i

Scientia et Lux

B.P. 155

Ruhengeri

Rwanda

T : +250 788 90 30 30

: +250 788 90 30 32

E : inesruhengeri@yahoo.fr W : www.ines.ac.rw

FACULTY OF APPLIED FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF LAND SURVEY

A Dissertation submitted in partial

Fulfillment of requirements for the

Award of Bachelors‟ Degree in Land

Survey

Presented by Theogene UWIMANA

Reg.NO

: 11/4000

Supervisor: Selina Khan (Msc)

Musanze August, 2015

INSTITUT D’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR

DE RUHENGERI

Accredited by Ministerial Order N° 005/2010/Mineduc of 16 June 2010

ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

ON FOREST COVER FROM 2001-2009 USING GIS.

CASE STUDY: KINIGI Sector.

i

CERTIFICATE OF ORGINALITY

INSTITUT D’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR DE

RUHENGERI

FACULTY OF FOUNDAMENTAL APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF LAND SURVEY

I hereby declare that the project research, entitled “Assessing the impacts of human activities on

forest cover from 2001-2009 using GIS, case study of Kinigi sector” is submitted in fulfillment of

a bachelor degree is my own work and that all combinations from any other persons or sources

are properly and duly cited. I further declare that the material has not been submitted either in

whole or in part for a degree at this or any other university.

Student:

UWIMANA Theogene

Date: ………../07/2015

Signature:……………

The undersigned to hereby state that, the above student‟s work including the project research,

he‟s been completed to my satisfaction and the thesis is ready for examination.

Supervisor: Selina Khan

Date:…………/07/2015

Signature:……………..

ii

DEDICATION

To my beloved parents,

To all my beloved brothers and

sister,

To all my beloved classmates;

To all of my friends.

iii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this project research is to assess the impact of human activities on forest cover

from 2001-2009 using GIS in Kinigi Sector.

Human activities influenced the coverage of forest and is impacted the environment in the study

area. Therefore this study aims to spatially assess forest coverage and analyze related outcomes

and impacts on the environments and the population. Data was obtained by interview with

citizens using structured questionnaire. Data from questionnaire has been analyzed using

Microsoft excel software.

To analyze the extent of the forest cover in Kinigi Sector between 2001 and 2009, two satellites

(1 for 2001 and 1 for 2009) images has been classified using ArcMap 10.2, changes of classified

uses has been detected using the same software and print out maps show change detection

results.

Results show 98% of respondents said that there is negative change in land use especially in

forest cover. The results from image classification show that there is a decrease of 3.53% in

forest cover between 2001 and 2009; it further shows an increase of 2.9% of crop land

(agricultural land) and an increase of 0.63% in built up area.

In this way, rural and urban planners are recommended to find measures and solutions to reduce

the destruction or disappearance of forests in Kinigi Sector. We also recommend to the

Authorities of Kinigi Sector to consider the coverage of forest that have been disappeared within

Kinigi Sector during the years 2001-2009, and take precautions to avoid loss of forests in the

future by aware the peoples living in Kinigi Sector to plant forest in order to restore the amount

of forest that has been cut and preserve the forest in future. Also, people have to build in grouped

settlement to use land properly.

iv

RÉSUME

Le but de cette recherche est d'évaluer l'impact des activités humaines sur l‟étendue de forêt

depuis 2001-2009 en utilisant le GIS dans le Secteur Kinigi.

Les activités humaines ont influencé sur l‟étendue de la forêt et il est touché sur l'environnement

dans le Secteur d'étude. So, cette étude vise à évaluer l'espace de l‟étendue forestière et

d'analyser les résultats et leurs impacts sur les environnements et la population. Les données ont

été obtenues par interview avec les citoyens en utilisant questionnaire structuré. Les données de

questionnaire a été analysées avec le logiciel Microsoft Excel.

Pour analyser l'étendue de l‟étendue forestière dans le Secteur Kinigi entre 2001 et 2009, deux

images satellitaires (1 pour 2001 et 1 pour 2009) ont été classé en utilisant ArcMap 10.2, les

changements d'utilisation de terres ont été détectée en utilisant le même logiciel et imprimer des

cartes montrant les résultats de ce changement détectée lors de l‟Analyzer.

Les résultats montrent que 98% des citoyens qui ont répondue (répondants) ont dit qu'il ya un

changement négatif dans l'utilisation des terres en particulier sur l‟étendue forestiere. Les

résultats de la classification d'images montrent qu'il ya une diminution de 3,53% de l‟étendue

forestière entre 2001 et 2009; il montre en outre une augmentation de 2,9% des terres cultivées

(terres agricoles) et une augmentation de 0,63% en zone bâtie.

De cette façon, les planificateurs ruraux et urbains sont recommandés de trouver des mesures et

des solutions pour réduire la destruction ou disparition des forêts. Nous recommandons aussi au

Autorités du Secteur de Kinigi de considérer l'étendue forestières qui ont disparue au sein du

Secteur Kinigi pendant les années 2001-2009 et prend les précautions pour éviter les pertes des

forets dans le future en sensibilisant aux peuples du Secteur Kinigi à planter des forêts pour

restauré et préservé les forêts qui ont disparue. Aussi, les peuples de Kinigi doivent construit en

habitant groupé afin d'utiliser les terres de manière appropriée.

v

ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

My sincere thanks go to the Almighty God for helping and keeping me healthy and strong

during my five year of study at INES RUHENGERI. Thanks you my Lord!

My grateful gratitude goes to my supervisor Selina Khan, for her guidance and supports

throughout my research project. Her professional experiences and practical comments,

critiques and advices inspired to conduct this research.

My gratitude goes to INES Sponsorship for granting me this opportunity to study in the Land

Survey Department and conducting this research. Many thanks to the department staffs and

lectures of Land Survey for providing input that leads to the success of this research.

Many thanks to my friends at INES RUHENGERI and my classmates in Land Survey 2010-

2015, especially SERUGENDO François Xavier, NIYIGENA J. Nepomuscene,

NDUWAMUKIZA Martin, HABAKUBAHO Everigiste and HAKUZIMANA Basilien; we

lived together during the five years of study the support of you during that time encouraged

Me.

Warm thanks to my beloved father, brothers and sister for their financial supports and

encouragement during five years of study at INES RUHENGERI.

May God bless you all.

vi

ABBREVIATIONS

CGIS-UR: Centre for Geographic Information System-University of Rwanda,

DHS : Demographic Household Survey,

EICV : Enquêtes Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie des ménages,

ETM: Enhanced Thematic Mapper,

FAO: Food Agriculture Organization,

GDP: Gross Domestic Product,

GIS: Geographical Information System,

GLCF: Global Land Cover Facility,

GPS: Global Positioning System,

GPS: Global Positioning System,

HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immuno Deficiency

Syndrome,

INES : Instutut d‟Enseignement Superieur de Ruhengeri,

IPAR: Institute of Policy Analysis and Research,

MINAGRI: Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Ressources,

NISR: National Institute of Statistic in Rwanda,

ORTPN : Office Rwandaise du Tourisme et des Parc Nationaux,

PNV : Parc National de Virunga,

RDB: Rwanda Development Board,

UNEP: United Nations Environment Program,

PDDESA: Population Division Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

CERTIFICATE OF ORGINALITY ............................................................................................ i

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... iii

RÉSUME .................................................................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEGDEMENT .......................................................................................................... v

ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................... vi

List of tables ............................................................................................................................. viii

List of figures ............................................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1

1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 1

1.4 Objective of the Study ........................................................................................................... 2

1.4.1 General Objective ............................................................................................................... 2

1.4.2 Specific Objectives and Research Questions ..................................................................... 2

1.5 Hypothesis ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.6 Motivation of the Topic......................................................................................................... 3

1.7 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 3

1.8 Structure of the Work ............................................................................................................ 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 5

2.1 Human Activities................................................................................................................... 5

2.1.1 Urbanization, Urban Growth and Urban Sprawl ................................................................ 5

2.1.2 The Effect of Urbanization on Nature ................................................................................ 8

2.1.3 The Urbanization Phenomenon in Rwanda ...................................................................... 10

2.1.4 Agriculture in Rwanda ..................................................................................................... 12

2.2 The Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment ....................................................... 12

2.2.1 Impacts of Technology on Environment .......................................................................... 12

2.2.2. Impacts of Agriculture on Environment.......................................................................... 13

2.3. The Impacts of Human Activities on Environments on Rwanda ....................................... 18

viii

2.3.1 Degradation of Natural Resources and Biodiversity ........................................................ 18

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES ........................................ 23

3.1 Study Area Description ....................................................................................................... 23

3.1.1 Location and Demography of Musanze District .............................................................. 23

3.1.2 Geographical Location of Kinigi Sector .......................................................................... 24

3.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 25

3.2.1 Data Collection Methods .................................................................................................. 25

3.2.2 Determination of Sample Size ......................................................................................... 26

3.2.3 Data Source ...................................................................................................................... 27

3.2.4 Secondary Data Collection ............................................................................................... 27

3.3. Data Processing .................................................................................................................. 28

3.4 Software Used ..................................................................................................................... 28

3.5 Georeferencing .................................................................................................................... 28

3.6 Digitalization ....................................................................................................................... 29

3.7 Clipping ............................................................................................................................... 29

3.8 Overlay and Detect Change................................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ............................................. 30

4.1 Analysis of Questionnaires Data ......................................................................................... 30

4.1.1 Sex of the Respondents .................................................................................................... 30

4.1.2 Main Land Use Types in Kinigi Sector in 2001............................................................... 31

4.1.3 Change in Land Use Type for 8 years .............................................................................. 32

4.1.4 The Impact of Change in Land Use Type in Kinigi ......................................................... 33

4.1.5 The Change in Land Value in Kinigi from 2001-2009 .................................................... 34

4.1.6 The Advantage of Tourism in Kinigi ............................................................................... 35

4.1.7 Level of Satisfaction on Water Quantity and Quality in Kinigi ....................................... 35

4.2 Spatial analysis .................................................................................................................... 36

4.2.1 Land Use of Kinigi Sector in 2001................................................................................... 36

4.2.3 Land Use of Kinigi Sector in 2009................................................................................... 38

4.2.4 Land Use Change From 2001-2009 ................................................................................. 40

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................. 43

5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 43

ix

5.2. Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 44

References ................................................................................................................................. 45

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 50

viii

List of tables

Table 1: Data sources .................................................................................................................... 27

Table 2: Respondents by cell ........................................................................................................ 26

Table 3: Sex of respondents .......................................................................................................... 30

Table 4: The main land use type in Kinigi sector in 2001 ............................................................ 31

Table 5: Change in land use between 2001-2009 ......................................................................... 32

Table 6: Respondent‟s view on impact caused by the change in land use ................................... 33

Table 7: Level of satisfaction on water quantity and quality ........................................................ 36

Table 8: Land use distribution in 2001 ......................................................................................... 37

Table 9: Percentage of land use in 2009 ....................................................................................... 39

Table 10: Area of use change of Kinigi between 2001 and 2009. ................................................ 41

Table 11: Land use conversion between 2001 and 2009 .............................................................. 41

ix

List of figures

Figure 1: Irrigation Scheme hydrology ......................................................................................... 14

Figure 2: Administrative Map of Musanze District ...................................................................... 23

Figure 3: Administrative map of Kinigi Sector ............................................................................ 24

Figure 4: Gender of Respondents ................................................................................................. 31

Figure 6: Main Land Use Type in Kinigi in 2009 ........................................................................ 33

Figure 7: Impact of change in land use ......................................................................................... 34

Figure 8: Change in Land Market ................................................................................................. 35

Figure 9: Level of Satisfaction on Drinking Water. ..................................................................... 36

Figure 10: Land Use of Kinigi in 2001 ......................................................................................... 37

Figure 11: Land Use Distribution in 2001 .................................................................................... 38

Figure 12: Land Use Distribution of Kinigi Sector in 2009 ......................................................... 39

Figure 13: Land Use in 2009 ........................................................................................................ 40

Figure 14: Map of Land Use Change of Kinigi From 2001-2009. ............................................... 40

1

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Kinigi sector is a touristic area which is located near the Virunga Mountains and Kinigi is

continuously developing day by day in order to satisfy the needs of tourists. Virunga

Gorillas Mountain is a highly endangered African ape subspecies, with a total estimated

population of 380 existing only in the Virunga Conservation Area encompassing Rwanda,

Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda (Gray et al., 2005).

This development of Kinigi sector occupies a significant area of former lands and is causing

challenges for farmers in Kinigi Sector. Today, due to urbanization in Rwanda, especially in

Kinigi sector, forest cover has been decreased continuously.

However, Rapid growth of urban income in Rwanda and increasing demands for high-value

products (such as processed agriculture products) could be a catalyst for faster agriculture

growth and subsequent rural development.

Geographic Information Systems have been used to analyze and monitor the distribution of

forest and agricultural land. In order to predict associated land uses change. (Engelen, 1999).

In this study, I access the impact of human activities on forest cover in Kinigi sector with the

objectives of detecting the area of forest cover and human activities, such as a new settlements

and agricultural land and land use to evaluate changes in Kinigi Sector from 2001 to 2009,

relevant recommendations will be drawn.

1.3 Problem Statement

Kinigi Sector contains the largest part of the Volcanoes National Parc, and its head office at

Kinigi. 5 of the 8 volcanoes of the Virunga chain (Karisimbi, Bisoke, Sabyinyo, Gahinga and

Muhabura) are within Musanze District. It is also in this sector that most of Rwanda's

mountain gorillas are found, making it the most popular tourist destination in the country.

2

Kinigi sector is a touristic sector in Musanze and one of the largest cities in Rwanda and

serves as a hub for tourists. The investment in this sector of tourism comprised 42% of

registered project in 2012 and tourism receipts are expected to rise to an annual growth rate of

11.5% in 2015 (RDB, 2013). Kinigi urban area is being expended into rural areas especially

in forest cover which serve as green space. The reason for the disappearance of forest is

because Kinigi‟s population needs space of variety of human activities. However forest to

provide oxygen to clean the air of polluants, absorb noise and regulating humidity in this area.

In Kinigi Sector forests are needed for many reasons, first reason is that forests help the peoples

living in Kinigi to breathe, it pumps out the oxygen we need to live and absorb the carbon

dioxide we emit. The second reason is that forest feed us, it gives us medicine, it also help us to

keep our ecosystem.

The expansion of Kinigi sector is creating direct and indirect impacts with those living there

facing new challenges and opportunities in meeting their needs and accommodating the

byproducts of urbanization: the prices of timber have been increased because of the decrease of

the forest.

1.4 Objective of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

The general objective of this research is to assess the impact of human activities on forest in

Kinigi Sector in Musanze District.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives and Research Questions

The specific objectives and research questions are stated in the table below:

3

No Specific objectives Research Questions

1 To study the coverage of forest and other

land use in Kinigi sector from 2001-2009

How did forest and human activities evolve in

Kinigi sector?

2 To detect forest which has been affected by

human activities

What forest area has been affected by human

activities in Kinigi from 2001-2009?

3 To evaluate the decrease of forest in Kinigi

from 2001-2009

How did the human activities affect forest and

agricultural land in Kinigi from 2001-2009?

4 To evaluate forest change due to human

activities in Kinigi from 2001-2009

How Kinigi‟s settlement and agricultural land

extended from 2001 to 2009?

1.5 Hypothesis

This research has one hypothesis which has been formulated:

There is a decrease in forest area due to human activities in Kinigi sector.

1.6 Motivation of the Topic

The impacts of human activities on the environment in Rwanda have been scantily studied.

Therefore, this research is established to understand the dynamics of human activities, such as

settlement and agricultural activities and its effects on forest areas.

This research was conducted to show local leaders which challenges and impacts of human

activities, the population might face already and in the future if the destination of forest

continues to decrease and also the forest is the habit of the animals and therefore tourism could

also decrease which decrease economy of the country.

1.7 Significance of the Study

Land use and land cover change due to urbanization in Kinigi sector resulting in high pressure on

land and also in the development of tourism in PNV (Parc National de Virunga).

I conducted this research in order to apply what I learned during five years of study in land

survey especially in Urban and Regional planning and Geographic Information System.

My project focused on assessing the impact of human activities on forest cover from 2001 to

2011 using GIS, a case study of Kinigi Sector therefore I will show the impact of human

4

activities on forest cover which can guides the urban and rural planners and policy makers in the

future.

1.8 Structure of the Work

This research is divided into five chapters: Chapter one provide a general introduction which

will deal with background of the project, objectives, motivation of the study, problem statement

and structure of the document. Chapter two of the project contains the literature review, the

already existing research findings related to this topic. Chapter three includes the methodology

which will deal with the description of the study area, data acquisition methods, data processing

(Spatial and non-spatial) and the discussion of those results. Chapter four presents results

analysis, maps and discussions. The last chapter contains conclusion and recommendations.

5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Human Activities

Human activities are something that people do or cause to happen. Human activities are

responsible for most of the loss in biodiversity throughout the world. With an increasing

population, we are consuming more and more natural resources. We do this by driving more,

using more energy in our homes, and buying many more products than we need.

2.1.1 Urbanization, Urban Growth and Urban Sprawl

a) Urbanization and Urban Growth

Urbanization and urban growth are two different concepts often found in the literature of urban

studies. The distinction should be noted that urbanization refers to proportion of the national

population living in urban areas, and urban growth refers to an increase in urban population size,

independent of rural population (United Nations Population Division, 2002).

On the other hand, urbanization can be viewed and perceived to mean a lot of things depending on

how it is used. It can be viewed as a characteristic of the population, as a particular kind of land

use and land cover, as well as a characteristic of social and economic processes and interactions

affecting both population and land (McIntyre et al, 2000).

Physical scientists especially ecologists generally approach definitions of urbanization from the

standpoint of the built environment. To them, density of buildings and impervious surfaces is as

important as population (Long, Rain, and Ratcliffe, 2001). McIntyre et al (2000), however, noted

that among ecologists, a wide variety of urban definitions have been used in research ranging

from any human alteration of the landscape to more precise definitions based on density and

specified land-use characteristics. In spite of these variations, urbanization trends are universal.

Local factors can speed up or slow down the process, but it cannot be stopped. Urbanization is not

necessarily bad, but the rapid change brings a lot of economic and social problems that are

difficult to manage. Some agree that it is a consequence of economic development but it is also a

requirement for economic development.

6

Urban Sprawl

„„Sprawl, is an unplanned, unsystematic, area-intensive outward growth mainly of city-type

settlements into the rural space and is a consequence of progressive urbanization. The wish for

living in green places, for weekend houses, quickly accessible shopping centers, cheap industrial

areas, and transportation infrastructure occupies much space, and if there are no conditions posed

by regional planning and environmental protection, then construction will happen at places where

it is cheapest. In this way, open spaces, recreational areas, and ecological compensation areas are

lost, become dissected or downsized and lose their ecological and socio-economic functions.‟‟

(Landscape Gesellschaft fur Geo-Kommunikation (2000–2002: 469))

Factors that Encourage Urbanization

Population Growth

There are three components of urban population growth: natural growth of urban population, rural

urban migration and the reclassification of areas previously defined as rural. Natural increase

provides a base for urban population growth rates, and rural-urban migration and reclassification

supplement this growth. Anyhow the natural increase of the population in the city often declines

sharply together with the urbanization process that has happened. (Stutz and Souza 1998)

World population reached 6.1 billion in mid-2000 and is currently growing by 77 million people

per year. By 2025, world population is expected to be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion, with

the medium variant 9.3 billion. The different prospects changes with the calculation way and HIV.

Even the fertility is high in many countries the impact of HIV/AIDS epidemic is huge. Morbidity,

Mortality and population losses are increasing (PDDESA 2001).

The population in today's developed countries is not expected to grow in next 50 years because

fertility levels are remaining below replacement level. On the contrary, the population in

developing countries is projected to rise from 4.9 million in 2000 to 8.2 billion in 2050. The rapid

growth is expected among the group of 48 least developed countries. Their population is expected

nearly to triple in the next 50 years. International immigration is projected to remain high in 21st

century. The more developed areas are expected to continue being net receivers of international

migrants. This has a high impact to the population growth in developed areas and cities (PDDESA

2001).

7

Poverty

Poverty is hard to define. Poverty means that human needs are not met. Poverty is everyday life in

every country, even in developed areas. In every country can be identified individuals who have

so small income that they cannot afford even the very basic goods. These physical needs are

adequate diet, housing, work, water supply, sanitation and health care. For humans a few mental

demands are also important, like basic civil and political rights and feeling of safety (HABITAT,

1996).

Poverty can be measured by income level. This is not always the best way to define poor people

because some level of personal income cannot substitute problems with health, crime, physical

violence or life expectancy. Still using this kind of income level is normal in every country.

People whose income is under this minimum level are considered poor. At least 20 per cent of the

world‟s populations live in absolutely poverty. More than 90 percent of these live in the

developing countries. These numbers are only rough averages because it is in reality difficult to

estimate the amount of people who suffer from absolute poverty (HABITAT, 1996).

Standard of Living

The differences in standard of living are major issues when considering factors that encourage

urbanization. Higher living standards and higher salaries in the city attract people to move to the

cities. As long as the income gap between rural and urban areas is big, people tend to move to the

cities. Economic factors and employment are the main reasons for migration. Sometimes the

employment in rural areas is non-existing. In these cases moving to the city, even for very low

salaries, is more profitable than staying in the countryside (Sajor 2001, Brookfield and Byron

1993).

Environmental Pressure

The biggest environmental pressure for rural people is the lack of profitable land. The land

inherited from the parents is divided to the children and their children. At last the land per farmer

becomes so small that it is unprofitable to farm. On the other hand erosion and land deterioration

makes farming even more difficult. Even when poor farmers have enough land space they can‟t

always afford and compete for non-sufficient water resources or fertilizers. Water is sometimes

very polluted and regulations forbid the use of that kind of water because of food contamination.

8

This gives no opportunity to the poor farmers. They can either continue farming with

contaminated water and get caught with the contamination of crops or try to find some other

livelihood. This is the problem in lower basins of many rivers in developing countries (Sajor

2001).

Water shortage increases social inequity. Poor farmers cannot sink boreholes to the necessary

depths to extract water. Wealthier farmers can benefit by moving inland to buy up more land or

water. The only way to survive for these poor farmers is to move to cities to find some

nonagricultural livelihood (UNEP 1999).

2.1.2 The Effect of Urbanization on Nature

Complexity of Environmental Problems

Probably most of the major environmental problems of the next century will result from the

continuation and sharpening of existing problems that currently do not receive enough political

attention. The problems are not necessarily noticed in many countries or then nothing is done

even the situation has been detected. The most emerging issues are climate changes, freshwater

scarcity, deforestation, and fresh water pollution and population growth (UNEP 1999).

These problems are very complex and their interactions are hard to define. It is very important to

examine problems through the social-economic-cultural system. Even the interconnections

between environmental problems are now better known, we still lack exact information on how

the issues are linked, on what degree they interact and what are the most effective measures. One

problem is to integrate land- and water use planning to provide food and water security (UNEP

1999).

Overpopulation

The major cause of most environmental problems is the rapidly growing human population.

About 90 million babies are born each year. At this rate, by the year 2050, global population will

reach 10 billion. The current world population is on average very young and has many years of

reproductive life ahead. Because of this the population will grow even the fertility rate seems to

decrease. The population growth takes mostly place in developing countries. These countries are

9

in charge of 90% of current population growth. It has been estimated that by the year 2025 even

84% of the world‟s people will live in developing regions (ENCARTA 2001).

Growing Demand for Food and Facilities

Due to the growing population, demands for water, food, housing, heat, energy, clothing, and

consumer goods are increasing alarmingly. Rapid population growth not only lessens available

calorie supply from food per person but also risks the present food production with pollution.

Increasing demand forces farmers to exhaust the soil or to use marginal land. The only way to

product food to all this population is to create more effective agricultural production.

Irrigation is the most important way, because in the future the arable land is not increasing,

probably decreasing, due to erosion and land deterioration (ENCARTA 2001, Brookfield and

Byron 1993).

At this moment world‟s population is 6 billion people. The urbanization is about 50 per cent

which means that half of the population is living in the urban areas and the other half in the rural

areas. This means that the other half of the population, in rural areas, has to produce the food to

the population in urban areas. Most of the population growth takes place in urban areas, which

means more pressure to the rural people to produce food for the growing amount of urban people

(Varis 1998, Vakkilainen and Varis 1999).

Growing urbanization means more consumption and need of different products. The production of

these needs water and creates more pollutants. In developing countries where the urbanization is

occurring most rapidly the technology is not high enough to take responsibility of water treatment

and clean production. Many Western companies produce their products in developing countries

because of more flexible environmental law and cheaper production costs. This puts extra

pressure on the environment of the developing countries (Varis 1998, Vakkilainen and Varis

1999).

Problems for Food Production

Plants need water, solar energy and nutrients to grow. Humans can only change few things to help

plants to product more, the amount of water and fertilizer. In the areas where these are needed

there is also often uncertainty of water supply and lacking of capital for fertilizers. Water and food

10

availability is closely linked together because of the enormous need of green water. For example,

each ton of grain needs 1000 tons of water for successful growth (Allan 1997, Varis 1997b).

The quality of water is often threatened in poor areas due to domestic and industrial wastes.

Agriculture as well produces numerous side effects to water resources, including erosion, leaching

of nutrients, accumulation and wash off of pesticides and heavy metals, increased salinity due to

evaporation losses and spearing of various diseases such as schistosomiasis and malaria

(Vakkilainen and Varis 1999, Varis 1997b).

Until now the increasing of the fertilizers have helped to produce bigger yields. The population

growth is nowadays so fast that increasing use of fertilizers is not enough. The next step in

producing more food will be different crops and irrigation methods, like drip irrigation and water

saver plants (Vakkilainen and Varis 1999, Varis 1997b).

Pollutants of Air, Soil and Water

Even the industrialized countries, with higher standards of living and greater numbers of cars,

produce far more air pollution and greenhouse gases than developing countries; they can reduce

environmental hazards by using technology such as smokestack scrubbers, emission systems, and

wastewater treatment plants. Developing countries do not have this new technology or capacity to

do so. The consumption is far lower but the expensive energy-efficient or clean-up technologies

are economically impractical for these countries. For these reasons environmental problems occur

more often in developed countries (ENCARTA 2001).

2.1.3 The Urbanization Phenomenon in Rwanda

Historically speaking, urban development is a very recent phenomenon which was brought in

Rwanda at the beginning of the 20th

century when the colonizers arrived in Rwanda. Indeed, the

absence of towns is partly due to scattered individual settlement in the whole country on the one

hand and a decentralized economic system before the colonial period in Rwanda, peddlers

moved from one hill to another selling their goods (there was no established places for trade) on

the other hand.

The colonial administration did not encourage urban development in Rwanda because it was

11

considered as a country with very little economic interests. Although the administration centers

were created fifty years later during the colonial period, jobless people were not allowed to

remain there. After independence, the regimes which came to power opposed urban development

under the pretext that priority ought to be given to the development of rural areas. To support this

strategy, the following decisions were taken:

i. The creation of rural centers to keep the rural populations in one place;

ii. Introduction of new administrative policies where citizens had to get a pass in order to

move to town;

iii. Citizens were obliged to get a residence permit and a permanent employment card;

iv. Regular raids to catch and send back jobless people in their respective rural communes.

During the independence in 1962, Kigali population reached 6.000 people only. The other

centers also called urban centers were province headquarters. New province distribution map

has allowed rural areas to join towns. The urbanization rate has increased three times between

1962 and 1972 (from 1 to 3%), it reached 5% in 1978 and approximately 9% just before the

1994 tragedy. With more than 17%, Rwanda remains the least urbanized country in Africa,

behind Burundi. The average urbanization rate in Africa is about 35%.

According to the data, analysis and evidence from the third household living conditions survey

(Enquête intégrale sur les conditions de vie des ménages-EICV3) and the fourth Demographic and

household living conditions survey (DHS), The development of cities in Rwanda is very recent,

and the rate of urbanization stands at about 18%. Although, this rate is among the lowest in the

world, the annual growth rate of the urban population of 4.5% far exceeds the worldwide average

of 1.8%. Almost half of the urban dwellers are concentrated in the City of Kigali, with about one

Million inhabitants. This monocephalic situation highlights the imbalance between urban centers

within Rwanda.

Challenges caused by rapid urbanization combined with scarcity of land, are the proliferation of

unplanned urban growth and environmental degradation. After independence and until until 2004,

urban planning did not receive prior attention – a fact which resulted in a rapid rise of unplanned

settlements.

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2.1.4 Agriculture in Rwanda

The agricultural sector is an important conduit in the economic development efforts of Rwanda.

Performance in the agricultural sector has a positive effect on the country‟s GDP (Gross Domestic

Product). In 2011, GDP (Gross Domestic Product) at current prices was estimated to be Rwf

3,828 billion, up from Rwf 3,280 billion in the year 2010 (NISR: National Institute of Statistic in

Rwanda, National accounts, 2011). Cultivated area represents 1.12 million hectares, around 46%

of the country, distributed between 870 000 ha of annual crops and 250 000 of performance crops

(MINAGRI, 2011). In 2009, this sector contributed 34% to the country‟s GDP. Between, 2001-

2006, the sector contributed 36% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) while in 2011 it

accounted for 47% of the Gross Domestic Product NISR: National Institute of Statistic in

Rwanda, National accounts, 2011). According to IPAR (2012), the population living under the

poverty datum line is 44.9% while the target in 2015 is 23%. Between 2005/6 and 2010/11

poverty fell by 11.8%. (IPAR, 2012)

About 80% of the Rwandan population is dependent on agriculture (MINAGRI Annual Report,

2010/2011) of which majority (79.6%) are women (National Gender Policy Strategic Plan, 2010).

A significant proportion of the agricultural population (42.2%) receives help from family

members for their field operations. With a total population of around 12 million and an estimated

population growth rate of 2.9%, Rwanda represents one of the most densely populated countries

in Sub-Saharan Africa. Given the limited availability of arable land for agriculture and the

constantly growing food requirements of the population, ensuring food security poses a major

challenge. Most of the farmlands in Rwanda consist of fragmented plots of land. On average, the

farm holdings are spread over 4 different blocks of lands. Approximately 80% of farms have a

surface area of less than 1Ha each. FAO estimates that the population will rise further to 14

million by 2020 (FAO, 2005).

2.2 The Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment

2.2.1 Impacts of Technology on Environment

The applications of technology often result in unavoidable environmental impacts, Environmental

impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable for several

13

reasons. First, given that the purpose of many technologies is to exploit, control, or otherwise

“improve” upon nature for the perceived benefit of humanity while at the same time the myriad of

processes in nature have been optimized and are continually adjusted by evolution, any

disturbance of these natural processes by technology is likely to result in negative environmental

consequences (Commoner, B. (1971)). Second, the conservation of mass principle and the first

law of thermodynamics (i.e., conservation of energy) dictate that whenever material resources or

energy are moved around or manipulated by technology, environmental consequences are

inescapable. Third, according to the second law of thermodynamics, order can be increased within

a system (such as the human economy) only by increasing disorder or entropy outside the system

(i.e., the environment). Thus, technologies can create “order” in the human economy (i.e., order as

manifested in buildings, factories, transportation networks, communication systems, etc.) only at

the expense of increasing “disorder” in the environment. According to a number of studies,

increased entropy is likely to be correlated to negative environmental impacts (Faber, M., Niemes,

N. and Stephan, G. (2012); (Kümmel, R. (1989)); (Ruth, M. (1993); (Huesemann, M.H., and J.A.

Huesemann (2011)).

2.2.2. Impacts of Agriculture on Environment

The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on the wide variety of agricultural practices

employed around the world.

a) Fishing

The impact of fishing on environment can be divided into issues that involve the availability of

fish to be caught, such as overfishing, sustainable fisheries, and fisheries management; and issues

that involve the impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as by-catch.

These conservation issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science

programs. There is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and

humanity‟s desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows.

Similar to other environmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on

fishing for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realize that if future fish populations are to

be sustainable then some fisheries must reduce or even close. (Myers, R. A.; Worm, B. (2003))

14

The journal Science published a four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at

prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in 2048. The scientists stated

that the decline was a result of overfishing, pollution and other environmental factors that were

reducing the population of fisheries at the same time as their ecosystems were being degraded.

Yet again the analysis has met criticism as being fundamentally flawed, and many fishery

management officials, industry representatives and scientists challenge the findings, although the

debate continues. Many countries, such as Tonga, the United States, Australia and New Zealand,

and international management bodies have taken steps to appropriately manage marine resources

(Worm, Boris; Barbier, E. B.; Beaumont, N.; Duffy, J. E.; Folke, C.; Halpern, B. S.; Jackson, J. B.

C.; Lotze, H. K. et al. (2006-11-03); Juliet Eilperin (2009-11-02)).

b) Irrigation

The impacts of irrigation on environmental includes the changes in quantity and quality of soil

and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the

tail-end and downstream of the irrigation scheme.

The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing to the installation and

operation of the scheme.

Figure 1: Irrigation Scheme hydrology

An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. As

a hydrological result it is found that:

The downstream river discharge is reduced,

15

The evaporation in the scheme is increased,

The groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased,

The level of the water table rises,

The drainage flow is increased.

These may be called direct effects.

Effects on soil and water quality are indirect and complex, and subsequent impacts on natural,

ecological and socio-economic conditions are intricate. In some, but not all instances, water

logging and soil salinization can result. However, irrigation can also be used, together with soil

drainage, to overcome soil salinization by leaching excess salts from the vicinity of the root zone

(Van Hoorn, J. W. and J.G. Van Alphen (2006)).

Irrigation can also be done extracting groundwater by (tube) wells. As a hydrological result it is

found that the level of the water descends. The effects may be water mining, land/soil subsidence,

and, along the coast, saltwater intrusion.

Irrigation projects can have large benefits, but the negative side effects are often overlooked

(Thakkar, Himanshu, (1999)). Agricultural irrigation technologies such as high powered water

pumps, dams, and pipelines are responsible for the large-scale depletion of fresh water resources

such as aquifers, lakes, and rivers. As a result of this massive diversion of freshwater, lakes,

rivers, and creeks are running dry, severely altering or stressing surrounding ecosystems, and

contributing to the extinction of many aquatic species (Pearce, R. (2006))

c) Agricultural land loss and soil erosion

Lal and Stewart estimated global loss of agricultural land by degradation and abandonment at 12

million hectares per year (Lal, R. and B. A. Stewart. (1990)). In contrast, according to Scherr,

GLASOD (Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation, under the UN Environment

Programme) estimated that 6 million hectares of agricultural land per year had been lost to soil

degradation since the mid-1940s, and she noted that this magnitude is similar to earlier estimates

by Dudal and by Rozanov et al. (Scherr, S. J. (1999)). Such losses are attributable not only to soil

erosion, but also to salinization, loss of nutrients and organic matter, acidification, compaction,

16

water logging and subsidence (Oldeman, L. R., R. T. A. Hakkeling and W. G. Sambroek. (1990))

Human-induced land degradation tends to be particularly serious in dry regions. Focusing on soil

properties, Oldeman estimated that about 19 million square kilometers of global land area had

been degraded; Dregne and Chou, who included degradation of vegetation cover as well as soil,

estimated about 36 million square kilometers degraded in the world‟s dry regions (Eswaran, H.,

R. Lal and P. F. Reich. (2001)). Despite estimated losses of agricultural land, the amount of arable

land used in crop production globally increased by about 9 percent from 1961 to 2012, and is

estimated to have been 1.396 billion hectares in 2012 (FAOSTAT, (2010))

Global average soil erosion rates are thought to be high, and erosion rates on conventional

cropland generally exceed estimates of soil production rates, usually by more than an order of

magnitude (Montgomery, D. R. (2007)) In the US, sampling for erosion estimates by the US

NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) is statistically based, and estimation uses the

Universal Soil Loss Equation and Wind Erosion Equation. For 2010, annual average soil loss by

sheet, rill and wind erosion on non-federal US land was estimated to be 10.7 t/ha on cropland and

1.9 t/ha on pasture land; the average soil erosion rate on US cropland had been reduced by about

34 percent since 1982 (NRCS. (2013)). No-till and low-till practices have become increasingly

common on North American cropland used for production of grains such as wheat and barley. On

uncultivated cropland, the recent average total soil loss has been 2.2 t/ha per year (NRCS. (2013)).

In comparison with agriculture using conventional cultivation, it has been suggested that, because

no-till agriculture produces erosion rates much closer to soil production rates, it could provide a

foundation for sustainable agriculture(Montgomery, D. R. (2007)).

d) Meat Production

The impacts of meat production on Environmental include use of fossil energy, water and land

resources, greenhouse gas emissions, and in some instances, rainforest clearing, water pollution

and species endangerment, among other adverse effects (Steinfeld, H. et al. (2006)).

Steinfeld et al. of the FAO estimated that 18 percent of global anthropogenic GHG (greenhouse

gas) emissions (estimated as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) are associated in some way

with livestock production. (Steinfeld, H. et al. (2006)). However, many estimates use different

sectoral assignment of some emissions. For example, a more recent FAO analysis estimated that

17

all agriculture, including the livestock sector, in 2011 accounted for 12 percent of global

anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents (Tubiello, F. N.

et al. (2014)). Similarly, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has estimated that about

10 to 12 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions (expressed as 100-year carbon dioxide

equivalents) were assignable to all of agriculture, including the livestock sector, in 2005

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007)) and again in 2010 (Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (2014)). The percentage assignable to livestock would be some fraction

of the percentage for agriculture. The amount assignable to meat production would be some

fraction of that assigned to livestock. FAO data indicate that meat accounted for 26 percent of

global livestock product tonnage in 2011 (Oldeman, L. R., R. T. A. Hakkeling and W. G.

Sambroek (1990)).

Globally, enteric fermentation (mostly in ruminant livestock) accounts for about 27 percent of

anthropogenic methane emissions, (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013)). Despite

methane‟s 100-year global warming potential, recently estimated at 28 without and 35 with

climate carbon feedbacks, (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013)). Methane

emission is currently contributing relatively little to global warming. Over the decade 2000

through 2009, atmospheric methane content increased by an average of only 6 Tg per year

(because nearly all natural and anthropogenic methane emission was offset by degradation), while

atmospheric carbon dioxide increased by nearly 16,000 Tg per year. (Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (2013)). At the currently estimated rate of methane degradation, slight reduction

of anthropogenic methane emissions, to about 98 percent of that decade‟s average, would be

expected to result in no further increase of atmospheric methane content. Although reduction of

methane emissions would have a rapid effect on warming, the expected effect would be small

(Dlugokencky, E. J., E. G. Nisbet, R. Fisher and D. Lowry. (2011)). Other anthropogenic GHG

emissions associated with livestock production include carbon dioxide from fossil fuel

consumption (mostly for production, harvesting and transport of feed), and nitrous oxide

emissions associated with use of nitrogenous fertilizers, growing of nitrogen-fixing legume

vegetation and manure management. Management practices that can mitigate GHG emissions

from production of livestock and feed have been identified (Boadi, D. (2004); Martin, C. et al.

(2010); Eckard, R. J. et al. (2010)).

18

Livestock production, including feed production and grazing, uses about 30 percent of the earth‟s

ice-free terrestrial surface: about 26 percent for grazing and about 4 percent for other feed

production (Steinfeld, H. et al. (2006)). The intensity and duration of grazing use vary greatlyn

(Holechek, J. L., R. D. Pieper and C. H. Herbel. (1995)). and these, together with terrain,

vegetation and climate, influence the nature and importance of grazing‟s environmental impact,

which can range from severe to negligible, and in some cases (as noted below) beneficial.

Excessive use of vegetation by grazing can be especially conducive to land degradation in dry

areas (Dregne, H. , E., & Chou, N. T. (1992)).

2.3. The Impacts of Human Activities on Environments on Rwanda

Rwanda‟s environmental problems are associated mainly with bad management of natural

resources such as land, forests and water. There are also problems caused by industrial,

commercial and human settlement activities and various pollutions. The production and

management of waste constitute also a challenge to environment quality, particularly in urban

areas (MINIRENA, 2001).

2.3.1 Degradation of Natural Resources and Biodiversity

A) Population and Resources Imbalance

The major environmental problem in Rwanda is the imbalance between the population and natural

resources (land, water, flora, fauna and other nonrenewable resources) which have been degrading

over decades. This degradation is reflected through massive deforestation, the reduction of

biodiversity, the cultivation of marginal areas, the erosion and unplanned cultivation of marshes.

The imbalance between the population and natural resources has resulted in a constantly

increasing impoverishment of the population. In 1993, the proportion of households living below

the poverty threshold was 53%. It greatly increased after the 1994 war and genocide. Surveys

carried out in 2001 show that at the national level, 60% of households lives under the poverty

threshold (MINIRENA, 2001).

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B) Land Degradation

The degradation of land in Rwanda is happening at a worrying speed. The current situation is

alarming. There are several causes for this. There are natural and/or structural causes first and

there are also man-made causes.

Natural causes

a. Causes of a Pedological Nature

From their pedogenesis, Rwanda‟s soils are fragile and therefore vulnerable and very sensitive to

erosion.

b. Causes of a geomorphological nature

Rwanda is characterized by an uneven relief with a physiographical configuration formed of steep

slopes exposed to erosion.

c. Causes of a climatic nature

Rainfall in Rwanda is governed by altitude. Annual rainfall increases from East (900mm) to West

(1600mm). High rainfalls expose steep-sloped soils to water erosion, and low rainfalls expose

lowlands to high insolation.

Man-made causes

a) Population pressure due to agricultural land needs

The use of land for agriculture occupies more than 90% of the population. Today, the physical

population density in Rwanda is about 309 inhabitants/km2 and the physiological density is more

than 430 inhabitants/km2.

As a result of the high population pressure, there is a rapid reduction of the size of farmland for

families. This land shortage has led to the occupation and cultivation of land which is unsuitable

for agriculture. Crops are planted on slopes and occupy up to more than 80% of land recognized

as more marginal, marshland and protected areas.

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Erosion due to cultivation on excessively steep slopes without any techniques for erosion control

or soil and water management and conservation, together with their excessive cultivation make

soils in Rwanda prone to continuous degradation. Land losses are considerable and are estimated

at between 0 and 557 tonnes/ha per year (MINIRENA, 2001)

b) Scattered settlements and excessive land parcelling

The prevailing mode of scattered human settlements in Rwanda is the source of wastage of land

which is supposed to be suitable for agro-pastoral activities. In addition, scattered human

settlements enhance erosion as a result of the many paths joining households and the lack of

systems for the collection and drainage of wastewater and rain water. Excessive land parceling as

a result of land heritage had contributed to the miniaturization of plots to such an extent that

farmers no longer practice fallow and no longer manage to meet their basic nutritional needs. This

crisis situation contributes to the exhaustion of land resources and accelerates its deterioration

and, indirectly, the degradation of environment (MINIRENA, 2001).

c) Bad farming practices and overgrazing

The methods and techniques used for soil conservation have given priority to soil protection at the

expense of the improvement or restoration of soil fertility of the hill land. This inadequacy of

modern farming techniques for land development and rational management of land resources

leads to frightening erosion.

Concerning marshland, a comprehensive analysis of the problem of wetlands in Rwanda shows

that, in general, they are mismanaged and used in a disorganized manner for agricultural and

quarrying purposes without prior studies of the impact on water resources and human health. The

destruction of lake shores and river banks has led to the sapping of shores, resulting in silting up

and inverted soils due to inflow of new materials deposited by water erosion from neighbouring

watersheds. Overgrazing affects particularly the eastern regions of the country where cattle

treading promotes the degradation of the soils already weakened by severe sunny periods and

facilitates the progression of the desert. As a result, there is a very extensive degradation of the

soils and serious loss of their fertility as well as increased water and wind erosion (MINIRENA,

2001)

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d) Anarchical exploitation of mines and quarries

Mining and quarrying activities carried out in the different parts of the country affect the soils of

the hills and marshes. They contribute to increased erosion on hills where quarries that have been

left open promote erosion, together with the drying up of marshland, lakes and rivers.

e) Deforestation and abandonment of the system of erosion control

Massive deforestation, combined with the abandonment and the destruction of erosion control

systems, particularly following the displacement of the population caused by the 1994 war and

genocide, contribute greatly to the degradation of the bare land on steep slopes and hills.

C) Disasters

A disaster is defined as a total upheaval of society, causing human life, material, economic and

environmental losses, and which is beyond the capacity of the affected society to face it with its

own resources. There are two types of disasters which affect environment: natural disasters and

man-made disasters.

Natural disasters

Natural disasters are those which are due to climatic or seismo-volcanic disturbances. They

represent a permanent threat to our country and include drought, torrential rains, floods,

landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions.

Man-made disasters

Man-made disasters are a result of human activities and are mainly bush fires, conflicts and wars,

deforestation and others.

a. Bush fires

In Rwanda, bush fires are very frequent during the dry season, especially in the eastern and south-

eastern regions (Umutara, Kibungo and Bugesera). Parks and protected areas are the most affected

for pastoral reasons, poaching, mining, carbonization, etc. This phenomenon is responsible for

land degradation, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, etc.

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b. Conflicts and wars

Since 1959, Rwanda has experienced conflicts and social crises which resulted in losses of human

lives. The latest and most flagrant case is the war which plunged the country into grief since 1990

and was followed by the massacres and the genocide in 1994, with the following consequences on

the environment: degradation of environment in general; massive displacements of the population

which led to the degradation and modification of ecosystems; loss of skills in the field of

environment and reduction of formerly protected areas (MINIRENA, 2001).

c. Deforestation

Although this phenomenon is not considered as a disaster in general, in the case of Rwanda, it is a

major man-made disaster. The case of the forest of Gishwati is a sufficient example.

d. Other disasters

Some chemical products have the characteristic of exploding under the effect of high temperatures

when they are badly conserved and/or have expired. Such is the case with mancozeb which caught

fire in the warehouses of Gikondo. Mention should also be made of the excessive use of toxic

products, fires from various sources, particularly those linked to petrol stations, garages,

industries and factories; road accidents and poor electrical installations, etc.

23

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

3.1 Study Area Description

3.1.1 Location and Demography of Musanze District

Musanze District is one of 5 Districts that assemble the Northern Province of Rwanda. It is

composed by of 15 sectors among which 4 are located along Virunga National Park; 68 cells

and 432 Villages. Its total area is estimated at 530.4 km2

of what 60km2 is Virunga national

park and forest and 28km2 covers the Ruhondo Lake. Musanze District border in the North

DRC (Demacratic Republic of Congo) and Uganda, Burera District in the East, Gakanke

District in the South and Nyabihu Ditrict in the West (Figure 1). The population number is

estimated at 368,267 inhabitants where 174,399 inhabitants equal to 47.4% are males and

193,868 inhabitants equal to 52.6% are females. The average annual growth rate in Musanze

district is estimated at 1.8. (NISR 2012).

Figure 2: Administrative Map of Musanze District

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3.1.2 Geographical Location of Kinigi Sector

Kinigi sector is one of the 15 sectors of Musanze District. This Sector has 5 Cells which are

Nyonirima, Kampanga, Nyabigoma, Bisoke, Kaguhu; all those cells are divided into 28 villages.

Kinigi sector is located near the Volcano National Park, with perimeter which is equal to

25.87km. Geographically, Kinigi sector lies between the following coordinates: 454283m Easting

and 4839800m Northing. It is located at about 9.5 km from Musanze town. (NISR 2012)

Figure 3: Administrative map of Kinigi Sector

Kinigi is located in a hilly region within an altitude ranging between 2190 and 2260m. The soil is

very fertile and suitable for agriculture. This region is prone to soil erosion due to steep slopes on

the southern aspect of the volcanoes and high rainfall. (Musanze Land officer)

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Population Size, Structure and Density

The population of Kinigi is estimated at 27,221 which present 7.4% of Musanze district peoples in

which 12,818 equal to 47.1% are males and 14,403 equal to 52.2% are females. The number of

households is estimated at 6,311 of the population counts, the average annual growth rate in

Kinigi sector is estimated at 2.6 and the density at 337Inhabitants./km2. (NISR, 2012)

Climate in Kinigi Sector

Generally, the north-western region of Rwanda has a moderate and humid climate due to its high

altitude and abundant rainfall, which records the national annual rainfall maxima of 2000 mm

between 2000 and 3000 m of altitude.

The afromountain forests of PNV enable climatic regulation in the region as far as precipitation is

concerned. There is rainfall throughout the year but with two heavy rain seasons; the longest

being from February to June with a peak in April while the shortest is from September to

December with a peak in November. This pattern of rainfall is characteristic of the Intertropical

Convergence Zone known to be ideal for agricultural activities. The annual temperature averages

depend on altitude, decreasing by 0.65°C every 100 m. (Lebrun 1960 in ORTPN 2005b:5).

3.2 Methodology

For the success of this research, different methods and techniques were used in order to get useful

information and data related to the topic. Kinigi Sector has been chosen among 15 Sectors of

Musanze District, because Kinigi is a sector which is attractive to tourist and creates income for

the whole country because of demographic pressure, urban areas and settlements and other human

activities are expanding and threatens to destroy the environments and forest.

The study aims to develop a well understanding about to assess the impacts of human activities on

the environment. Different already existing studies have been considered, in order to compare

results in the global context.

3.2.1 Data Collection Methods

Data collection methods refer to a set of methods and principles that are used to collect data when

conducting a research on a specific topic. In this part researcher describe the different methods

used to obtain or collect necessary data.

26

Primary Data

Questionnaires

The questionnaire was administered via a face to face with respondents. From questionnaires the

researcher will collect data such as historical data of land use, current land uses and the reasons

for land use change, on other hand, questionnaires will include questions about the impacts of

human activities on forest in Kinigi sector and the reasons for those changes.

3.2.2 Determination of Sample Size

Normally, an important decision that was taken in adopting a sampling technique is the size of the

sample. It means the numbers of sample units. In this research, the sample size will be calculated

by using Yamen's simplified formula:

The sample size in total is 100 respondents in Kinigi sector. For the representativeness reason,

the sample size was distributed in Kinigi sector due to their respective population number. The

simple random sampling was used to select elements proportionally to the size of each stratum

(cell) to form 100 as the sample size.

Table 1: Respondents by cell

Cell Respondents

Nyonirima 22

Kampanga 20

Nyabigoma 24

Bisoke 16

Kaguhu 18

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3.2.3 Data Source

For this research project, Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) data is online acquired.

Landsat satellite images of Kinigi sector were acquired for 2001 and orthophoto of 2009. The

Landsat satellites image of 2001 was obtained from Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) an Earth

Science Data Interface. Further administrative maps were obtained from CGIS-UR. These were

transformed and referenced brought to Universal Transverse Mercator projection in zone 35.

Researcher prefer to download satellites images from global land cover facility because to access

the images is free of cost and it resolution is high.

Table 2: Data Sources

3.2.4 Secondary Data Collection

In order to have a full understanding of the change in forest due to human activities in Kinigi

Sector from 2001 to 2009, secondary data was collected from different sources such as: satellites

imagery from Landsat, Rwanda shapefiles of administrative boundaries for the study area and also

different publication, dissertation and journals in order to have a full understanding about

urbanization and its effects on agricultural land.

S/N Category Data type Year Scale+resolution Source

1. Landsat image Image 2001 30m ™

GLCF

2. Orthophoto Image 2009 30m TM

GLCF

4 Administrative and local

government Map of Rwanda.

Shapefiles 2005 View scale CGIS-UR

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3.3. Data Processing

The main purpose was to digitalize landsat images of 2001 and orthophoto of 2009 to create land

use of Kinigi sector in both period, and then change detection of land use to detect the change in

forest cover, agricultural land and built up area in order to verify hypothesis and objectives of the

study.

3.4 Software Used

Basically, the following software will be used for this research project;

a) ArcGIS– This will be also used to create the map of the study areas and present results of change

in Kinigi Sector;

b) Erdas Imagine2010: This will be used for processing satellites images (eg: layers stack, resolution

merge, etc);

c) Microsoft Word: will be used basically for write-up of the research;

d) Microsoft Excel will be used in entering non-spatial data from questionnaires and the production

of graphs for presenting the results.

3.5 Georeferencing

With aerial photography and satellite imagery, sometimes the location information delivered with

them is inadequate, and the data does not overlap with other data you have used. I need to align or

georeference them to a map coordinate system. A map coordinate system is defined using a map

projection (ITRF 2005, Projected Coordinates System).

MAP PROJECTION VALUES

Coordinate System ITRF 2005 Transverse Mercator

Projection Transverse Mercator

Datum ITRF 2005

False Easting 500,000

False Northing 5,000,000

Central Merdian 30

Scale Factor 0.9999

Latitude of Origin 0

Units: Meter

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3.6 Digitalization

Digitalization is process of generating vector data. The latter is a coordinate-based data model that

represents geographic features as points, lines, and polygons. This method has been used during

the creation features class (vector layer) from raster layer (orthophoto and landsat) and production

of maps of land use.

3.7 Clipping

This tool allows extracting a portion of a raster dataset based on a template extent. The clip output

includes any pixels that intersect the template extent. The clipped area is specified using an output

extent file which delimitate my study area of Kinigi Sector from orthophoto, from Administrative

map and VNP forest has been clipped to analyze every change in forest cover change in Kinigi

Sector from 2001-2009.

3.8 Overlay and Detect Change

As overlay is one of function of GIS where data layers were combined and new information is

derived, usually by creating features in a new layer. In this section, we look at techniques of

combining two spatial data layers and producing a third one from them. This method has been

used to detect the changes in forest from 2001-2009 by which the coverage of forest and human

activities has been overlayed.

30

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter is about the major findings collected from the field survey. It is going to deal with

the presentation, analysis and interpretation of two types of data, data from respondents using

questionnaire and spatial data from GPS and satellites images in order to analyze the impact of

human activities on forest in Kinigi Sector. Information was obtained by interviews with citizens

using structured questionnaires; the data are presented in the form of tables and graphs.

4.1 Analysis of Questionnaires Data

4.1.1 Sex of the Respondents

The table shows that 12% male and 10% female of the respondents answered my questionnaire

are from Nyonirima cell; 9% male and 11% female of respondents answered questionnaire are

from Kampanga cell; 13% male and 11% female of the respondents are from Nyabigoma cell; 9%

male and 7% female of the respondents are from Bisoke Cell; 8% male and 10% female of

respondents are from Kaguhu cell.

Table 3: Distribution of Sex of Respondents by Surveyed Site

No Cell Male (%) Female (%) Total

1 Nyonirima 12 10 22

2 Kampanga 09 11 20

3 Nyabigoma 13 11 24

4 Bisoke 09 07 16

5 Kaguhu 08 10 18

Source: Field Survey May 2015

31

Figure 4: Gender of Respondents

4.1.2 Main Land Use Types in Kinigi Sector in 2001

During the survey, I was interested to know the view on land use types in Kingi sector in the

recent years.

From graph, we see that 46% of respondents said that crop was the main activities in Kinigi

sector; 50% of the respondents said that forest was the main land use type in Kinigi; 4% of the

respondents said that built up area were the main land use type in Kinigi sector; no one said that it

was a water body.

Figure 5: Land Use Type in Kinigi Sector in 2001

32

Table 4: Main Land Use Type in Kinigi Sector in 2001

No Types of land use Respondents Percentage (%)

1 Crop 46 46

2 Forest 50 50

3 Built up 4 4

5 Water body 00 00

6 Total 100 100

Source: Field survey May, 2015

4.1.3 Change in Land Use Type for 8 years

I also asked the respondents the change in land use type in Kinigi sector during the 2001 and

2009. Among 100 respondents who filled the questionnaires, 98 respondents said that there is a

significant change in land use in Kinigi sector from 2001 until 2009 and 2 respondents said that

there is not any change in land use types.

After answering this questions, we asked again those who agree that there is a change in land use

type the dominants land use types in Kinigi sector in 2009, the results is summarized in the below

table 5.

From the below table, 47 respondents equal 47.96% state that in 2009 the main land use type was

forest cover, 9 respondents equal to 9.18% said that the main land use types was built up area, 42

respondents equal to 42.86% said the main land use types was crop. Looking on those results and

the one of the previous question we see that time by time there is a decrease in forest cover but

there is an increase in built up area and crop land.

Table 5: Change in Land Use from 2001-2009

No Types of land use Respondents Percentage (%)

1 Crop 42 42.86

2 Forest 47 47.96

3 Built up 09 9.18

5 Total 98 100

Source: Field survey May, 2015

33

Figure 6: Main Land Use Type in Kinigi in 2009

4.1.4 The Impact of Change in Land Use Type in Kinigi

After seeing the dominant land use in kinigi and the change of land use type, it was necessary to

seek information if there are impacts of that change to the peoples living in Kinigi Sector. The

result from respondents is summarized in the table 6 below.

Table 6: Respondent’s View on Impact Caused by the Change in Land Use

NO

Impacts caused by the change in land use Respondents Percentages (%)

1 High price of timber products 70 70

2 Land conflict 30 30

Total 100 100

Source: Field survey May, 2015

The below figure shows that 70% of respondents said that those change in land use types caused

the high price of timber because forest cover are decreasing on a rate of 3.53% from 2001 to 2009

and 30% of respondents said that those change in land use type caused land conflict.

34

Figure 7: Impact of change in land use

4.1.5 The Change in Land Value in Kinigi from 2001-2009

During my survey, researcher asked information on land value in Kinigi sector because the time

human activities is growing in a region also the land market on that region increase because more

investors are willing to invest in some Sectors. We asked if there is change in land market or land

value 87% of respondents said that there is a change in land value (land market) and 13% of

respondents said that there is no change in land value (land market).

From the below figure we see that the majority of respondents said that there is a change in land

market, those who said that there is change in land market said that the cause of those change is

that Kinigi sector nowaday is a tourist sector and many investors invest in infrastructure in Kinigi

sector in order to facilitate the tourist coming around the world to visit Virunga National Park.

35

Figure 8: Change in Land Market

4.1.6 The Advantage of Tourism in Kinigi

From the respondent‟s view on the advantage of tourism in Kinigi Sector, 96% of respondents

said that there are advantages for them caused by tourism, 4% of respondents said that no

advantages. The respondents who said that there are advantages for them, they state the following

advantages:

Opportunities to create new job;

Access to infrastructure;

New opportunities on investments;

Access to Land market.

4.1.7 Level of Satisfaction on Water Quantity and Quality in Kinigi

In Kinigi Sector, I seek the information about the quantity and quality of water because it has an

important influence on health.

From the below figure we see that poor water quantity and quality was dominant in Bisoke cell,

where 50% of the respondents said that they are not satisfied with quantity and quality of water

they get, this cell is a rural cell in Kinigi sector the reason why there is not sufficient water and

electricity. Kampanga and Nyonirima cells have sufficient water quantity and qualite because it is

the urban area or cells Kinigi sector and those cells is situated near the road.

36

Table 7: Level of Satisfaction on Water Quantity and Quality

No Cell Good (%) Moderate (%) Poor (%)

1 Nyonirima 63,64 27,27 9,1

2 Kampanga 75 15 10

3 Nyabigoma 50 4,17 8,33

4 Bisoke 12,5 37,7 50

5 Kaguhu 44,44 44,44 11,11

Figure 9: Level of Satisfaction on Drinking Water.

4.2 Spatial analysis

4.2.1 Land Use of Kinigi Sector in 2001

The below figure represents the statistics area of each land use derived from image classification

using ArcMap 10.2, and they are categorized into three types of land use. Built up area in 2001

occupies 0.48% of the total land use. This may be justified by the fact that the rate of population

growth was not high in 2001.

Crop and forest area occupies large areas which are 48.59% and 50.93% respectively for crop and

forest is justified by the fact that many people living in Kinigi were living by agriculture and there

were so many forests.

37

Figure 10: Land Use of Kinigi in 2001

Table 8: Land Use Distribution in 2001

Year Area in 2001 Percentage (%)

forest 4025,62 50,93

Crop 3840,88 48,59

Built up area 37,65 0,48

The above figure show that in 2001 in Kinigi sector there was many forest and agriculture was at

a high level. It shows that in 2001, 50.93% of land use type was forest, 48.59% was crop land and

0.48% was built up area.

38

Figure 11: Land Use Distribution in 2001

4.2.3 Land Use of Kinigi Sector in 2009

Comparing to the figure12, there is increasing of the built up area, increase of agricultural land,

and decrease in forest area. The above table show land use in 2009.

39

Figure 12: Land Use Distribution of Kinigi Sector in 2009

Table 9: Percentage of Land Use in 2009

Year Area in 2009 Percentage (%)

forest 3746,44 47,40

Crop 4070,38 51,50

Built up area 87,38 1,11

From the figure below, it shows that there is a decrease of 3.53% of forest area, decrease of 2.93%

in agricultural land and a decrease of 0.61% in built up area.

Comparing to the data of land use from questionnaires and one from spatial data from

classification there is a difference of 0.56% in forest cover, 8.64% in crop area and 8.05% in built

up area. The result from spatial analysis by classification is not similar because the respondents

estimate their view on land use, they don‟t know the extent of each land use types.

40

Figure 13: Land Use in 2009

4.2.4 Land Use Change From 2001-2009

The above figure is a result after digitizing all changes in land use between the year 2001 and

2009. The change of land use is summarized in the below table.

Figure 14: Map of Land Use Change of Kinigi From 2001-2009.

41

Figure14 above represents the statistics area of each land use land cover as they are categorized

into three types of land use , the table shows that in 2001, forest area was 48.59% of total land use

in Kinigi sector but in 2009 there is decrease of 3.53%, this is because that peoples cut forest for

settlement and others forest are cut for agricultural purpose as shown by figure 14, 271.9387ha of

forest has been converted into crop and 7,24Ha of forest has been converted into built up area

(See table 11).

Table 10: Area of Use Change of Kinigi From2001-2009.

Land use types 2001 2009 Change from 2001-2009

Area (ha.) Area (%) Area (ha) Area(%) Area (ha) %change

Built-up Land 37,65 0.48 87.38 1.11 +49.73 +0.63

Forest Land 4025,62 50.93 3746.44 47.40 -279.18 -3.53

Crop Land 3840,88 48.59 4070.38 51.50 +229.5 +2.90

Total 7904.15 100 7904.2 100

Table 11: Land Use Conversion From 2001-2009

Land use change change type Area in Ha % Observations

Crop Built up Forest

Crop converted into Built up 58.98 0.75 loss gain no change

Forest converted into Crop 271.94 3.69 gain no change loss

Forest converted into Built up 7.24 0.09 no change gain loss

Built-up in 2001 occupies 0.48% of the total land use. This may be justified by the fact that the

rate of population growth was not high and also the tourism sector in Kinigi was not developed at

high level. in 2009, built up area increase from 0.48 to 1.11% which means that there is a high

change in the eight years, they built many residential house, lodges, restaurants, hotels because of

the development of tourism sector in Kinigi sector in order that the tourists coming all over the

world get access to all needs and facilities in Kinigi sector.

42

The great occupation of crop and forest land which are 51.50% and 47.40% respectively for crop

and forest is justified by the fact that many people living in Kinigi sector were mainly interested

in agricultural activities.

Also the cause of those changes is that in Rwanda‟s environment problems are associated mainly

with bad management of natural resources. Also those changes have been caused by commercial

and human settlement activities. Massive deforestation in kinigi is due to the fact that Tourism

Sector in Kinigi is developing and the infrastructure also has to develop in Kinigi sector so that

the development of tourism sector will fit with the infrastructure development in order to satisfy

the needs of the tourists from all over the World to visit the Virunga National Park.

43

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

This research aimed to assessing the impact of human activities on forest from 2001-2009 in

Kinigi Sector using GIS. To provide a detailed information (Statistical and spatial) on the changes

on forest cover in Kinigi Sector due to human activities and how those changes affected forest

cover, I used many techniques in order to achieve the objectives of this study; interview through

structured questionnaires, change detection with ArcGIS software, statistical analysis via MS

Excel, Field visit and observation.

The hypothesis that there is a decrease in forest due to human activities has been confirmed.

It was found that there is a conversion of forest into built up area and agricultural land, those

change impacted peoples livelihood, such as by timber trade in Kinigi Sector as said by

respondents (see figure 6).

Assessment of land use change results were presented in table 11 where built-up area and

agricultural land have been increased and the forest coverage have been decreased at a high level.

98% of the respondents agree with those changes which results to the loose of the forest coverage.

Forest Products usually provide food, medicine and other goods to rural people living in Kinigi

sector. However, due to overexploitation of forest products, some of them will disappeared, the

most dramatic impact is a loss of habitat for millions of species in ecosystem which is living in

forest; also forest soils are moist, but without protection from sun-blocking tree cover they

quickly dry out. Trees also help perpetuate the water cycle by returning water vapor back into the

atmosphere. Without trees to fill these roles, the erosion control systems will be in danger and the

continuous loose of the forest will greatly contribute to the degradation of bare land on steep

slopes and hills in Kinigi Sector. Therefore, appropriate conservation measures are needed in

order to restore the forest cover which has been affected by human activities by planting other

forest and conserve the forest

in Kinigi Sector.

44

5.2. Recommendations

Based on results from this research, our objectives have been achieved. However, it is

recommended the following:

I recommend to consider the forest within Kinigi sector because from the results I see that

they is a loose in forest coverage in Kinigi Sector from 2001-2009, the forest coverage has

been cutted to get get settlement areas and also agricultural land;

Kinigi sector where forest cover has been cutted for built up and crop should be restored

and preserved, so the authorities in Sector must sentitize to the population to plant new

trees;

During the development of rural area into urban area, the physical planners must plan,

control that change in order to avoid the loose of green space;

The population of Kinigi have to built in grouped settlements in order to use land in proper

way;

My research is based on assessing the impact of human activities on forest cover from

2001 to 2009 in Kinigi. Future research on impact of human activities in Kinigi sector

could also look at a longer period of time thereby accounting for more than a eight years

time period. For the purposes of my research, eight years was a sufficient to be able to see

if human activities impact forest cover.

45

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50

APPENDICES

a

Appendice1: Questionnaire

I, Theogene UWIMANA student at INES RUHENGERI in land survey department undertaking a

final project on “ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON FOREST COVER

FROM 2001-2099 USING GIS, A Case study of Kinigi sector. This is intended to get information

from citizens living in Kinigi, this research only for academics purposes. We would kindly like to

ask you to complete the present questionnaire.

Privacy Statement

We and respect your privacy. All information obtained will be treated confidentially and it will

only use for academics purposes.

Thanks for your cooperation.

b

I. Identification of Respondents

A. Age between

a) 18-25

b) 26-35

c) 36-45

d) 46-60

e) Over 60

B. Gender

a) Female

b) Male

C. Martial Status

a) Single

b) Married

c) Divorced

II. QUESTIONS

1. Did you live here before the year 2001?

If yes where did live in this area?

2. What do think are the main land use type in Kinigi sector?

i. Crop iv. Water body

ii. Forest vi. Other (Specify)…………………………

iii. Built up

3. Has your land being used differently 10 years ago

Yes

No

If yes

………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. What dominant type of land use was located in 2001?

a) Forest

c

b) Built-up

c) Crop

d) Others (Specify)

5. Do you think are the impacts of those change to citizens living in Kinigi sector?

a) High price of timber

b) Low access to agricultural land

c) Missing land for farms

d) Land conflict

6. Comparing to the period before tourism development in Kinigi, is there any significant

change on land value?

Yes

No

If yes what are the main reasons for those change………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

7. What are the impact on your life Kinigi urbanized than before?

a) Hungry

b) Poverty

c) Create new job

d) Access to infrastructure

e) New opportunities on investments

f) Others specify

8. Has tourism or disadvantages for you as citizen of Kinigi Sector?

Yes

No

If yes, which are those?.................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………..

d

9. What is your level of satisfaction on drinking water in Kinigi Sector?

a) Quantity

i. Good

ii. Moderate

iii. Poor

b) Quality

i. Good

ii. Moderate

iii. Poor

10. Do you have enough electricity in Kinigi Sector?

a) Yes

b) No