Final China

8/4/2019 Final China

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Economic history of China :

The economic history of China stretches over thousands of years and has undergone

alternating cycles of prosperity and decline. According to the book 'China and the Knowledge

Economy: Seizing the 21st century', China was for a large part of the last two millennia the

world's largest economy, even though its wealth remained average . China's history is

usually divided into three periods: The pre-imperial era, consisting of the era of before the

unification of Qin, the early imperial era from Qin to Song, and the late imperial era, marked

by the economic revolution that occurred during the Song Dynasty.

By roughly 10,000 BCE, in the Neolithic Era, agriculture was practiced in China. Stratified

bronze-age cultures, such as Erlitou, emerged by the third millennium BCE. Under the Shang

(c. 1600 – 1045 BCE) and Zhou (1045 – 771 BCE), a dependent labor force worked in large-

scale foundries and workshops to produce bronzes and silk for the elite. The agricultural

surpluses produced by the manorial economy supported these early handicraft industries aswell as urban centers and considerable armies. This system began to disintegrate after the

collapse of the Western Zhou Dynasty in 771 BCE, preceding the Spring and Autumn and

Warring states eras.

As the feudal system collapsed, much legislative power was transferred from the nobility to

local kings. A merchant class emerged during the Warring States Period, resulting in

increased trade. The new kings established an elaborate bureaucracy, using it to wage wars,

build large temples, and perform public works projects. This new system rewarded talent

over birthright; important positions were no longer occupied solely by nobility. The adoption

of new iron tools revolutionized agriculture and led to a large population increase during thisperiod. By 221 BCE, the state of Qin, which embraced reform more than other states, unified

China, built the Great Wall, and set consistent standards of government. Although its

draconian laws led to its overthrow in 206 BCE, the Qin institutions survived. During the

Han Dynasty, China became a strong, unified, and centralized empire of self-sufficient

farmers and artisans, though limited local autonomy remained.

The Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 CE) brought additional economic reforms. Paper money, the

compass, and other technological advances facilitated communication on a large scale and the

widespread circulation of books. The state's control of the economy diminished, allowing

private merchants to prosper and a large increase in investment and profit. Despite

disruptions during the Mongol conquest of 1279, the population much increased under the

Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, but its GDP per capita remained static since then. In the

later Qing period, China's economic development began to slow and Europe's rapid

development since the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance enabled it to surpass again

China — an event known as the Great Divergence.



The Shang dynasty (ca. 1600 – ca. 1045 BCE) :

The first site unequivocally identified with the Shang dynasty by contemporaneous

inscriptions is Anyang, a Shang capital that became a major settlement around 1200 BCE.

The staple crop of the Shang, a predominantly agricultural society, was millet, but rice and

wheat were also cultivated in fields owned by the royal aristocracy. Agricultural surpluses

produced by royal fields supported the Shang royal family and ruling elite, advanced

handicraft industries (bronze, silk, etc.) and large armies. Large royal pastures provided

animals for sacrifices and meat consumption. Other agricultural produce supported the

population of Shang, estimated to be about 5.5 to 8 million people.

Since land was only cultivated for a few years before being left fallow, new lands constantly

needed to be opened by drainage of low-lying fields or by clearing scrubland or forests.

These tasks were performed by corvée labor under state supervision, often in the context of

hunting expeditions.

Like their Neolithic predecessors, the Shang used spindle-wheels to make textiles, but the

Shang labor force was more formally organized. By Shang times, controlled workers

produced silk in workshops for the aristocracy. Fields and workshops were manned by labor

of varying degrees of servitude. Some historians have called these dependent workers

"slaves" and labelled the Shang a "slave society," but others reject such labels as too vague

because we know too little about the nature of this labor force.

The Western Zhou (ca. 1045 –

771 BCE) :

By traditional dating, the Zhou Dynasty defeated the Shang around 1045 BCE and took

control of the Wei and Yellow River valleys that the Shang had dominated. Land continued

to belong to the royal family, which re-distributed it among its dependents in a system that

many historians have likened to the feudal organization of medieval Europe. Epigraphic

evidence shows that, as early as the late 10th century BCE, land was being traded, though it

was not yet considered private property. Edward Shaughnessy hypothesizes that this increase

in the land exchanges resulted from the division of elite lineages into branches, increasing

demand for land while its supply was diminishing.

The 4th-century book Mencius claims that the early Zhou developed the well-field system, a

pattern of land occupation in which eight peasant families cultivated fields around a central

plot that they farmed for the landlord. The system was named after the Chinese character for

"well" (jing井), which resembles the grid-like pattern in which these nine fields were

supposedly arranged. Historians have generally doubted the existence of this idealized

system, but some maintain that it may have existed informally in the early Zhou, when

dependent tenants working on manorial estates paid corvée to their landlords instead of rent,

as they would later.



Handicraft industries developed during the Shang, such as textiles, bronze and the production

of weapons, were continued during the Zhou, but they were completely state-controlled. The

Zhou government also controlled most commerce and exchange through appointing officials

whose titles were "Jia", which later came to mean "merchant".

Spring and Autumn period (771 – 475 BCE) :

The collapse of the Zhou initiated the Spring and Autumn Period, named after Confucius'

Spring and Autumn Annals. It was a time of war between states, when the Chinese feudal

system fell into decline and trade began to flourish. Competition between states led to rapid

technological advancement. Iron tools became available, producing agricultural surpluses that

led to the collapse of the well-field system. Towards the end of this era, the introduction of

iron technology caused the complete collapse of the feudal system and ushered in a new era

of development. In this era the Chinese produced a number of notable accomplishments such

as the first isolation of the element sulfur in the sixth century BC.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, many cities grew in size and population. The

prosperous capital of Qi, Linzi had a population estimated at over 200,000 in 650 BCE,

becoming one of the largest cities in the world.[citation needed] Alongside other large cities,

Qi served as a center of administration, trade, and economic activity. Most of the cities'

populations engaged in husbandry and were thus self-sufficient. The growth of these cities

was an important development for the ancient Chinese economy.

Large-scale trade began in the Spring and Autumn Period as merchants transported goods

between states. Currency was issued en masse to accommodate the new trade. Although some

states restricted trade, others encouraged it. Zheng in Central China, promised not to regulate

merchants. Zheng merchants became powerful throughout China as they carried goods from

Yan in the north to Chu in the south.

As lords expanded their quantity of plots, the well-field system began to collapse, and this

was hastened when the State of Lu changed its taxation system in 594 BCE. Under the new

laws, grain producers were taxed upon each mu (A Chinese unit of land measurement equal

to about 666 square meters) cultivated, rather than an equal amount being collected from each

noble. As other states followed this example, large estates began to disintegrate, ending the

well-field system.Free peasants became the majority of the population and provided a tax

base for the emerging centralized state.



Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 BCE) :

In 221 BCE, the State of Qin conquered the remaining states in China, becoming what

scholars consider the first unified Chinese state. It quickly expanded, extending the Southern

frontier from the Yangtze to modern Vietnam, and the northern frontier to modern Mongolia.

While the early Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties had nominal authority over all of China, the

feudal system gave most regions a large degree of autonomy. Under the Qin, however, a

centralized state was established, and the entire empire had uniform standards and currency to

facilitate trade. In addition, the Qin government undertook many public works projects, like

the Great Wall of China. The Qin initiated what is considered the "first Chinese empire",

which lasted until the Wu Hu uprising.

The Qin emperor unified standards of writing, weight measurement, and wheel length, while

abolishing the old currencies, which varied between states. He also issued a uniform code of

laws throughout the empire, which made trade easier. Defensive walls between states weredemolished because of their disruptive influence upon trade. The Qin Empire did not return

to the old feudal system, but set up a system of 36 commandries, each governing a number of

counties. Other Qin policies including heavy taxation of salt and iron manufactures, and

forced migration of many Chinese towards new territories in the south and west.

The Qin government undertook many public works projects, the workers often being

conscripted by the state in order to repay a tax debt. The most famous of these projects is the

Great Wall of China, built to defend the state against Xiongnu incursions. Other Qin projects

include the Lingqu Canal, which linked subsidiaries of the Yangtze and Pearl rivers and made

possible the Qin's southern conquests, as well as an extensive road system estimated at 4,250mi (6,840 km).

However, Qin's legalist laws and the heavy burden of its taxes and corvee were not easily

accepted by the rest of the empire. Unlike the other states, Qin specifically enacted laws to

exile merchants and expropriate their wealth, as well as imposing monopolies on salt, iron,

forests and other natural resources. Scholars note that the list of prominent merchants during

the Warring States compiled in Sima Qian's Shiji (Grand History) during the Han dynasty

does not include a single merchant from Qin. Rebellions occurred soon after the death of the

first Qin emperor, and by 206 BCE, the Qin had collapsed.



Bronze knife money from the ancient State of Yan, which was conquered by

Qin in 222 BCE



Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) :

The Han Dynasty is remembered as the first of China's Golden Ages. Emerging from the

devastation of the Chu-Han contention, the Han Dynasty rapidly recovered to become one of

the most powerful and populous nations on Earth. The Han reached its peak size under

Emperor Wu, who subdued the Xiongnu and took control of the Hexi Corridor, opening up

the Silk Road. The economy boomed during the Han, who had a registered population of 58

million. Large-scale enterprises emerged, some which were later temporarily nationalized

during the Western Han. Technological innovations, such as the wheelbarrow, paper and a

seismograph, were invented during this period.

Woven silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, dated

to the Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BCE

Sui Dynasty (581 – 618 CE) :

The Sui Dynasty was established over the Northern Zhou, whose throne was usurped by

Yang Jian in 581 CE. Yang Jian quickly enacted a series of policies to restore China's

economy. His reunification of China marked the creation of what some historians call the

'Second Chinese Empire', spanning the Sui, T'ang and Northern Song dynasties. Despite its

brevity, the Sui reunified China, and its laws and administration formed the basis of the later

Tang, Song and Ming dynasties. The Sui Dynasty had a population of about 45 million at its

peak.

One of Yang Jian (or Sui Wen Ti)'s first priorities was the reunification of China. Chen,

which ruled the south, was weak compared to Sui and its ruler was incompetent and pleasure-

loving. South China also had a smaller population than the north. After eight years of

preparation, Sui armies marched on and defeated Chen in 589 CE, reunifying China and



prompting a recovery in the Chinese economy. The registered population increased by fifty

percent from 30 to 46 million in twenty years. To encourage economic growth, the Sui

government issued a new currency to replace those issued by its predecessors, Northern Zhou

and Chen. They also encouraged foreign merchants to travel to China and import goods, and

built numerous hotels to house them.

The Sui continued to use the equal-field system introduced by Northern Wei. Every able-

bodied male received 40 mou of freehold land and a lifetime lease of 80 mou of land, which

was returned to the state when the recipient died. Even women could received a lifetime lease

of 40 mou of land which was returned to the state upon her death. The Sui government

charged three "Shi" of grain each year. Peasants were required to perform 20 days of labor for

the state per year, but those over 50 could instead pay a small fee.

In 604 CE, Wen Ti was assassinated by his son Yang Guang, who became Yang Ti of Sui.

Yang Ti was an ambitious ruler who immediately undertook many projects, including the

building of the Grand Canal and the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Thousands of forced

laborers died while building the projects, and eventually women were required to labor in the

absence of men. Sui Yang Ti also launched a series of unsuccessful campaigns against

Goguryeo. These campaigns negatively impacted the image of the dynasty, while his policies

drove the people to revolt. Agrarian uprisings and raids by the Gokturks became common. In

618 CE, Yang Ti was assassinated and the Sui Dynasty ended.

Tang dynasty (618 – 907 CE) :

The Tang Dynasty was another golden age, beginning in the ruins of the Sui. By 630, the

Tang had conquered the powerful Gokturk Khagnate, preventing threats to China's borders

for more than a century. A series of strong and efficient rulers, beginning with the founder

and including a woman, expanded the Tang Empire to the point that it rivaled the later Yuan,

Ming and Qing. The Tang was a period of rapid economic growth and prosperity, seeing the

beginnings of woodblock printing. Tang rulers issued large amounts of currency to facilitate

trade and distributed land under the equal-field system. The population recovered to and then

surpassed Han levels, reaching an estimated 80 million.[citation needed] Although the state

weakened after the disastrous An Shi Rebellion, and withdrew from managing the economyin the 9th century, this withdrawal encouraged economic growth and helped China's economy

to develop into the mercantile economy of the Song and Ming Dynasties.



Chinese coins from the Tang to the Qing dynasties

A Tang-era Chinese sancai-glazed Bactrian Camel ridden by a bearded merchant from Persia;

camels were the key pack animals used in the Silk Road trade.



Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 CE) :

In 960 CE, the Later Zhou general Zhao Kuanyi overthrew his imperial master and

established a the Song Dynasty, the sixth in fifty-three years. Nineteen years later, he had

reunified most of China. This was one of the most prosperous periods in Chinese history.

Unlike its predecessors, the monarchy and aristocracy weakened under the Song, allowing a

class of non-aristocratic gentry to gain power. The central government withdrew from

managing the economy (except during Wang Anshi's chancellorship and the Southern Song),

provoking drastic economic changes. Technological advances encouraged growth; the so-

called Four Great Inventions: gunpowder, woodblock printing, and the compass, were

invented or perfected during this era. The population rose to more than 100 million during the

Song period. However, the Song eventually became the first unified Chinese dynasty to be

completely conquered by invaders.

Jiaozhi, the world's first paper money. It was introduced during the Song Dynasty

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