Final Draft After Acceptance

Ceylon Journal of Science (Physical Sciences)Vol. 16, No. 1 (2012), xx – xx Environmental Sciences

Socio-technical Aspects of Water Management in Sri Lanka:

The Past and the Present

H.A.H. JayasenaDepartment of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

(*Corresponding author’s email:[email protected]).

ABSTRACT

Management of water resources is a major problem in many developing nations. This paper addresses the applicability of the framework of Socio-technical systems to the water management, focusing on the relevance of Socio-technical and Large Technological Systems frameworks to the past and present water resource development in Sri Lanka. Investigations on water resources management within the dry zone Tank Cascade Systems (TCS) revealed a history of successful integration of technical and social elements within an organized framework. This socio-technically driven sustainable water management allowed social development in this region to proceed uninterrupted for a period of more than 1500 years (two millennia). I partially attribute the success of the TCS to the innovation and implementation of the valve-pit during the 1st

century AD, which effectively regulated water delivery through the tanks. Innovation of valve-pit itself can be considered as the driving mechanism for the successful development phase of the ancient society.

The social acceptance of technical elements was crucial for such development exemplified in the Sri Lankan model. Recent construction of Large Dams, planned to achieve short-term multipurpose objectives during a period of 100-150 years is shown to be incompatible with such social development and thus unsustainable. I argue that advanced technology and the implicit top-down approach involved with the Large Dams preclude adaptation resulting from inputs from the society, so that the outcomes of these Large Dams leave behind only limited achievements and major social burden. Therefore, current water resources management systems need to consider a more integrated approach in achieving the stated objectives. The Socio-technical and Large Technological frameworks illuminate fundamental features of water resources development based on TCS and Large Dam activities. The observed longevity and sustainability of the TCS appears to be supported by strong social integration as compared with Large Dam construction, in which top-down, rigid design has been poorly integrated into the agronomic community, and thus has a relatively short lifespan.

Received: 12 July 2011 / Accepted after revision: 26 January 2012

Jayasena (2012) Cey. J. Sci. (Phy. Sci.), Vol. 16, xx-xx

© University of Peradeniya 2012

INTRODUCTION

Sustainable water resources management (WRM) is a challenging goal for equatorial countries where water scarcity has been forecasted (Falkenmark, 1989; Gleick, 1998; Ashton, 2002; Aheeyar et al., 2008). These water deficiencies present an imminent danger for the well being of people in these regions (Postel, 1999). Recent studies by Seckler et al. (1998) and Wallace (2000) indicated that several countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle East are faced with imminent water scarcity. Sri Lanka will also face water scarcity within the next 50 years (Amarasinghe et al., 1999). Therefore, a mechanism for sustainable WRM must be devised in order to overcome current ineffective management practices.

Many recent water resources development (WRD) programs have failed to achieve their targets postulated in original plans (ADB, 2002). Among a number of reasons, the lack of public participation has been widely acknowledged as a key issue. However, based on historical evidence of the management of ancient Tank Cascade System (TCS) in Sri Lanka, one can see how cultural practices and technical elements were involved in the societal development. This paper addresses how socio-technical (ST) aspects of WRM in ancient Sri Lanka led to efficient and sustainable water usage. In addition, an analysis of large technological systems (LTS) influence on the Large Dams (LD) based WRD in

Sri Lanka is given. The recent construction of LD’s with funds through donors has made significant changes to the WRD of Sri Lanka. These dams are massive isolated structures having multipurpose objectives with targets planned to be achieved only for a period of 100 years. In this paper, I investigate whether the application of Socio-technical (ST) and Large Technological Systems (LTS) perspectives to the past and present WRD’s in Sri Lanka could provide a solution for the current WRM challenges.

The Country ProfileSri Lanka has a long history of

hydraulic structure-based irrigated agriculture, and a water storage and delivery system considered one of the most advanced systems that have survived throughout the history of mankind. As Mahawamsa, the ancient chronicle of Sri Lanka stated, the irrigation development in the dry zone of Sri Lanka was responsible for the development of the ancient society. The Mahawamsa carried narrations on historical and concurrent development of ancient Sri Lanka based on Buddhist philosophy and was written by Maha thero Mahanama in the 6th century AD using evidence gathered in the previous records written in Deepawamsa (Geiger, 1958). The sustainability and longevity of these ancient irrigation schemes for a period of more than 1500 years (two millennia) beginning from the 3rd century BC to roughly about 12th century AD displays a

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successful integration of technical and social elements within an organized framework.

The island of Sri Lanka has a central mass of highlands and mountains surrounded by rock knob bearing rolling lowlands. The country is blessed with an average annual rainfall of 2000 mm, which varies from less than 1750 mm in the dry low lands to more than 2500 mm in the wet highlands (Somasekaram et al., 1982). The spatial and temporal variations of rainfall received in these two areas are governed by the monsoonal regime and the movement of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone around the equator. These seasonal rainfalls impart a bimodal distribution of rainfall received by the country, resulting in two major agricultural seasons: Yala (April to September) and Maha (October to March). Based on the average annual seasonal rainfalls the country has been divided into the dry and the wet zones (Fig. 1). Water resources in the dry zone of Sri Lanka are managed through an advanced and unique irrigation management system which has been sustained throughout the history from the 3rd century BC to the present.

Figure 1: Major climatic zones in Sri Lanka.Brief introduction of the Socio-technical Systems Framework

The application of socio-technical (ST) and large technical (LT) frameworks on the water resources development in Sri Lanka will be discussed in the section. Traditional ST systems framework has its origins in the work of the Tavistock Institute in London (Trist and Bamforth, 1951; Emery, 1959; Emery and Trist, 1960) and has been mainly devised to understand the impact of technology on business efficiency and productivity of a system. The framework states that systems consist of “social” and “organizational” elements as well as “technical” elements. The term “system” suggests that all parts of the organization are interrelated, so that the design of one element affects the operation of the other element. When one component of the system is removed or changed there will be an imbalance until the other components have adjusted their characteristics accordingly. One would expect such

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interrelations leading to joint optimization among the elements in a closed system. For example, the social subsystem is comprised of employees at all levels, and the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and needs that they bring to the work environment. The technical subsystem is comprised of the devices, tools and techniques needed to transform inputs into outputs in a way that enhances the economic performance of the organization. Several researchers believe that simultaneous interrelations among these three elements are necessary for a successful ST system (Stanfield, 1976; Van de Ven and Joyce, 1981; Pasmore et al., 1982).

Hughes (1983) perceived that it is possible for the design of a successful system which could depart from the above framework. As influenced by the Von Bertalanffy (1950) systems framework, Hughes considered that the above discussion is relevant to the traditional socio-technical framework. Recently, Mitchell and Nault (2004) explained that the modern ST systems framework draws significantly from open systems. The “open” perspective implies that the social and technological dimensions of work processes must be designed not only in relation to each other but also with reference to evolving environmental demands. Therefore, any production system can exist as an open socio-technical system whose elements can independently interact with the environment to improve the productivity. Hence the development of large technological systems (LTS) emerged.

The LTS are more relevant to the modern world. The LTS did not evolve

sequentially, but with overlapping or sometime back tracking the invention, development, innovation, transfer and growth, competition and consolidation. For instance, based on examples from the power and telecommunications network as well as evolution of computer technology, one could see the different inputs from the society due to particular interests of the individual country (Hughes, 1983; Davenport, 1993; Mitchell and Nault, 2004). Hughes (1983) stated that “the LTS contains messy, complex, problem solving components” and considered the LTS as another ST system. As elaborated in his paper, “the LTS is socially constructed and society shaping.” New elements or ideas were incorporated into the system as to satisfy the emerging requirements of the evolving society within the environment. Impacts of LTS such as computers, telecommunications and internet etc., on the society have been well documented (Hughes, 1987; Corea, 2000).

Hughes (1983) stated that his version of technological systems is more useful than system concepts used by engineers and many social scientists. As he explains, the technology of such a major effort should include “different but interlocking elements of physical artifacts (anything invented by the system builders), institutions, and their environment and thereby offering an integration of technical, social, economic, and political aspects” (Bijker et al., 1987). He distinguished the following components in a technological system; Physical artifacts, Organizations, Scientific Components,

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Legislative artifacts and Natural resources. Human “actors” have a special place in the system. For instance, inventors, scientists, engineers, managers, financiers and workers are “components” but not “artifacts” of the system. As these actors are not created by the system builders, they possess a degree of freedom that is not possessed by the artifacts (Hughes, 1987). The physical and non-physical artifacts interact and contribute to the common system goal. The efficient functioning for the LTS requires the interaction of a network of technical and social elements, which would then pass through a complex management system to achieve the economic goals.

Application of ST Framework to Water Resources Development

The need for efficient water resources management and development has been identified as a priority issue in current global requirements. People need water for domestic and agricultural purposes. In addition, the domestic water supply should be good quality and affordable to the poor. As the United Nations millennium goal is to supply half the population with good quality water by year 2025, significant funding is needed in order to manage the water development projects in hand (Thomas, 2006). Unless the outcome of these projects satisfies the needs of society the effort will go in disarray leading to loss of productivity. Therefore, a need for application of suitable ST framework is imperative in order to overcome the conflicting socio-political and economic issues underlined in WR development and

management programs in hand. Several recent attempts of applying ST framework to WRM can be cited (Hukkinen, 1991; Russell, 2002; Regmi, 2003). In these papers the identification of individual components of the social and technical elements within an organization has been reiterated and their boundaries needed for optimum functioning and planning of the WRD have been discussed. However, it is very challenging to establish demarcations among these elements. As Emery (1959), Pasmore et al. (1982), Shani and Sena (1994), and Griffith et al. (2003) pointed out; there is a difficulty in assigning individual aspects, items and methods to each of these elements. For instance, in a study based on 134 reviews of ST systems approach to work redesign, Kelly (1978) concluded that simultaneous interrelations among the elements have little connection with the reality of ST systems in practice. Since instances could be identified either with overlapping activities of these elements or limited technical changes with more social reorganizations in the ST framework (Pasmore et al., 1982), this discussion of the application of ST in the water resources management and development needs careful attention.

Modern WRD in Sri Lanka seems in disarray, as highlighted by academics and administrators (ECL, 1999; Gunetilake and Gopalakrishnan, 2002). I believe the arbitrary practice of assigning aspects, items and methods to social, technical and organizational elements of water management without understanding the historically established

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procedures in Sri Lanka may have caused this disarray. An example that illustrates Sri Lanka’s difficulty is the recent failure to approve new Water Resources Policy that would have initiated tariff collection on irrigation water in Sri Lanka (Gunetilake and Gopalakrishnan, 2002). Though historical evidence clearly indicates that irrigation water was taxed in the past (de Silva, 1987; Siriweera, 2004), the current community vehemently opposed the proposed policy (Gunatilake and Gopalakrishnan 2002). In addition, as Gunawardana (1971) discussed village tanks personally or communally owned in the ancient periods, as mentioned in Smanthapasadika (Takkakusu and Nagai, 1927), indicating that there was historically a strong private and public involvement in water resources allocation and development. The practice of sharing communal resources resulted in several positive outcomes, for instance, collective responsibilities of tank water management and maintenance were shared by the community. Considering these ancient practices, the current opposition for similar user related costs deserves scrutiny. Though the community in general accepts a need for planning and water management, this lack of support for water tariffs indicates either inadequate policy-maker engagement within the society, or the mistrust of donor supported process. To overcome the disarray of water management and mistrust over policy implementation, soft systems understanding involving public participation over management issues in Sri Lanka is recommended.

Application of ST Systems to the Evolution of TCS Technology

Written records and inscriptions regarding historical WRM in Sri Lanka indicate that a ST framework of management practices was in place as early as 3rd century BC. The TCS of water management employed in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BC to the 12th century AD period has been identified as one of the most enduring water management system in the world (Kennedy, 1933; Brohier, 1935; Geiger, 1958; Gunawardana, 1971; de Silva, 1977; de Silva, 1987; Panabokke et al., 2002). The TCS was introduced into the dry zone of Sri Lanka by Indo Aryans in order to continue with the sustainable agricultural production necessary for the growing population. Severe droughts during the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and concurrent social unrests indicate possible administrative difficulties due to population pressures and environmental damages. To minimize the above problems, additional innovation was needed in order to improve the TCS design process. Those new innovations and their overall effects in the TCS are summarized below.

The introduction of the valve pit (Bisokotuwa) around 1st century AD to allowed regulation of water supply through the tanks and was instrumental to the design of larger tanks (Fig. 2) (Gunawardana, 1978). The main function of the valve-pit was to regulate discharge using an artificially constructed, easily operated device. A variety of pit valves, such as “kota sorowwa” and “bisokotuwa”, specifically designed depending on the size of the tank

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have been used. Pit valves essentially consisted of a vertical pit or a shaft upstream which connected to a horizontal rectangular tunnel through the bund. To distribute the upstream surge and pressure, one single inlet and two separate outlets downstream were constructed with granite and or brick (Fig. 3).

Figure 2: Bisokotuwa (Valve pit) - a sluice used in large reservoir (after Ausadahami, 1999)

Figure 3: Maduru Oya dam site indicating two inlets of the ancient valve pit.

Kota sorowwa essentially consisted of clay cylindrical pilings, stacked one on top of the other and placed upstream in place of the vertical shaft discussed above, so that removal of a single piling administers a certain discharge downstream. Separate areas demarcated as “kattakaduwa and thaulla” were located adjacent to the main tank body, where their main

functions were to control siltation, salinization and iron leachate (Fig. 4). In all cases, a significant reservation of the area between tanks was allocated for natural purification of surface water. For instance “kattakaduwa” was a reservation designed to capture iron bearing groundwater leachate, “thaulla” was a wetland situated to capture sediments, excessive NOX, and cations (Jayasena and Selker, 2004, Mahatantila et al., 2008). In addition, the wetland also functioned to improve the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the tank, which was crucial for fish population and human consumption. Planting tree species such as ‘mee’ (Maduca longifolia) and ‘kumbuk’ (Terminalia arjuna) along the thaulla as a wind break was another management practice (Fig. 4). It was reported that the kumbuk tree has a tendency to absorb Ca from the subsoil (Tenent, 1860). The ash of the kumbuk tree has been used as a substitute for calcium carbonate when villagers chewing beetle. This practice indirectly indicates the ability of kumbuk trees to absorb Ca from the soil. Recent studies confirm that this attenuation of Ca and other cations from the soil and water maintains desirable subsoil chemistry and minimizes water salinity (Mahatantila et al., 2005). Incorporation of a management structure and a tax system within the TCS water management as well as the introduction of rituals and religious practices to prevent adverse societal interactions were other significant factors which led the TCS evolution and societal development (Herath, 1994; Dissanayake, 1992).

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Figure 4: The major elements associated with village tank system

The ST Systems framework can be used to characterize the relationship between society and technology in the context of TCS. The evolution of the TCS began when migrant Indo-Aryans transported the technical knowledge from India. The original design concept passed through several phases before it was commissioned as a viable technology. This transformation process may have been readily accepted by the indigenous society or may have been forcefully implanted. One could speculate that the successful integration of the indigenous community with migrant Indo-Aryans (after 543 BC) was due in part to introduction of such viable technologies. It seems that effective measures taken by the local chieftain on ST configuration were well accepted by the indigenous local society so that resistance was negligible. As the new socio-technically organized system came to be implemented in the society and understood by the people, development of the TCS accelerated. Indigenous knowledge may have directly impacted the techniques formulated within the TCS. The above

facts associated with social and technical fields may indicate the reasons why this form of hydraulic civilization has only developed within Sri Lanka, though similar situations existed among the other countries in Asia (Gunawardana, 1971). The remnants of the ancient hydraulic civilization in Sri Lanka witnessed this early development.

Effects of innovations on societal development within the TCS

Improved technical performance through innovation of the open ST system is the driving mechanism for the development of society. For instance, recent innovations such as computer technology, cell phones and electronic communications can be highlighted (Bikson and Eveland, 1996; Marty, 2000; Mumford, 2000). Several such driving mechanisms may be responsible for the historical development of Sri Lankan water management. For example, the innovation of what is known as the valve pit allowed for subsequent construction of major tanks. Simultaneously, advanced surveying and leveling techniques led to the development of diversion canals, which opened up previously arid land to agriculture and allowed exploitation of the newly feasible large reservoirs. Among these, the large irrigation reservoirs such as Kalawewa (dam length = 5 km) (Brohier, 1935) built by King Dhatusena (459-477 AD) and Kantale wewa (dam height = 16 m (Blair, 1934)) built by King Mahasena (274-302 AD) and the Yoda Ela canal (slope maintained at 10 cm per km) built by King Dhatusena (459-477 AD) are prominent examples (Brohier, 1935;

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Siriweera, 2004). The remnants of these structures raise several questions with respect to the early advancements; for instance, the criteria responsible and the measures employed for these developments are still a mystery. As Kemp (1994) pointed out, it is impractical to assume that society will welcome and appreciate new technology. It is necessary to open a “niche” for the successful introduction of new technology into the existing sociological environment, which could potentially be indifferent or hostile. It could be considered that the valve pit was introduced within such a niche. As discussed in the ancient chronicles, the water problems associated with major droughts (Baminitiya Sāya during the reign of Vattagamini in 103 BC and Ek neli Sāya during the reign of Kunchanaga (187-189 AD), had caused severe difficulty in water management (Siriweera, 1987). The existing small village tank structures did not sufficiently meet water demands, so larger, more stable structures were needed. The successful innovation of the valve pit was a critical technology, but without the social demand for more stable and plentiful water, as well as the social organization required to make the long term investments in the overall system, this idea may well have had no impact. Evidence for this is the fact that in adjacent South India, which had ample contacts with Sri Lanka, the technology was not adapted for over 500 years, till the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were established, despite the presence of nearly identical environmental and population pressures (Gunawardana,

1978). If the optimization within a closed irrigation system takes place without innovation, one witnesses only incremental societal development as seen in neighboring India. However, Sri Lanka experienced significant advancement in the period from 1-12 century AD (Fig. 5). The contemporary South Indian hydraulic structures were at a rudimentary level, and the society appears to have been indifferent to this new technology (Gunawardana, 1984). The South Indians practiced the same ancient methods of bailing out water or using rudimentary water machines (Saminataiyar, 1965) to divert water from the small tanks until 7th century AD. These conservative societies did not allow experimentation or wide-scale construction of water storage and transfer infrastructure until several centuries after the invention. The evidence suggests that a collective approach not only based on technical inputs but also on social acceptance, played a key role in the development and sustainability of the ancient TCSs.

Figure 5: Schematic graph indicating time vs. societal development in Sri Lanka with major problematic periods and development phases associated with TCS. The TCS was abandoned after 12th century AD (Modified after Kemp and Rotmans, 2001).

The evolution of the TCS after the 3rd century BC had a great impact on

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Sri Lankan society (Geiger, 1958; de Silva, 1977; Siriweera, 1991). For example, food surpluses as well as strong trade networks via the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa kingdoms were consistently maintained until 12th century AD due to the presence of the TCS. The introduction of these technical elements and associated socially organized management structures to the village communities paved the way for an efficient, reliable and sustainable agriculturally-based society. This societal development increased quality of life in terms of both spiritual and material dimensions. Recent studies conducted by Kunkel (1970), Owens (1987), the World Bank (1991) and Todaro (1994) claim that these cultural improvements affecting the individual signify and represent the development in the society. As Kunkel’s (1970) simple definition stated, “the objective of development is the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty.” The introduction of TCS profoundly advanced the development of ancient Sri Lankan society by increasing agricultural output and improving trade relationships which paved a sustainable life. Moreover, the open nature of the ancient society allowed the society to accept these new ST systems, resulting in a reduction of inequalities and an increase in economic growth.

Comparison of water management in the past and at present

The introduction of ST System to current WM practices appears to have

a bearing mainly on the institutional arrangements and economic benefits. The ST System appears to focus on the management of the TCS within a single production system. The influences by the recent LD systems to the total environment left out the production systems as seen associated with the TCS. Further, unlike the perception of the complexity of sustainable development, the current WM approach was primarily developed for the management of routine, linear work systems, even some changes with the methodology have been suggested to cope with more complex, nonlinear situations. As explained by Fox (1995), the introduction of technical elements without adequate attention to their impacts on social structure and human requirements caused significant misalignment of the current WRD in Sri Lanka. The success and sustainability of the TCS can be partially attributed to the inherent participatory nature and bottom-up control, whereas the LD systems are implemented from a top down approach.

The ancient community enjoyed significant sustainable socioeconomic benefits through advancement of the TCS and other major irrigation systems. The evidence of such development was unearthed from the accounts based on archaeological remnants and inscriptions found around major cities in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka (Geiger 1958, Gunawardana, 1971). Recent studies conducted by Jayasena and Gangadhara (2006) also pointed out several thoughtfully crafted relationships associated with the

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distribution of tanks in the catchments. This work indicates that tank distribution in the dry zone catchment systems has strong correlation with the rainfall distribution. Judging by such innovative elements associated with the planning process of ancient TCS, it can be concluded that subsequent socio-technical development must have been geared for a better society in the past. Significant public participation was also been involved in the development of ancient irrigation systems, as expressed by the inscriptions and chronicles (Geiger, 1958; de Silva, 1977). The Rajakariya (Duty by the King) is imperative in the historical period where a sequence of officials were assigned to oversee the individual aspects of maintenance. Efficient management of the society could not have been achieved unless the system gave back its return either as monetary or other measures in order to satisfy the societal needs. This improved efficiency of the TCS and subsequent development of the society during the period from 2nd

century AD to 12th century AD could not have happened unless inputs, mainly from knowledge and dependable technical initiatives were applied in the respective TCS.

When current water resource management practices are compared with those of ancient Sri Lanka, one finds evidence of a more sustainable and socially integrated past (Jayasena and Selker, 2004). The current systems, adorned with highly mechanized control structures, may be technically efficient during the period following installation; however, troubles arise when they do not

function efficiently due to the need for maintenance or short design life. Removing these colossal structures will adversely affect the adjacent environment including social displacements, as opposed to the previous easily moved clay and rubble structures, which only created minor local effects when failures occurred. In the ancient periods the maintenance of tanks and canals was done with the readily available local materials, however at present one has to depend on outside products and manufacturers. Therefore, the current system is not sustainable and will not provide long term benefits to the society, in large part due to a lack of consideration of ST factors. Considering these issues, in relation to the current water management problems that has been emerged in Sri Lanka, the linear ST system as discussed above related to LD does not appear to encompass a wide scope of soft systems understanding as evident in the ancient TCS.

DISCUSSION

It is important to consider the overall management of water resources in Sri Lanka within the framework of socio-technical and large technological systems. Historical evidence shows a significant synergistic technical and social development surrounding the evolving TCS. This innovation-based advancement was responsible for the broad and sustained societal development witnessed from the 2nd

century BC to the 12th century AD. The areas affected by TCS encompass about 60 % of the island (Jayatilake et al., 2001). The water demand

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increased due to agricultural requirement, population increase and drought. To address these requirements within the societal context, the TCS evolved thorough organized public participation and labor supported by indigenous knowledge and techniques. The modern technical elements such as plumes, weirs and pumps recently introduced into these irrigation systems must also be compatible with the user friendly systems approach, so that operational planning and maintenance could be immediately handled by local organizations. Even in historical periods, evidence of application of similar ST system framework on TCS could be traced.

The ST system had a significant bearing on the development of TCS as it proceeded in its initial steps along a pathway of survival, the first ST system criterion (Trist, 1973). Subsequently, the TCS may have generated sufficient economic assets within the kingdom which were used to develop large and strong irrigation systems including meso level urban centers. The basic requirements for the meso level urban development in the society, such as water supply for agriculture, food supply, regular tank and canal maintenance and festivals organized through cultural and religious practices were at a satisfactory level as evident by the thriving agriculture based society (Geiger, 1958). During the planning process of the TCS, the main focus was improved irrigation management. However, concern for environmental impacts also seems to have been a priority since population even in this early period was expected to be increase within TCS. It can be seen

that the surrounding environment associated with the tanks is influenced by the TCS, so that the TCS can be considered as an open socio-technical system.

The new LD’s recently introduced into the water management in Sri Lanka mainly provide hydropower aiming at large technology-based systems. While providing irrigation water through upgrading and maintaining the reservoirs in the dry zone was a lesser interest in the planning process. However, the irrigation interests were directly allied with the STS framework which has been familiar to the society. The entire WM operation shows a strong bias towards the application of modern technical elements and top-down management, which isolates it from social elements. There is a clear-cut difference between these two systems. The longevity and maintenance of TCS were dependent on public participation through organized socio-technical events, such as routine maintenance undertaken communally and farmer-organized festivals. The large dams display some elements associated with LTS, such as generation of power and distribution network as well as complex economic and cultural changes. However, large dams lack the ST web of activities familiar to Sri Lanka. This alien situation adversely affects the overall output as these dams are socio-economic and environmental burdens. The linear top-down approach to management through government machinery with maintenance requiring expensive and specialized technical equipment alienates the society which once significantly contributed for the

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development and maintenance of the ancient TCS.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The STS framework of water resources management is necessary for efficient implementations of irrigation and water supply projects. The TCS operates as an open integrated ST system with strong considerations of irrigation and environmental issues. In contrast, the LD operates as a linear isolated LT system with primary goals of power supply and irrigation issues. Within the TCS and LD systems, I found that elements and actors bound together to create two different ST frameworks for water management. However, the TCS management displayed longevity and sustainability throughout a period of more than 1500 years compared with the LD management which only may continue for a maximum of 150 years. Therefore, I conclude that smaller, more user-friendly irrigation and water supply schemes are appropriate for rural areas of developing countries or regions with inadequate resources. The larger, more technically advanced water supply systems are more appropriate for regions with abundant resources, since these systems require advanced technology and technologically explicit maintenance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

HAHJ acknowledges the financial support given by the Biological and Ecological Engineering Department of the Oregon State University (ORST), USA and the Research Promotion Centre of the UGC, Colombo, Sri Lanka to complete this

research work. Author conveys his gratitude to Prof. John Selker of the Biological and Ecological Engineering, Ms. Kelly Kibler of the Forest Engineering and Ms. Lisel Kopel of the Writing Center, ORST, USA for their editorial assistance and to anonymous reviewers for their constructive suggestions. Prof. Rohana Chandrajith from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka and Mr. Titus Cooray from the Uwa Wellassa University, Sri Lanka are also mentioned with gratitude for the diagrams they provided for the manuscript.

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