andCook 2005), emerging as major (or at leastmore visible) diseases when people began to set-tle into permanent villages with the transitionto agriculture (Larsen 1994; Powell and Cook2005; Roberts and Buikstra 2003). Treponemato-sis affected Indigenous Americans for thousandsof years before European contact (Baker et al.2020; Powell and Cook 2005), whereas tubercu-losis may have been introduced only a couple ofmillennia before the arrival of Europeans, per-haps through infected sea mammals hunted onthe west coast of South America (Bos et al.2014). The study of these chronic infectionshas recently been energized by advances inaDNA research (e.g., Bos et al. 2014; Schuene-mann et al. 2018), and the potential for furtherelucidation of the origins and phylogenetichistory of these and other infectious diseasesthrough such studies is enormous—if researchersinvolved in the study of human skeletal remainscollaborate with and seek permissions from de-scendant communities to obtain tissue samplesfrom affected individuals. There is also muchstill to be learned about environmental influenceson the skeletal manifestations of these chronicinfections through careful analysis of lesion char-acteristics and distribution in the body (cf. Bakeret al. 2020; Lambert 2017).

With the arrival of Europeans and enslavedAfricans came the collective Afro-Eurasian dis-ease load (e.g., chickenpox, cholera, diphtheria,influenza, malaria, measles, mumps, plague,smallpox, typhoid, and yellow fever; Bryantet al. 2007; Larsen 1994; Wolfe et al. 2007),including diseases that had made the jump fromdomestic animals or wild nonhuman primates,as well as those with a long history of human-

to-human transmission (Wolfe et al. 1998,2007). New and more virulent strains of trepo-nemal disease (venereal syphilis; Baker et al.2020) and tuberculosis also appear to havearrived with Europeans, the latter likely swamp-ing out ancient American strains of tuberculosisin a complex exchange of genetic material thatis only beginning to be understood (Bos et al.2014; Pepperell et al. 2011; see also Kay et al.2015).

One often overlooked (but see Merbs 1992)aspect of European contact that warrants furtherconsideration is the arrival of Norse explorerson the east coast of Canada around AD 1000,long before Columbus. Their settlement atL’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland waspopulated by some 70–90 people (mostlymale), and it served as a hub for coastal explor-ation and resource acquisition for the Greenlandcolony for several years at least. According toIcelandic sagas, summer and fall collecting oftimber and grapes took place to the south, likelyin New Brunswick, where the Norse foraged inthe same coastal estuary as large groups of abori-ginal people (Wallace 2003). It is not inconceiv-able that disease exchange occurred in contextssuch as this that brought Norse explorers intoclose contact with Indigenous Americans. Con-sider, for example, emerging evidence thatstrains of smallpox were circulating widely inpopulations of northern Europe during theViking Age (Mühlemann et al. 2020).

Ecology of Infectious Disease, Agriculture, andDemographic Transitions

Major concerns exist today regarding the emer-gence and spread of infectious diseases asso-ciated with the expansion of global foodproduction necessary to feed a projected 11 bil-lion people by 2100 (Rohr et al. 2019). Thearchaeology of complex systems provides aframework (sensu Kohler 2012) for consideringthe causes and consequences of such interactiveprocesses in the spread of infectious disease.The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic demonstrateshow the exogenous destabilizing effects of arapidly spreading infectious disease can impacteconomic well-being, and it must be studiedas interacting processes occurring on differentspatiotemporal scales (Ceddia et al. 2013).

Gamble et al.] 13FINDING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RELEVANCE DURING A PANDEMIC AND WHAT COMES AFTER

Plant and animal domestication during the last10,000 years has been one of the most conse-quential cultural and environmental transitionsin the history of our species (Smith and Zeder2013), and it has fundamentally changed the eco-logical and population dynamics involved withthe transmission and spread of infectious dis-eases. The spread of agricultural and pastoralsocieties throughout Eurasia, Africa, and theAmericas (e.g., Bellwood 2005; Bramanti et al.2009; Skoglund et al. 2013) put humans in closercontact with other animal species carrying a va-riety of zoonotic diseases—just as what occurredwith bats in China, which are thought to be theprimary source of COVID-19. Pastoral popula-tions spreading through Eurasia and Africawere in close association with domesticated ani-mals that were the primary vectors for a range ofdiseases (e.g., measles from cattle, influenzafrom pigs and ducks [Diamond 2002]). Model-ing approaches have demonstrated that evensmall populations consistent with early farmingcommunities were large enough to sustain thecirculation of some viruses, such as Brucellamelitensis in goat populations in the Near East(Fournié et al. 2017). Infectious diseasesresulting from the transition to agriculture andpastoralism in Eurasia ultimately devastatedIndigenous populations in the Pacific Islands,Australia, and the Americas as Eurasianexplorers and colonists came into contact withpopulations lacking immunity. High mortalityrates in the Americas caused by introduceddiseases contributed to the loss of traditionalknowledge and lifeways as Europeans expandedacross the continents.

A major demographic shift accompanied thetransition from foraging to farming that had sig-nificant implications for the spread of infectiousdiseases (Bocquet-Appel 2011). Increases inpopulation are thought to be related to decreasesin mobility and reductions in birth interval.Population aggregation and urbanization in thelast 5,000 years has led to supply chain issuesrequired to feed growing populations (Zeder1991) and resulted in the contamination of drink-ing water due to animal and human waste. Largerpopulations are also required to sustain manyinfectious diseases (e.g., 300,000 people formeasles [Armelagos and Harper 2005]), and

long-distance trade and interaction would haveserved to disperse infectious diseases morebroadly. Wealth and health disparities alsobecame much more visible in early urbanizedsocieties. Overall, the Neolithic demographictransition was associated with increases in bothmorbidity and mortality. Traditional bioarchaeo-logical indicators of disease fail to capture evi-dence for large-scale epidemics of acuteinfections because people either recovered withimmunity or were killed quickly without osteo-logical evidence (Ramenofsky 2003). As notedabove, however, a variety of biomolecularapproaches are now providing a new lens toexamine infectious disease and revolutionizeour ability to examine the dynamics of infectiousdisease in the past (e.g., Mühlemann et al. 2020;Schuenemann et al. 2018).

The plague, or “Black Death,” touched uponearlier, provides one well-studied archaeologicalexample of the ecological, economic, social, andpolitical dynamics involved with the emergenceand spread of a highly virulent infectiousdisease. The disease ravaged Europe betweenapproximately AD 1347 and 1351, killing30%–60% of the population and devastating eco-nomic, social, and political systems (DeWitte2016). Skeletal assemblages in mass burialgrounds combined with historical accounts pro-vide a stark account of what unfolded as the dis-ease spread rapidly through the population. Aswould be expected, the disease killed peopletoo quickly to leave osteological evidence, butancient DNA consistent with a virulent strain ofbubonic plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) hasbeen extracted from teeth in Europe and Asia(Rasmussen et al. 2015). The age and sex com-position of these mass burial grounds has beenstudied in detail, and it demonstrates that the dis-ease selectively killed the elderly and individualswho had experienced physiological stress priorto the epidemic (DeWitte and Wood 2008).Strontium and oxygen isotopic data from amass burial in London demonstrated that roughly15% of the burial population were immigrantsfrom the countryside, suggesting that mobilitycontributed to the spread of the disease (Kendallet al. 2013). The Black Death epidemic alsooccurred in the wake of a climate-driven faminethroughout Europe that reduced health and

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increased frailty in the population, intensifyingsusceptibility to the disease (DeWitte 2015).

The transmission of infectious diseases isknown to be exacerbated by climate change,and economic well-being is diminished by cropfailures, making individuals more susceptibleto negative health outcomes (Patz et al. 2005).Climate-driven famine and increasing humanfrailty just prior to the Black Death epidemic isconsistent with this idea. There are other histor-ical instances where climate change, famine,and disease outbreaks also co-occur. Archaeo-logical and historical data for epidemics in theMing and Qing Dynasties (1369–1901) indicatethat epidemics flared up in the context of climatechange that depressed economic well-beingthroughout China (Speir et al. 2016). Episodicdrought in theMaya lowlands has also been linkedto crop failure and severe famine that resulted indisease outbreaks and increases in mortality andmigration (Hoggarth et al. 2017). Consequently,the archaeological record provides long-term data-sets useful for assessing the dire nature of increas-ing health risks that could be associated with futureclimate predictions.

Conclusion

Felix Riede (2017) emphasizes that by under-standing the impacts of catastrophes and disas-ters in the past, we can also focus on ideasabout resilience within narratives of “past-forwarding” that make archaeology relevant tothe present. Although he was speaking largelyof environmental catastrophes, the same goalunderlies our project here. We might ask, “Aredisruptions from epidemics and pandemics dif-ferent from other disasters, especially natural dis-asters such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, orhurricanes?” Pandemics are different from theseenvironmental disasters in at least one majorway: pandemics have a different temporalityand geographic scale. As our contemporary situ-ation shows, contagious diseases have muchlonger periods in which they affect populations,and they may even come in waves that endureover months, if not years—although some disas-ters, such as volcanic eruptions, may be sporadicover long periods of time as well. There are,

however, many commonalities—populationloss and displacement, disruptions in productionand supply chains, transformations in social net-works, institutional breakdowns, decreases inhuman and community security, and manyother aspects of lived human experience thatchange in the wake of disasters (e.g., Hegmonand Peeples 2018). On a more aspirationalnote, Michelle Hegmon and Matthew Peeples(2018) observe that the negative impacts of socialtransformation are mitigated by a strong sense ofcommunity security, which should spur us asindividuals and collectives to better create thesemoving forward. The exclusion of pandemicsfrommuch of the archaeological literature on dis-asters drives our comments here, and we hopethat they contribute to our own resiliency.

As archaeologists explore the relevance of thehuman past to understanding a variety of contem-porary societal issues—including climate change,the biodiversity crisis, and broader societal inequi-ties (Kintigh et al. 2014)—infectious disease, epi-demics, and pandemics are another important areaof inquiry. The archaeological and historicalrecords from the Americas demonstrate the abun-dance of past epidemics—especially during thecolonial era—and the often transformativesocietal inequities that emerged from theseepidemics, as well as their effects onmaterial cul-ture. These examples illustrate the interconnec-tions between the events of several centuriesago and the continued injustices of today, par-ticularly in Indigenous communities, Black com-munities, and other diverse communities.

Researchers are well equipped with tools andmodels to help understand past disease (e.g.,aDNA, proteomics, complex systems modeling),but significant obstacles to determining if pastdisease resulted in epidemics or even pandemicsremain. Given the long history of epidemics andpandemics, the COVID-19 pandemic will not bethe last, which makes research on disease, dis-ease prevention, and societal responses to out-breaks a high priority. Archaeology has a keyrole to play in the future study of disease, espe-cially by highlighting the differential effects ofpast epidemics on Indigenous and other diversecommunities as well as helping pursue a moreequitable and just future.

Gamble et al.] 15FINDING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RELEVANCE DURING A PANDEMIC AND WHAT COMES AFTER

Acknowledgments. This truly was a collaborative effort, andevery American Antiquity Board member made significantcontributions. Lynn Gamble is listed first because she con-ceived of the idea for the article and contributed sectionsthroughout, primarily to the introduction and conclusion, aswell as transitions between sections. She also guided theauthors through the entire process. Authors with primaryroles—those who contributed substantial sections—are nextlisted in alphabetical order. These are followed by thosewho wrote short sections or primarily provided editorialchanges and comments. They are also listed in alphabeticalorder. Jelmer Eerkens wrote the introductory section onpaleopathology and insights into ancient human disease. PatLambert contributed the section on infectious disease in theAmericas before and after European contact. This is followedby a section that Doug Kennett wrote on the ecology of infec-tious disease, agriculture, and demographic transitions. Healso contributed to the introductory material, with some addi-tions by Natasha Lyons and Torrey Rick. Torrey Rick alsohelped edit the entire document and wrote the concludingparagraph. In addition to authoring the abstract and short sec-tions throughout, Natasha Lyons thoroughly edited and com-mented on the article, and she provided help with referencesand many other aspects. Barbara Mills wrote the section onepidemics, pandemics, and material culture, and she waskey in supporting the original ideas of the article. Matt Lieb-mann authored the introductory material in the section on epi-demic disease among Indigenous peoples, Black Americans,and other underrepresented groups. Tsim Schneider, whowrote the section on mobility, was also involved throughoutthe process. Cheryl Claassen provided the section on exam-ples from Mexico. Steve Silliman and Chris Rodning wrotethe section on inequality, vulnerability, and effects of margin-alization on Black Americans. Doug Bamforth wrote somebrief sections throughout and contributed ideas, as didSusan Alt, Kelley Hays-Gilpin, and Anna Prentiss. The par-ticipation of the entire board in this unusual collaborationcontributed to the diverse perspectives and depth of knowl-edge. We also acknowledge Tim Kohler, who served asguest editor for the article and provided constructive com-ments, as well as two peer reviewers who helped improveit. In addition, Glenn Russell reviewed different iterationsof the article, and Alicia Gorman oversaw the early editorialprocess. Finally, we thank JessicaMorales, who translated theabstract into Spanish.

Data Availability Statement. No primary data were used forthis article.

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Submitted August 3, 2020; Revised September 14, 2020;Accepted September 17, 2020

22 [Vol. 86, No. 1, 2021AMERICAN ANTIQUITY