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Case studies prepared by IOP in partnership with EPSRC and STFC |June 2013

Physics:transforming lives

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The Institute of Physics

is a leading scientific society. Weare a charitable organisation with aworldwide membership of more than50,000, working together to advance

physics education, research and application.We engage with policymakers and the

general public to develop awareness andunderstanding of the value of physics and,through IOP Publishing, we are world

leaders in professional scientificcommunications.

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There are many ways of describing the beautyand elegance of physics and the incrediblevalue that it has delivered for society, ever-present in the everyday things around us.

Physics continues to help us unlock themysteries of our universe and the world we livein, and is one of our most powerful enablers ofinnovation and discovery.

Physics research explores and expands the boundaries of our knowledge.In July 2012, researchers at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN movedus one step closer to unlocking the mysteries of what our universe

is made of when they announced the discovery of a Higgs boson thought to be responsible for giving mass to everything in our universe.

But physics is also central to everyday life. Physicists are activelycollaborating with other researchers and applying their knowledge andtechnical skills in response to the major challenges of our time, suchas sustainable sources of future energy, understanding our changingclimate and global food security. Their efforts can also be found at

the heart of the technologies we use each day, such as computers,smartphones and GPS devices, which would not exist without physicsresearch. Physics also helps improve the quality of our lives throughthe use of high-tech equipment, such as particle accelerators, whichfind important application in healthcare, playing such a key role inimproving the diagnosis and treatment of diseases like cancer.

At the Institute of Physics, one of our objectives is to promote thefundamental importance of the discipline by showcasing how advancesmade by physicists in both academia and industry continue to impactupon all our lives. Physics: transforming livesis a series of short casestudies reviewing how innovations as powerful as magnetic-resonanceimaging, have emerged from studies in basic physics and becomeroutine technologies. The booklet also provides some clues as to howthings may develop over the next few years, coupled with numerous facts

and figures which will be useful to Government and in the classroom.Professor Paul HardakerChief Executive

The Institute of Physics

Foreword

June 2013Physics: transforming lives I1

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The space industry 5

Liquid-crystal displays 9

Plastic electronics 13Radio-frequency identification tags 19

Optical fibres 23

Cancer treatment 29

Physics and DNA 39

Energy efficiency 45

Detecting explosives and pollutants 51

Data storage 55

Satellite timing and navigation 59

Contents


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Physicists are activelyengaged in helping to solve

everyday problems by workingcollaboratively with otherresearchers and applyingtheir knowledge and technicalskills in response to the major

challenges of our time, such asenvironmental change broughtabout by our soaring demandfor energy from finite resources.

Their efforts can be found ineveryday technology, such assmartphones and GPS devices,which would not exist todaywithout physics research.

4IIOPInstitute of Physics

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The space industryA vibrant space economy enables satellites toprovide a welcome boost during a downturn.

The scienceAlmost the entire UK space industry stemsfrom physics research, which underpinseverything from the design of the satellites

to the trajectory at which rockets arelaunched, to the tweaks that must be madeto keep satellites in orbit and pointing in theright direction.

Spacecraft orbiting the Earth or en route to their designed orbit must traverse a region that is awash with charged particles that candamage the sensitive electronics mounted on satellites. Physicists must

develop materials that are inured to this harsh environment in order tokeep satellites functioning for months and years. Satellites also needelectrical power to function, and physicists devise ever cleverer waysto harness the Suns rays for this purpose although fuel cells andnuclear power have also been used.

Rocket science

The Harwell Oxford Space Cluster is the national innovation hub for spacetechnology and new satellite applications and services. The hub was

founded on STFCs capabilities in its Rutherford Appleton Laboratory

(RAL) Space department and now includes the European Space Agencys

UK office, their Business Incubation Centre, and the Satellite Applications

Catapult Centre, which is supported by the Technology Strategy Board.

What physics does it rely on? Classical mechanics

Materials science

Magnetohydrodynamics

Condensed-matter physics

ImpactThe space industry has prospered in recent times despite the nations

limited finances. Over the past decade it has grown to become amedium-sized industry in the UK, directly employing 30,000 people andreporting a turnover of 9.1 bn in the year 2010/11. The vast majorityof this turnover, 89% or 8.2 bn, comes from the industrys downstreamsector; for example, satellite communications, satellite broadcasting,satellite-navigation, and the like. Since 2008/09, the space industryhas grown by 15.6%, an average annual growth rate of 7.5%.


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The space industry

1957The Soviet Unionlaunches Sputnik, thefirst artificial satellite toorbit the Earth.

1961 Britain launchesits first satellite,Ariel 1, to study theionosphere, the upperatmosphere at the edgeof space.

1981The University ofSurrey launches its firstsatellite with the helpof NASA, the Americanspace agency.

2008 Surrey SatelliteTechnology, a spin-offcompany from theUniversity of Surrey,is sold to Astrium,a subsidiary of theFranco-Germanaerospace giant EADS,for a reported 50 m.

ApplicationsOver the past few decades, the space industry has helped to spurglobalisation by cutting the cost of communication and enabling ease ofcontact. Satellites have revolutionised telecommunications, broadcasting

and internet access, all of which have increased overall productivity.Demand for ubiquitous access to social networking is creating newopportunities for satellite broadcasting and communications. Otherapplications include the provision of satellite-navigation systems tovehicle drivers, and communications technologies to the military.

BroadcastingIn the UK satellite broadcasting makes up the largest proportion of

the turnover generated by the space industrys dominant downstreamsector, about 70% between 2008/09 and 2010/11. Through this shareof the downstream sector, satellite broadcasting generated a turnoverof about 5.8 bn in 2010/11. More than a third of homes in the UKnow have satellite television feeds. Satellite broadcasting is cheaper todeliver to remote areas than cable, and reaches places that terrestrialbroadcasting would struggle to serve. Not only is satellite television

popular with subscribers, it is also used by broadcasters: almost alltelevision goes via a satellite at least once on its way to homes, whetheror not the viewer is explicitly paying for satellite television or not.

Communications and geopositioningSatellite communications, including telephony between remotelocations, satellite-navigation systems, air traffic control systems andcommunications to ships, account for 13% of the revenue generated

by the UK space industry. Satellites enable people to communicateover long distances where terrestrial broadcasting or a direct cableconnection are impractical. Satellites cover a far greater area thanterrestrial systems and enable higher bandwidths to be used, so thathundreds of thousands of conversations, emails and internet requests

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2009 Despite theeconomic recession,Britains spaceindustry maintainsan average annualgrowth rate of 7.5%.

2010The coalitiongovernment launchesthe UK Space Agency.

2030 Britain aimsto have 10% of theinternational marketshare of space, up fromsix per cent in 2009.

can be handled simultaneously. Three-fifths of people living in the UKnow own a smartphone, and half of drivers use satellite-navigation,further increasing the traffic that satellites handle.

Earth observationSatellites can be used to gather information about the planet. This canbe used to develop scientists understanding of climate change, whichis widely expected to cost the world economy up to three per cent ofits global output by 2050. It is also used to provide weather forecasts,which enable energy companies to stock up on fuel prior to a coldsnap and farmers to plan their work. Satellites can monitor naturaldisasters, such as floods, hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis, and

enable people to devise how best to respond.

MilitaryBritish satellites provide secure and reliable communications thatcan provide high data rates to small and remote units typically usedin an initial response to disasters and rescue operations, as well asfor military operations. Four military communications satellites withanti-jamming antenna orbit the Earth and can be steered to focus onto

particular regions of the world as needed. The satellites were designedand built by UK Astrium, which operates the constellation on behalf ofthe UK Ministry of Defence.

Manufacturing and operating systemsJust over 10% of the revenues from the space industry come frombuilding spacecraft and the operating systems needed to controlthem from the ground. Most satellites are used for broadcasting andcommunications but British scientists also build satellites for scientificpurposes and for foreign customers, including Algeria, China, Chile,Germany, Malaysia, South Korea, Thailand and the United States.Astrium UK recently won a 260 m contract to build a spacecraft thatwill orbit the Sun for the European Space Agency; a second British

Over the past decade, the space industry directlyemployed 30,000 people and reported a turnover of9.1 bn in the year 2010/11.

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The space industry

company that it recently acquired,Surrey Satellite Technology, has acontract worth about 190 mto build satellite-navigation

systems for the European Unionsnetwork of satellites, whichwill provide an independentalternative to the US GlobalPositioning System and RussiasGLONASS. In 2011 DMC ImagingInternational, a subsidiary of

Surrey Satellite Technology, wona 110 m contract to supply aBeijing company with imagesfrom its satellites, whichaccounted for about 10% of theUKs high-technology exports toChina that year.

FutureBritains international marketshare in space was estimated tobe six per cent in 2009 but theUK Space Agency, launched in2010, aims to boost it to 10%by 2030, which would generatea turnover of 40 bn. The UKhas more than a hundred smallspace firms each with turnoversof less than 1 m, some of whichare expected to grow significantlyor to be bought by biggerorganisations. The Organisationfor Economic Co-operation

and Development (OECD)suggests that satellites willpower the growth in availabilityof broadband in rural areas, thedelivery of high-definition and3D television and improvedair-traffic management within

the next five years. Automaticidentification systems via satellitewill allow countries to monitorshipping along their coastlines,

enabling the closer monitoringof potential environmental andsecurity problems.

Facts and figures

3.5jobs are generatedelsewhere for every job created inthe space industry

8.2bnvalue-addedcontribution to UK GDP in2010/11 through the multiplierimpact

40bn+potentialturnover boost to the sectorby 2030

100,000+new jobs by 2030

40m+tonnes of carbon-dioxide emissions a year could besaved by satellite internet

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Liquid-crystal displaysPhysics research is revolutionisingconsumer electronics.

The scienceLiquid crystals flow like a fluidbut have molecules that can beoriented in a crystal-like way.

A thin film of the material canbe sandwiched between twoglass slides that are coatedwith transparent electrodes andconnected to an electrical powersource, as the optical propertiesof the film can be controlled

by a voltage. When the poweris switched on, the molecules line up in one direction; when it isswitched off, they flip to another arrangement. A liquid-crystal display(LCD) is typically made using thousands of electrodes, each of whichis controlled individually. Detailed and rapidly moving images can becreated by switching the individual elements on and off.

A truly international venture

LCDs were first developed in the US but British scientists invented thefirst stable liquid crystals and the technologies needed to use LCDs

for televisions, and licensed their expertise worldwide. In recent years,

South Korea has become dominant at manufacturing the devices.

What physics does it rely on? Condensed-matter physics

Optical physics

Materials physics

Physical chemistry

Mathematics

ImpactLCDs were first developed for pocket calculators and digitalwristwatches in the 1970s but the global market for flat-panel displaysis now worth about 100 bn, of which LCDs form the largest segment.Despite the economic downturn, sales are expected to grow modestlyin 2013. Over the years, the technology has generated substantialrevenues for the UK, mostly through royalty income from patents.


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Liquid-crystal displays

1889 Physicist OttoLehmann uses apolarising microscopeto study liquid crystalsand recognises thatthey represent a newstate of matter.

1936The firstpatent to claim apotential displayapplication of liquidcrystals is grantedto the UK MarconiWireless Telegraph.

1972 George Grayand Ken Harrison ofthe University of Hulland Peter Raynes ofthe Royal Signals andRadar Establishment inMalvern invent the firstliquid crystals suitablefor mass production.

1978 Cyril Hilsum ofthe Royal Signals andRadar Establishmentand colleagues at theUniversity of Dundeeinvent the technologyneeded for the liquid-crystal picture-elementswitches now used inall televisions.

ApplicationsLCDs can be made almost any size, from small screens just centimetresacross to large ones several metres across. They are used in devices suchas televisions, computer monitors, smartphones, handheld video games,

cameras and satellite-navigation systems.

TelevisionsAlmost all televisions now use LCDs to produce images. The sets arethinner and lighter than the previous technology, enabling people to fitbigger screens into their homes. Most televisions bought in the UK aremade abroad, but Cello Electronics, which is based in Bishop Auckland inthe north-east of England, manufactures devices for sale under retailers

own brands both at home and elsewhere. It has invested heavily inresearch and development to bring new technology to the UK market atthe same time or earlier than many of its Japanese and South Koreancompetitors. The company recently opened a new factory where it isexpanding production for sales in Europe, particularly Germany.

Staff working at Sharp Laboratories Europe, based in Oxford, alsodevelop LCDs for new applications. These include a screen that can

display different content to viewers, enabling a couple equipped withtwo sets of headphones to enjoy two different television programmeson the same screen simultaneously.

Smartphone screensAll of Apples iPhones and many other smartphones use LCDs. In 2013,Russian company Yota Devices demonstrated a dual-screen phone withan LCD that allows people to watch high-definition television or to flickthrough detailed photographs on their smartphones and an electronicpaper display that enables them to show electronic tickets andboarding passes even after they have exhausted the devices battery.

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Over the years, LCD technology has generatedsubstantial revenues for the UK, mostly through royaltyincome from patents.

1985 SeikoEpson unveils thefirst commercialcolour televisionto use an LCD.

2007 Worldwide salesof LCD televisionsoutstrip cathode-raytubes for the first time.

2013 At the annualConsumer ElectronicsShow in Las Vegas,where electronicsmanufacturers showoff new technologies,a smartphone withan LCD wins a best-in-show award.

Games consolesHandheld video games systems, such as the PlayStation Portableand the various devices produced by Nintendo, use LCDs in theirscreens. In 2011 Nintendo launched its glasses-free, 3D games

console, the Nintendo 3DS, and sold 113,000 of the devices in theUK in just two days.

Electronic paperLCDs can be used to make electronic paper, which looks like ordinarypaper but which can be altered centrally to enable consistentinformation to be displayed across a wide area. ZBD Solutions, basedin Ascot, supplies electronic paper to customers throughout Europe

and has recently signed a deal with the John Lewis department storein Exeter to provide it with displays that customers can use to see theprices of products on the shelves and to discover more informationabout them. The company emerged in 2000 from the same Britishlaboratories where the first liquid crystals suitable for mass productionwere developed.

Future

The first commercially available televisions to use LCDs to produce 3Dimages to viewers wearing special glasses went on sale in the UK in2010. Since then, companies have developed devices that produce3D effects without the need to wear special eyewear. High-definitiontelevisions that use LCDs are also expected to be popular with viewers.

The BBC has already begun to film its first wildlife documentaries tomake use of the technology.

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Liquid-crystal displays

Key facts and figures

90%+of televisions useLCDs and screens are 10% biggerthan three years ago

4x the resolution of currenthigh-definition television screens these will go on sale in 2013

260m+LCD televisionsare predicted to be soldworldwide in 2015

12mthsto recoupthe cost of switching to electronicpaper displays in shops

100m+in UKroyalties from licensing its liquid-crystal inventions

Zerosmartphonesand other mobile technologywould not have beenpossible without LCDs

Sharp LaboratoriesEurope develop LCDapplications including

a screen that candisplay differentcontent to viewers,enabling a couple toenjoy two different

television programmeson the same screensimultaneously.

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Plastic electronicsA new technology promises light-weightand flexible electronic devices.

The scienceSemiconductors are the foundation ofmodern electronics. Traditional electronicsare reliant on inorganic semiconductors, for

example, silicon and gallium nitride alloyswith varying fractions of indium. By contrast,modern organic electronics, used widelyin smartphone displays, work with carbon-based semiconducting (i.e. conjugated)polymers and small molecules.

Carbon-containing organic molecules that sublime on heating can

be laid down using thermal vacuum deposition techniques similar tothose used to create thin films of metal on many surfaces. Alternatively,solution-based processes including printing techniques analogousto those employed in the traditional printing industry can be usedfor those molecules that dissolve in suitable solvents. Long-chainmolecules, or plastics, generally fall into the latter category.

Illuminating workThe UK is at the forefront of discoveries in plastic electronics: in 1989

physicists at the University of Cambridge discovered that certain

plastics could be made to generate light when wired up to an electrical

power source. The nation has created a network of five centres of

excellence in plastic electronics to exploit this lead. More than 20

universities and dozens of small companies and multinationals now

develop the technologies in the UK.

What physics does it rely on? Molecular physics

Materials processing

Semiconductor physics

Optics

Printing and graphics science

Plastic can also be made to emit light by sandwiching it between twoelectrodes, one of which injects electrons and the other holes. Whenthese meet, light is generated.


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Plastic electronics

1970sPhysicists andchemists discoverthat, instead of actingas insulators, someplastics can be madeto conduct electricity.

1989The physicistsDonal Bradley, JeremyBurroughes andSir Richard Friendat the University ofCambridge succeedin manipulating thinsheets of plastic togenerate light.

1992The samephysicists join withcolleagues to formCambridge DisplayTechnology, which issold in 2007 for areported $285 m.

2002Printedelectronics feature in aJames Bond film, DieAnother Day; the Philipsshaver incorporatesthem in its display.

ImpactCarbon-based electronics was worth an estimated $10 bn worldwidein 2012, most of which was in display technologies. IDTechEx, a marketanalyst, suggests that by 2022 the total market will be worth more

than $60 bn, rising to $350 bn by 2032. In 10 years time, it predictsthat about a third of carbon-based electronics will be produced onflexible surfaces. More than 3000 organisations are pursuing variousversions of the technology, including printing, electronics, materials andpackaging companies.

ApplicationsPlastic is widely used because it is cheap and easy to make and

handle. Plastic electronics can create new sources of light for homesand offices, generate electricity from the most abundant sourceof power on the planet sunlight and be used to make cheap,disposable medical devices. The most popular electronic displayscreens currently use vacuum deposited carbon-based molecules, butflexible printed displays could soon become the dominant technology.

Lighting

Light sources made from carbon-based electronics offer analternative, environmentally friendly way to produce light. They canbe used to construct walls or screens that light up. The panels canalso be transparent, allowing windows to transmit natural light byday and to generate a soft glow by night. As a demonstration of thetechnology, General Electric has incorporated printed electronicsinto a set of protective clothing for fire fighters that shines brightly in

the dark. The devices could even form part of soft furnishings suchas curtains. Several European companies, including OSRAM andPhilips, already sell desk lamps that use small-molecule electronicsto generate light and Thorn Lighting in the UK is working withCambridge Display Technology to develop lamps that use printed

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Carbon-based electronics was worth an estimated$10 bn worldwide in 2012, rising to $350 bn by 2032.

2009The Departmentfor Business, Innovationand Skills launchesthe UK Strategy forPlastic Electronics.

2012Some 45companies and morethan 20 universitiesin the UK are engagedin the research anddevelopment ofplastic electronics.

2013The mostsuccessful productsyet to use carbon-based electronics the SamsungGalaxy smartphones sell more than 100million devices.

electronics. Almost every lighting company is engaged in researchand development of the technologies.

Solar power

Carbon-based solar panels offer certain advantages over traditionaldevices. They are light-weight and rugged; they can be made to coverlarge areas; they generate electricity even on gloomy days; and theycould be made cheaply. Five start-up companies have emerged in theUK over the past five years to work on solar-energy generation includingthe development of solar-powered lamps for use in poor communitiesabroad that have no access to the electricity grid.

Many European companies are developing plastic electronics to buildsolar cells that would be flexible and light-weight, and so fit onto roofseasily. The solar cells can also be made visually transparent so thatthey could be fitted over skylights. In principle, solar cells could beprinted directly onto windows, embedding the generation of electricityfrom solar power in new homes.

Some manufacturers have begun to attach flexible plastic solar panels

to the outside of laptop bags, enabling the bag to recharge smallerelectrical items such as smartphones.

Medical devicesPlastic electronics are being used to develop portable, point-of-caremedical devices capable of achieving similar results to much moreexpensive laboratory-based instruments. Molecular Vision, a spin-

out company from Imperial College London that is now part of theAbingdon Health Group, has developed a lab-on-a-chip device thatcombines a light source with a detector. It can test a single sampleof blood or urine to identify kidney disease or whether someone hasrecently had a heart attack. The same technology could be used for

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Plastic electronics

veterinary testing, forensicscience and detectingenvironmental pollution.

Screens and displaysCarbon-based light-emittingdevices are found in sleek, light-weight products such as someof the latest smartphones, andare a complementary technologyto LCDs. Samsung, for example,uses them to display images on

the screens of its best-sellingdevices, and LG Displays, anotherSouth Korean company, is dueto begin mass production ofcompetitively priced televisionsthat will use them in 2013. Thetelevisions will produce clearer

and faster-moving images thanmany current devices and willbe lighter, thinner and moreenergy-efficient than a numberof the flat-screen televisionscommonplace today. CambridgeDisplay Technology and SeikoEpson produced an ink jet printed

TV display prototype in 2003/04.Additionally, Sony recentlyunveiled its first television displayto use printed electronics. Manycompanies now seek to switchfrom printing onto glass to flexiblesubstrates that would bend easily

and, unlike their glass-substratecounterparts, would not shatterwhen dropped.

FuturePlastic electronics might beused to make smart packagingfor pharmaceuticals. Blister

packs of drugs could sound analarm to alert patients who hadfailed to dispense their medicineon schedule. The technologymight also be used to monitorthe condition of food inside itspackaging so that consumers did

not have to rely on the best-before date. Fashion designerscould join those who have alreadyexperimented with fabrics thatemit coloured light and artistswho have created illuminateddesigns. Plastic electronics couldbecome ubiquitous, creating a

wealth of intelligent but cheapproducts that would changebusiness models and create newsources of revenue.

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Plastic electronics

The first television

display to useprinted electronicswas recently

unveiled. Manycompanies nowseek to switch

from printing ontoglass to flexiblesubstrates that

bend easily anddo not shatter.

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Plastic electronics

Facts and figures

70mhas been investedby the government in universityprojects of direct relevance toplastic electronics

$60bnthe predictedglobal worth of plastic electronicsby 2022

$350bntheestimated worth of the globalcarbon business by 2032

87%of household carbon-dioxide emissions due to lighting

might be cut by 2050 if carbon-based electronics were used

Plastic electronicsmight be usedto make smart

packaging forpharmaceuticals.Blister packs of drugscould sound an alarmto alert patients who

had failed to dispensetheir medicineon schedule. Thetechnology might alsobe used to monitorthe condition of foodinside its packagingso that consumers didnot have to rely on thebest-before date.

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Radio-frequency identification tagsNew uses of a Second World War technologycould revolutionise life in the internet age.

The scienceA radio-frequency identity (RFID)system consists of a small electronicchip embedded in a plastic tag

or card, and a radio-frequencytransmitter and receiver, whichreads the chip, depending on thetype of tag, when it is anythingbetween a centimetre and 100 maway. The reader transmits encodedradio signals to interrogate the tag,

which provides the electronic chip with sufficient power to transmitinformation to the reader using the reflected radio signal.

Through the agesMany types of radio-frequency identification tags are the direct

descendants of devices that were attached to aircraft during the Second

World War. British-developed radar could detect aeroplanes but could

not identify friend from foe, so the Allies fitted their planes with tags that

broadcast their allegiance when interrogated from the ground.

What physics does it rely on? Electromagnetism

Semiconductor physics

Materials science

Because the tag can use the energy transmitted by the reader to powerits response, it can work without batteries. Such RFID tags are relativelysmall, light-weight and cheap to make.

ImpactThe RFID market was worth $7.7 bn worldwide in 2012, according tomarket analyst IDTechEx. Its figures show that the UK is currently the biggestuser of RFID technology in Europe. The technology has enabled train and

bus companies to introduce simpler fares and to cut journey times. Thismakes public transport more appealing, helping to reduce greenhousegas emissions and paying off in other ways besides: the Cabinet Officeestimates that congestion, poor air quality, accidents and physical inactivityall impose costs of around 10 bn every year in urban areas in the UK.


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Radio-frequency identification tags

1873James ClerkMaxwell, a Scottishtheoretical physicist,elaborates equationsthat unify thetheories of electricityand magnetism.

1897Morse codesignals transmittedacross SalisburyPlain in Englandusing radio waves.

1935 British physicistSir Robert AlexanderWatson-Watt developsradar that can beused to detectpassing aeroplanes.

1940s Radiotransmitters thatidentify an aeroplaneas friend or foewhen interrogatedby radar are placedon aircraft during theSecond World War.

ApplicationsThe use of RFID tags is becoming ever more widespread. In recent yearsUK companies have introduced them to create electronic tickets foruse on public transport, speed up shoppers queuing at tills, enhance

security checks at airports and track objects in the supply chain.

Public transportOyster cards containing RFID tags were introduced on the Londonpublic transport network in 2003. Today some 55 million cards havebeen issued and more than 80% of journeys made on public transportin London involve using an Oyster card. The technology enablescomputers installed in the gates of the Tube network to calculate the

correct fare to charge from 1.83 million possible journey permutationsin 200 milliseconds, speeding passenger flow through each station.

A third of the growth in public-transport use in London over the pastfew years is due to fares reform that has been boosted by RFID chips,according to a study by Peter White of the University of Westminster. Hesuggests that the use of the technology to speed the boarding of busessaves passengers as much time as the creation of bus lanes.

Bank cardsRetailers who want to accept contactless payments to cut queues areinstalling devices to read the RFID tags that are being placed in bankcards. Some five million contactless payment cards have been issued bybanks in the UK and the form of payment is now accepted by 100,000retailers. Shoppers can simply tap their bank cards against an electronicreader to pay for cheaper items such as lunch-hour sandwiches.

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1973 First patentfor a radio-frequencyidentification deviceintended for use incollecting tolls is filedin America.

2003 Smartcards that useradio-frequencyidentification chipsare introduced tothe worlds largestpublic-transportsystem in London.

2012 Some 80% ofall public-transportjourneys in Londonare made usingOyster cards and thescheme is creditedwith promoting theTube and bus network.

PassportsThe technology is also being used for national security. The UK is oneof almost 100 countries that are introducing RFID tags in passports.

The chips will help border guards identify whether the person

seeking entry is the legitimate holder of the passport and could alsobe used to automate the process, thereby cutting the queues atimmigration. The Identity and Passport Service currently issues morethan five million RFID-enabled passports every year and more thanhalf of those people who hold a passport now have the technologyembedded in their documents.

Logistics

The chips are used in logistics because they can be embedded inproducts and tracked as they leave one factory and enter another.

The European Aerospace, Defence and Space Company, EADS, (whichowns aerospace companies Airbus, and Astrium, which build civilianand military spacecraft), uses RFID tags to track components throughits manufacturing processes. For example, it uses RFID tags to monitorconstruction of the Airbus A380, a double-decked aeroplane. Over the

past few years miniaturisation and mass production have made RFIDsmall and cheap enough to become more widespread. They are nowfound within some supermarkets, where they are used to monitor stock.

The RFID market was worth $7.7 bn worldwide in2012. The UK is currently the biggest user of RFIDtechnology in Europe.

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Radio-frequency identification tags

FutureSome hospitals are pilotingthe use of RFID technology toenable staff to know the precise

location of a doctor who ison call and to link electronicrecords to each patient. Othersare developing it to help monitorthe health of people who areelderly and housebound. Theinternet of things envisages a

hugely interactive world in whichmachines communicate with oneanother via the internet. Sensorsattached to a carton of milkcould detect when it was almostempty and instruct the fridgeto order more supplies to bedelivered from the supermarket,

for example. RFID tags would befundamental to such a world.McKinsey, a consultancy, arguesthat such technologies wouldcreate information networks thatproduce new business models,improve business processes and

reduce costs and risks.

Facts and figures

$26bnthe projectedvalue of the RFID market by 2022

55million Oyster cards havebeen issued by Transport forLondon since 2003

30%rise in the numberof bus journeys made in Londonsince 2003

4bnRFID tags were soldin 2012. More than 30 millionBritish passports use thetechnology

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1887Sir CharlesVernon Boys usesquartz fibresfor mechanicalmeasurements.

1928John LogieBaird, inventor ofthe television, filesthe first patentdemonstrating thefibre-optic principle.

1952HaroldHopkins andNarinder Kapanyof Imperial CollegeLondon create firstendoscope.

1961Elias Snitzerand Will Hicks atAmerican Optics firea laser beam througha fine glass fibre.

The scienceOptical fibres are fine threadsof glass, comprising a core andcladding that are approximately

the same width as human hair,which can transmit light over longdistances. They can be used totransmit information as pulses oflight that travel down the fibres, withlittle loss of signal compared withcopper wires. Cables containing

hundreds of optical fibres are robust enough to be laid on the oceanfloor, connecting continents as never before and revolutionisingtelecommunications networks.

How do optical fibres work?Optical fibres comprise a thin glass core through which the light

travels, coated in a second glass layer that reflects the light back and

guides it down the core. Because the optical fibres are flexible, the light

they transmit does not have to travel in straight lines and can be sentalong a curved path.

When used in telecommunications, the individual fibres in a cable

can carry many channels, each using a different wavelength of light.

Typically each channel transmits information at a rate of 10 or 40

gigabits per second, but rates of 270 gigabits per second have been

achieved equivalent to 350 high-definition movies sent in one

second. As well as many channels per fibre, each cable can contain upto 1000 fibres.

Optical fibresLight-carrying glass fibres have transformedcommunications and medicine.

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Optical fibres

1966Sir Charles Kaoand George Hockhamof STC Laboratories inHarlow propose thetransfer of informationover glass fibres.

1966The BritishPost Office ResearchLaboratoriesbegin fibre-opticcommunicationsresearch.

1970US researchersdemonstrate glassfibres can transmit65,000 times moreinformation thancopper wires.

1977Television signalsare transmitted usingoptical fibres.

What physics does it rely on? Optics

Optoelectronics

Lasers

Photonics

ImpactThe impact of optical fibres is hard to overstate. They have revolutionisedtelecommunications, transmitting more information over greater distancesthan could ever be achieved with copper wires, enabling the spread ofbroadband networks and the many services that depend on them. Theworld market for fibre-optic components alone is expected to reach

$31 bn by 2015. In 2011, 217 million kilometres of optical fibre wereproduced globally most of it for optical communications cables andthe market is doubling each year.

Physicists in the UK were key contributors in the development ofoptical-fibre technology. The UK remains a world leader in innovativefibre-optics research and also maintains a strong manufacturing base,with plants in Wales and Southampton.

Without optical-fibre cables enabling broadband communications, theinternet as we know it today would not be possible. Download servicessuch as iTunes and movies-on-demand require the large data-carryingcapacity that optical fibres provide. Around 70 per cent of UK homesnow have a fixed broadband connection, which is now a vital part ofeveryday life underpinning the UK digital economy.

Optical fibres have also transformed medicine by enabling laparoscopicprocedures to minimise both the pain and healing time comparedwith conventional surgery, and leave much smaller scars. Patients areoften discharged the same day, compared with up to a week in hospitalfor those undergoing traditional surgery, saving time and money for

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1977The British PostOffice begins sendinglive telephone trafficthrough optical fibres.

1977US telephonecompanies beginsending telephone callsthrough optical fibres.

1978AT&T and thePost Office announce10 year plan todevelop transatlanticoptical-fibre cable.

1984British Telecom(formerly the PostOffice) lays the firstsubmarine fibre to theIsle of Wight.

the NHS. There are dozens of laparoscopic procedures; one of themost common is the gall-bladder operation, over 60,000 of which arecurrently performed in the UK each year.

Applications

TelecommunicationsOptical fibres cover the globe, connecting continents throughsubmarine cables. These are the backbone of the internet andall telecommunications networks. Optical fibres are able to carrymany thousands of times more information than copper wires. Theyprovide the large bandwidth required for todays internet, including

downloading music and high-definition videos, via services such asiTunes and Netflix.

Optical fibres are ideally suited to undersea cables because they cantransmit information with little loss of signal compared with copperwires. This allows distances of 50100 km between the expensiverepeaters needed to boost the signal. The invention of the erbium-doped fibre amplifier in 1987 by physicists at the University of

Southampton (and later developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories) allowedthe signal to be boosted within the fibre itself, so modern installationsdo not require repeaters at all. Since they carry only light, optical fibresare immune to electrical interference, so they can also be used forshort-range communications, for example in aircraft.

Physicists in the UK were key contributors in thedevelopment of optical-fibre technology. Withoutoptical-fibre cables enabling broadbandcommunications, the internet as we know it todaywould not be possible.

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Optical fibres

1986The first optical-fibre cable acrossthe English Channelbegins service.

1988The firsttransatlanticoptical-fibre cablebegins service.

1987Physicistsat the Universityof Southamptonannounce opticalamplifiers that arebuilt into opticalfibres, removing theneed for repeaters.

1991Japaneseresearcherssuccessfully senda signal through 1million km of fibre.

MedicineOne of the first uses of optical fibres was in the endoscope, whichallows doctors to see inside patients bodies without expensive andinvasive surgery. This paved the way for keyhole surgery, in which

optical fibres not only relay images but can also be used to send alaser beam to carry out surgery, so only a tiny opening is needed.

Fibre lasersFibre lasers, also developed at Southampton, can have active regionsof several metres wound into efficient, compact designs that cangenerate very high-power beams. They are used in laser cutting andwelding, and they are a candidate for the next generation of research

lasers emitting extremely intense X-ray light.

SensorsOptical fibres make excellent and inexpensive sensors forenvironmental, chemical and biological monitoring in such placesas mines, oil wells and other remote locations. When the fibre isstretched or heated, this alters the characteristics of lighttransmission along it. The fibre-optic research group at the University

of Southampton is working with a local company, SENSA, to developa temperature sensor that can work across a distance of 100 km.

They are also developing a strain sensor for monitoring largestructures like bridges, dams and roads.

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1996 Philip Russellat the Universityof Southamptondemonstrates thephotonic crystal fibre.

1997The 28,000 kmfibre-optic link aroundthe globe connects theUK and Japan throughone continuous cable.

2003 Optical fibresconnect all of thecontinents exceptfor Antarctica.

2009 Sir Charles Kaois awarded the NobelPrize in Physics forhis work developingoptical fibres.

FutureWork continues to increase the capacity of optical-fibre cables andreduce the cost of installing them. In the last decade the use of opticalamplifiers sections of fibre doped with elements to boost the

signal have done away with the need for expensive repeaters. Otherdevelopments include the use of optical solitons that have enabledthe development of ultra-fast communications across vast distances.

One of the most exciting developments are photonic crystal fibres,developed by Philip Russell and colleagues at Southampton andBath universities. These have air channels surrounding the centralcore, which allows light to be manipulated in many novel ways that

could lead to the development of high-power lasers and gas sensing.The most significant application is the laser generation of white light(supercontinuum generation), which can be tuned to particularwavelengths for advanced microscopy in the biosciences.

UK researchers are also making optical fibres out of materials otherthan glass. For example, plastic optical fibres could be used fortransmitting information around the house or be incorporated into

textiles and clothing as sensors.

Optical fibres cover the globe, connecting continentsthrough submarine cables. These are the backbone ofthe internet and all telecommunications networks.

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Optical fibres

Facts and figures

31bnexpected valueof world market for fibre-opticcomponents by 2015

28,000km thelength of one continuous optical-fibre cable around the globe,linking the UK and Japan

1.1mkilometres ofundersea optical-fibre cable hadbeen installed worldwide in 2010

1.35bnkilometres ofoptical fibre currently in service

across the world

60,000gbcapacityof the planned submarine cableto connect Ireland to New Yorkin 2013

60,000laparoscopicgall bladder operations in the UKeach year

40%of bowel canceroperations are now performed viakeyhole surgery

UK researchers arenow making opticalfibres out of materials

other than glass.For example, plasticoptical fibres could beused for transmittinginformation around

the house or beincorporated intotextiles and clothingas sensors.

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Cancer treatmentResearch into the nature of matter and the structureof the universe has led to life-saving techniques todiagnose and treat cancer.

The scienceCancer refers to a wide group ofdiseases in which cells divideuncontrollably, producing a tumour

that seriously disrupts surroundingtissues. When cancers areparticularly aggressive, these out-of-control cells can also spread toother parts of the body, causing yetmore damage.

Radiotherapy involves directing

high-energy radiation such as X-rays and beams of particles,including electrons and protons at a tumour to destroy it. The aim isto damage the DNA of the cancer cells to stop them proliferating, whileensuring that the radiation dose received by healthy tissue is smallenough that it can recover. The particle accelerators that produce thesehigh-energy beams were originally developed for the study of particleand nuclear physics.

The chances of surviving cancer are greatly enhanced by early andaccurate diagnosis, and knowing its precise location and size. Here,too, physics has provided many of the most important tools. Exploringthe structure of the universe on the very small scale (atomic, nuclearand particle physics) or the large scale (astronomy and cosmology)requires the development of new ways of looking at things thatcannot be seen with the naked eye. This ability to visualise what

cannot ordinarily be seen has led to the advanced imaging thatunderpins modern medical diagnostics.

How does radiotherapy work?When a charged particle or an X-ray passes through any substance,

it knocks out electrons, leaving a trail of ionisation. When it passes

through the body, this ionisation can cause a break in one or both

of the spirals that make up the DNA inside cells. If the damage is

small, the cells natural repair mechanisms can fix it. But a complex

double-strand break in which there are multiple breaks close

together in each helix is too difficult to repair, leaving the cell unable

to reproduce successfully. By carefully designing the treatment plan

to accumulate a high radiation dose in the tumour, while keeping the

dose to normal tissue low enough for repair mechanisms to work, the

tumour can be destroyed.


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Cancer treatment

1895German physicistWilhelm Rentgendiscovers X-rays.

1896French physicistHenri Becquereldiscovers radioactivityfrom uranium andMarie Curie theorisesthat its source isthe atom itself, forwhich they receivethe Nobel Prize inPhysics in 1903.

1903Discovery ofthe Bragg Peak by SirWilliam Bragg thebasis of proton andion-beam therapy.

1911Discovery ofsuperconductivityby Heike Onnes.Superconductivityenables the strongmagnetic fieldsused in MRI.

What physics does this rely on? Medical physics

Electromagnetism Particle physics

Nuclear physics Astrophysics Atomic and molecular physics Acoustics Materials science Computational physics

Impact

One in three people will get cancer at some point in their lives. Thechance of getting cancer increases with age, with about two-thirdsof cancers occurring in people over the age of 65. In 2010, therewere around 157,250 deaths from cancer in the UK. Although cancersurvival rates have doubled in the past 40 years, the number ofsufferers increases each year because of advances in diagnosis and anageing population.

More than half of cancer patients will receive radiotherapy as partof their treatment, and radiotherapy contributes about 40% to thesuccessful treatment of cancer. Half of the worlds 20,000 particleaccelerators are in use in hospitals, and each can treat between 4500and 6500 patients per year.

Increasingly, patients are being treated with more advancedradiotherapy treatments, such as proton-beam and gamma-ray

therapies. In 2012 approximately 70,000 patients worldwide receivedproton beam therapy, but it is estimated that 137,000 patients per yearcould benefit from the treatment in the US alone. Worldwide there arearound 150 Gamma Knife units, which have collectively treated around500,000 patients with brain tumours.

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1913Lord ErnestRutherford whilebased at the Universityof Manchester andNiels Bohr develop atheory of the structureof the atom.

1914Research beginsat the Sorbonnes newRadium Institute intomedical treatment ofcancer using radium.

1928British physicistPaul Dirac postulatesthe existence of thepositron, for which hewas awarded the NobelPrize in Physics in1933. These particlesare now routinelyused for cancerdetection in PET.

1929Cyclotrondeveloped by ErnestLawrence at Berkley,for which he wonthe Nobel Prize inPhysics in 1939.

The Department of Health announced a 250 m investment to buildtwo proton-beam therapy centres in the UK by 2017. It is estimatedthat more than 1500 patients per year would benefit from theestablishment of a new National Proton Beam Therapy Service in the

UK. Today there are 43 proton and carbon-ion centres worldwide, and23 more are planned or under construction. The UK is a key supplier ofcomponent parts for these modern accelerators.

Early detection of cancer, for example through physics-based imagingtechniques, greatly increases the chances of successful treatment.Better diagnosis and shorter waiting times also mean that peopleliving with the disease can have an enhanced quality of life. In

addition to the human costs of the disease, cancer also exacts hugeeconomic costs. The direct healthcare expenditure in the UK is5.6 bn a year. There are also additional costs through time off work,the impact on family and friends of continuing care, and the loss ofproductivity due to premature death.

Applications

Cancer diagnosticsThere are several sophisticated diagnostic techniques that are basedon physics, and the number is growing.

Computed tomographyComputed tomography (CT) scanners use X-rays to produce 3Dimages of the internal anatomy, using sophisticated software toreconstruct the image. They were first developed by physicists in

the 1960s, and the first scanner was built at EMI Laboratories inHillingdon, earning its creator Sir Godfrey Hounsfield a share of the1979 Nobel Prize in Medicine.

Early detection of cancer through physics-basedimaging techniques greatly increases the chances ofsuccessful treatment. Better diagnosis and shorterwaiting times also means an enhanced quality of life.

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Cancer treatment

1932Discovery ofthe positron by CarlAnderson, for which hewon the Nobel Prize inPhysics in 1936.

1944Isador Rabireceives the NobelPrize in Physics for hisdiscovery of nuclearmagnetic resonance(NMR). This alignmentof atomic nuclei in astrong magnetic field isthe basis for MRI.

1946US physicistRobert Wilson proposesthe use of protons forcancer radiotherapy.

1952Felix Blochand Edward Purcellawarded the NobelPrize in Physics forshowing that nuclearmagnetic precisionmeasurements maybe made in liquids,leading to the idea ofusing NMR in living

tissue (as in MRI).

Single photon emission computed tomography

A single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scan is anon-invasive nuclear imaging test that shows the blood flow to tissuesand organs and is widely applied in oncology. It uses radioactive tracers

that are injected into the blood to produce pictures of blood flow tomajor organs, primarily in the brain and heart. The tracers generategamma-rays, which are detected by a gamma camera. A computer thenprepares 3D images of the scanned organ. A key feature of this test isthat the tracer remains in the blood stream rather than being absorbedby the surrounding tissues, thus limiting the images to areas where theblood flows.

Positron emission tomographyPositron emission tomography (PET) uses positrons to producefunctional images of the body. Positrons are the antimatter version ofthe electron and their existence was first predicted by British physicistPaul Dirac in 1928. In PET scanning, a positron-emitting radionuclideisotope is attached to a sugar molecule that is absorbed by cells inthe body where there is a lot of metabolic activity, such as in growing

tumours. Once inside the tumour, the radionuclide emits a positron,which soon meets an electron and the two particles annihilate, emittinga pair of high-energy gamma-ray photons. These pass through the bodyand are picked up by sensitive detectors. With the use of sophisticatedsoftware to analyse where the gamma rays originated, it is possible tocreate a highly detailed 3D image of the tumour. PET scans are oftencombined with CT scans to give even more precise information aboutthe shape, size and location of the tumour, as well as the position ofnearby critical organs.

The accelerators that are used to create the positron-emittingradionuclides, and the gamma-ray detectors that create the PET

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Cancer treatment

1951First cobalt-60teletherapy unitproduced in Canada.

1954First treatmentof cancer patients withsubatomic particlebeams at BerkeleyRadiation Laboratoryin California.

1969Sir GodfreyHounsfield createsthe CT scanner atEMI Laboratories inHillingdon, for which heshares the 1979 NobelPrize in Medicine.

1971First medicalCT scan is made, ofa cerebral cyst in apatient in London.

images, were first produced by particle physicists trying to understandthe nature of matter.

Magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses very high magnetic fields andrapidly varying electromagnetic fields to detect the distribution of protonsin the body and so create 3D images of the organs. By manipulatingthe electric and magnetic fields, information about how the body isworking can also be obtained. This technology was originally developedto study structure of the atomic nucleus, and makes use of largesuperconducting magnets. Unlike X-rays, which cannot distinguish thedetailed structure of soft tissues, MRI can produce high-resolution

images that reveal damaged and abnormal tissue.

The related technique of magnetic resonance spectroscopy can beused to map the chemical composition of tumours, and so characterisethem without the need for an invasive biopsy. It is capable of predictingthe response to chemotherapeutic drugs at an early stage in thetreatment cycle, so that if a drug is not effective an alternative canbe tried as soon as possible. In the developing field of interventional

MRI, tumour surgery can be performed while the patient is inside thescanner, so surgeons can ensure that the whole tumour is removed andavoid the need for repeated operations.

Ultrasound

In ultrasound scans, high-frequency sound waves are used to create animage of part of the inside of the body. Pulses of ultrasound are sentfrom a probe through the skin and then bounce back from structuresinside the body to be detected by the probe and displayed.

Optical coherence tomography

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a form of optical ultrasound.

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Cancer treatment

1974The firstcommercial PETmachine is built.

1980The first clinicallyuseful MRI image isproduced.

1989First hospital-based proton therapyis carried out inClatterbridge, Wirral.

1992Development ofmultileaf collimators atthe Christie Hospital inManchester, which helptarget the radiationbeam more precisely.

Infra-red laser light is shone on the skin and the light that is reflectedback from the tissue layers just beneath the surface can be collectedto form a very high resolution image. These images are much moredetailed than those produced by MRI, but OCT can only penetrate a

few millimetres. This makes them most useful in detecting cancer of theskin and oesophagus, for example.

Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry

Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry is a technique that wasoriginally developed by astrophysicists at the University of Birminghamwho were investigating the chemistry of interstellar clouds. Thetechnique is able to sense tiny amounts of gas, and can be used to

detect certain cancers by analysing a sample of a patients breath.

Cancer treatmentRadiation kills cells, particularly cancer cells, by disrupting DNA andpreventing the cells from reproducing. Radiation can be delivered inseveral ways:

External beam radiotherapy

Particle accelerators originally developed by physicists to studysubatomic particles have been used to generate beams of radiationto treat cancer since the 1950s. Electron linear accelerators (linacs)are the most common in use and create beams of X-rays or electrons.

The first electron linac was used for radiotherapy in the HammersmithHospital in 1953; today, every major cancer hospital has severalelectron linacs for radiotherapy. Other linacs are able to producea variety of radioactive agents that are used in the diagnosis andtreatment of cancer.

Protons were first suggested as an alternative to X-rays by RobertWilson in 1946, and the first patient was treated with protons inBerkeley, California in 1954. The first hospital-based proton therapy

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1995First patientis treated withIntensity ModulatedRadiotherapy,which uses MRIand CT togetherwith computerisedcalculations of the bestdose-intensity patternfor tumour shape.

2003Sir PeterMansfield ofthe University ofNottingham winsthe Nobel Prizein Physiology orMedicine, along withPaul Lauterbur of theUniversity of Illinois,for their discoveries

concerning magneticresonance imaging.

2004Scientists beginworking on totallynon-invasive cancertests, such as thebreath test, SIFT.

2007A compact devicethat can generate THzradiation portablyis created at the USDepartment of Energy,making THz imaging inhospitals viable.

centre was established in Clatterbridge in the Wirral in 1989, wherethey treat eye cancer. Modern proton beam therapy is the mostprecise form of radiation treatment available today. It destroys aprimary tumour site but leaves surrounding healthy tissue and organs

almost completely intact, making it particularly suited to treatingchildhood cancers.

Brachytherapy

Brachytherapy uses artificially produced radioactive seeds enclosedinside protective capsules, which are delivered to the tumour, where theyemit beta or gamma rays, to give a highly localised dose. The capsulescan be removed after treatment, or in some cases left in place.

Boron neutron capture therapy

Boron neutron capture therapy is used to treat cancers of the head andneck. A non-radioactive form of boron is injected into the tumour andthen a beam of neutrons is fired at it. Boron is used because it absorbsneutrons much more readily than human tissue, and when it does itforms lithium ions and high-energy alpha particles, which togetherdeliver the radiation dose to the tumour.

Computer-aided treatmentIncreasingly, computer-based methods are being used together with CTand MRI scans to sculpt the beam so that its shape matches that ofthe target tumour. Alongside image-guided robotic surgery and the useof laser scalpels, this is leading to ever more precise cancer treatment.

Future

Work continues to refine imaging techniques so that radiation canbe targeted to match the tumour shape ever more precisely. Cheaperand more compact accelerators and beam-delivery systems will makeproton and light-ion therapy accessible to many more patients. Newideas, such as using nano-particles to increase the radiosensitivity of

Cheaper and more compact accelerators and beam-delivery systems will make proton and light-ion therapyaccessible to many more patients.

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Cancer treatment

cancer cells while leaving healthy cells unaffected, will allow cancer tobe treated with lower radiation doses and thus fewer side effects.

A new proof-of-principle accelerator known as EMMA (Electron Machine

with Many Applications) is being constructed at the Science andTechnology Facilities Councils Daresbury Laboratory in the UK. Whileresearch is at its very early stages, the experience gained in building thismachine may prove useful for future proton and carbon-ion acceleratorsthat are used in treating cancer. EMMA is driven by an energy-recoverylinear accelerator called ALICE. The latter also drives an infrared free-electron laser, which is being used together with a scanning near-fieldmicroscope as a potential diagnostic tool for oesophageal cancer.

The synchrotron light emitted from high-energy electron storage rings originally developed for use in particle physics is of much higherquality than that available from conventional hospital X-ray machines,and can be used to produce so-called phase contrast X-ray images.

This technology could potentially be developed into a tool to provide anearlier diagnosis of breast cancer, for example.

Low-energy terahertz radiation may also have an important role toplay in cancer detection. Terahertz radiation can penetrate severalmillimetres of tissue and could be used to detect skin cancer at avery early stage, as well as cancer of the cervix, breast and colon. Itis safer and less invasive than X-rays. The first terahertz cameras weredeveloped by astrophysicists to image the distant universe. London-based company Teraview has developed a portable probe, which iscurrently being trialled. The sensitivity of terahertz imaging can also beimproved with the use of gold nanoparticles and infrared lasers.

2012New lasertechnique showspotential for futureuse in breast cancerdiagnosis, to detectif abnormalities aremalignant or benign.

2012Newaccelerator-driveninfrared free-electronlaser and scanningnear-field microscopeshows potential forthe diagnosis ofoesophageal cancer.

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Cancer treatment

Facts and figures

200different kinds ofcancer affect all parts of thebody, and all can be fatal ifleft untreated

324,579peoplediagnosed with cancer in theUK in 2010

157,250deaths fromcancer in the UK in 2010

70,000patientsreceived proton-beam therapyin 2012 worldwide

5.6bnthe annualdirect cost of all cancers to theUK economy

of people in the UK willdevelop some form of cancerduring their lifetime

+of cancer patients willreceive radiotherapy as part oftheir treatment

500,000haveundergone Gamma Knifetreatment for brain tumours

43proton and carbon-ioncentres available worldwide;24 more are planned or underconstruction

10,000hospitalparticle accelerators worldwide,treat 45006500 patientsper year

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The scienceDeoxyribonucleic acid DNA is alarge molecule that is found in thecells of all living things, from bacteria

to humans. It consists of a verylong strand of millions of nucleotidebase pairs joined together in acharacteristic double helix.

The discovery of the structure ofDNA in 1953 by biologist JamesWatson and physicist Francis Crick

was groundbreaking because it provided an explanation of the basisof heredity, what genes are and how they work. The double helix canbe unravelled into its two halves and then copied when cells multiply.During reproduction, DNA strands from each parent are able to jointogether to form a completely new and unique set of strands. Geneswork because the bases form a code in which combinations of threebases translate into any one of 20 amino acids. Depending on the

precise sequence of the code, amino acids are joined together indifferent ways to form proteins that make cells and organisms function.

How was the structure of DNA discovered?The technique used by Watson and Crick to work out the structure

of DNA was X-ray crystallography, which had been developed by

physicists Sir Lawrence Bragg and his father Sir William Bragg earlier

in the century. The Braggs found that when crystal structures are

illuminated with X-rays, atoms within the crystal scatter the X-ray light

to produce characteristic patterns. Using the angle of scattering and

its intensity it is possible to work out the 3D structure of the molecules

that make up the crystal.

The discovery also depended on the work of Maurice Wilkins and

Rosalind Franklin at the then newly formed Medical Research Council

Biophysics Unit at Kings College London. They used fibres of DNA to

produce the X-ray diffraction patterns that Watson and Crick studied.

In 1953 they finally made their breakthrough discovery that DNA

is a double helix with a phosphate backbone on the outside and the

nucleotide bases on the inside.

Physics and DNAThe discovery of DNA structure heralded the birth ofmolecular biology physicists, chemists and biologistswork together to unravel the basic processes of life.


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Physics and DNA

1915UK physicists SirWilliam Bragg and SirLawrence Bragg receiveNobel Prize in Physicsfor X-ray crystallography.

1953UK physicistFrancis Crick and USbiologist James Watsondiscover the structure ofDNA, with contributionsfrom UK physicistsMaurice Wilkins andRosalind Franklin.

1962Nobel Prize inMedicine awardedto Crick, Watsonand Wilkins

1975The first completegenome is sequenced of a bacteriophage.

Following the discovery of the structure, it was physicist GeorgeGamow who first predicted that a three-letter code was needed toproduce the 20 amino acids, which lead to Crick and Watson toenumerate the 20 amino acids common to most proteins.

It was Cricks knowledge as a physicist that enabled him to solve themystery of DNAs structure. This was done using X-ray crystallography,which continues to be extremely useful in determining the structureof proteins. Today, new techniques from physics are being used tounderstand yet more about the structure and function of biologicalmolecules, and this understanding is used to create drugs and othertreatments for diseases.

What physics does it rely on? X-ray diffraction

Nuclear physics

ImpactThe discovery of the structure of DNA led to the development ofthe field of molecular biology, in which physicists, chemists and

biologists work together to understand the basic processes of life. Thisunderstanding has led to many advances in the treatment of disease.

DNA sequencing also enabled the development of DNA fingerprinting,which has had a huge impact in solving crime. The UK National DNADatabase now contains over six million samples and is growing by30,000 per month. As of December 2012, there have been 428,097crimes matched against the database.

According to the UK Medical Research Council, the industry based ongenomics including gene-based services, diagnosis and potentialdrugs is worth 3.5 bn a year. In the US, it has been estimated thatspending $2 bn on research in this area over the next decade couldgenerate a return of between four and 30 times that investment.

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1980Frederick Sangerand Walter Gilbertreceive the NobelPrize in Chemistry forDNA sequencing.

1985Sir Alec Jeffreysat the University ofLeicester invents DNAfingerprinting.

1987AppliedBiosystems markets thefirst automated DNAsequencing machine.

1990Gene therapyfirst carried out.

Applications

DNA sequencingIn the 1970s, US theoretical particle physicists Walter Gilbert and Allan

Maxam developed a method for reading or sequencing the bases of DNA,which involved the use of radioactive markers to label sections of DNA. In1977 Frederick Sanger simultaneously developed a similar method,which led to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1980. The Sanger methodhas since been adapted and automated, and it was this technique thatwas used to sequence the entire human genome, along those of morethan 180 other organisms. Knowledge of the DNA sequences of genesis crucial to the development of modern drugs and vaccines.

DNA sequencing also led to the development of DNA fingerprinting,which was developed in 1985 by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University ofLeicester. By analysing the patterns of certain sections of DNA thatvary from individual to individual it is possible to create a fingerprintthat is unique to each person. This technique has revolutionised crimedetection across the world.

ProteomicsJust as X-ray crystallography revealed the structure of DNA, the sametechnique is also invaluable in studying the structure of the proteinsthat genes encode. New and powerful machines are now available todo this work. For example, the Diamond Light Source in Oxfordshire,which opened in 2007, is a powerful synchrotron that accelerateselectrons to nearly the speed of light, and in so doing producesincredibly bright beams of light, including X-rays. These can be usedto provide exceptionally detailed information about the structure ofproteins. The Diamond Light Source has recently enabled scientiststo produce a synthetic vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease. Thistechnique could be used to produce safer and more transportablevaccines for many other diseases in the future.

According to the UK Medical Research Council, theindustry based on genomics including gene-basedservices, diagnosis and potential drugs is worth3.5 bn a year.

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1994Americancomputer scientistLeonard Adlemanproposes the DNAcomputer.

1994Affymetrixproduces the firstDNA microarray,using semiconductormanufacturingtechniques.

1997Dolly thesheep is the firstcloned mammal.

2000Human genomeproject is completed.

Alongside these X-ray studies, physicists also use a technique knownas neutron scattering, which uses beams of subatomic particles.Additionally, nuclear magnetic resonance another technique basedon physics research is also used to study the structure of proteins

and other biological elements, and often all of these techniques arecombined along with genetic manipulation methods to understandbiological processes.

FutureNew, extremely powerful X-ray devices known as free-electron lasersare being developed that would not only show the structure of proteinsbut could also enable snapshots of molecular biological processes to

be recorded as they take place. This would allow even more detailedunderstanding of how the body works, providing yet more strategies fortreating disease.

New methods of DNA sequencing are being developed all the time, andit is now possible to produce DNA microarrays, which can sequencean entire genome in a single device no bigger than a postage stamp.Some of these methods involve physics such as the use of quantum

dot nanocrystals as fluorescent markers, instead of conventional dyes.

The inspiration also works in the other direction, from biology tophysics, as physicists begin to design nanoscale devices made of DNAthat are able to self assemble. These might be used for molecularsensing or intelligent drug delivery, for example. By using syntheticDNA to make nanoparticles known as DNAsomes, researchers havedemonstrated a way of delivering a targeted dose of drugs or genesdirectly to the inside of cells; this method of drug delivery has thepotential to target particular kinds of cells, such as cancer cells.

By using synthetic DNA, researchers havedemonstrated a way of delivering a targeted dose ofdrugs or genes directly to the inside of cells with thepotential to target cancer cells.

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Physics and DNA

2007The UKDiamond Light Sourcestarts operation.

2012Early researchinto using DNAfor high-capacityinformation storage.

2013Synthetic vaccinefor foot-and-mouthdisease produced usingdata obtained from theDiamond Light Source.

Facts and figures

428,097crimesmatched against the UK NationalDNA Database

1daythe amount oftime taken to sequence a humangenome

180+

organisms have hadtheir genomes sequenced to date

3.5bnthe value ofthe global market in genomics,gene-based services, diagnosticsand potential drugs

10 trillionthe number of simultaneouscalculations that cubiccentimetre-sized DNA computercould theoretically perform

The inspiration alsoworks in the otherdirection, from

biology to physics,as physicists beginto design nanoscaledevices made of DNAthat are able to self

assemble. These mightbe used for molecularsensing or intelligentdrug delivery, forexample.

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Energy efficiencyPhysics is providing a multitude of ways toreduceenergy use, significantly reducing both costs andcarbon-dioxide emissions.

The scienceWhenever we use energy to lightor heat our homes, or to operateelectrical appliances some of

that energy is wasted. No processis 100% efficient but by makinguse of principles from physics,it is possible to increase energyefficiency considerably, and soreduce the amount of energythat is lost. For example, at least

95% of the electricity consumedby an incandescent light bulb is turned into heat. Light-emitting diode(LED) light bulbs, developed from modern condensed-matter physics,are 10 times more efficient and last much longer. When electricitypasses through wires, energy is lost as it encounters resistance. Butsome special materials, under the right conditions, are able to transmitelectricity with no resistance at all. These superconductors have thepotential to save considerable amounts of energy that is otherwise lost

as unwanted heat.

How do LEDs work?LEDs are made from electroluminescent crystals, which emit light when

an electric current is passed through them.

An LED is made of two layers one that has extra electrons and one

that has spare holes where electrons can sit. When a current passes

through the LED, the extra electrons travel to the holes, releasing a

photon a particle of light of a specific colour, depending on the

precise make-up of the material.

The first LEDs produced red light, but by adjusting the chemical

composition of the electroluminescent crystals it is now possible to

produce LEDs of many different colours. White light for LED light bulbs

may be obtained from a combination of red, green and blue LEDs.

Another more commonly used technique involves coating a blue LED

with phosphors, which convert the light into a broad spectrum of white

light suitable for both commercial and domestic lighting.


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Energy efficiency

1907H J Roundsof Marconi Labsdiscovers thephenomenonof electro-luminescence.

1911Dutchphysicist HeikeKamerlingh Onnesdiscovers thephenomenon ofsuperconductivity.

1927Russianscientist OlegVladimirovichLosev reports thecreation of thefirst LED.

1962NickHolonyak at theGeneral ElectricCompany reportsthe first practicalvisible spectrum(red) LED.

1968Monsantomass producered LEDs usinggallium arsenidephosphide.

What physics does it rely on? Opto-electronics Semiconductors Condensed-matter physics

Low temperature physics Materials science Thin films Plasma physics

ImpactEnergy efficiency plays a huge role in both reducing carbon-dioxideemissions and saving money for householders and businesses. Today,

20% of the worlds electricity is used for lighting, and this could bereduced to four per cent with optimal use of LED lighting. In the UK thiswould result in 40 million tonnes less carbon dioxide being emittedeach year a reduction of around eight per cent of total emissions.In the US, the switchover would result in financial savings of $30 bna year. Worldwide, the switchover to LEDs would enable the closure of560 major power plants and result in annual carbon-dioxide savingsequal to that emitted by all of the cars on the planet.

Other technologies have similarly impressive impacts. In Europe,carbon-dioxide emissions could be reduced by 85 million tonnes peryear 25% of the EUs current reduction target through the optimaluse of energy efficient glass, which is coated with a thin film to reduceheat loss. It has also been calculated that the EU could reduce carbon-dioxide emissions by a further 53 million tonnes if high-temperature

superconductors were developed for use in power plants.At the same time, sales of energy-efficient products are generatingsignificant income in this rapidly growing market. From 2010 to 2015,the global energy-efficient lighting market is projected to increase from$13.5 bn to $32.2 bn per year. General Electric estimates the potential

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1972M. GeorgeCraford invents thefirst yellow LEDand improves thebrightness of redLEDs by 10 times.

1986GeorgBednorz and K.Alex Mller observehigh-temperaturesuperconductivity inceramic materials.

1987Bednorz andMller win the NobelPrize in Physics forthe discovery ofhigh-temperaturesuperconductivity.

1993Shuji Nakamuraof Nichia Corporationdemonstrates the firsthigh-brightness blueLED based on galliumindium nitride.

worldwide market for superconducting generators in the next decade isworth $2030 bn. Another burgeoning market, phase-change materials,is expected to grow to $1.5 bn by 2015.

ApplicationsLED lightingLED light bulbs are now available to replace any standard householdbulb. They use around six times less electricity than an incandescentlight bulb, and 70% of the electricity of a compact fluorescent light(CFL) bulb. They can last for around 50,000 hours and have manyadvantages over CFLs they use less energy, contain no mercury,

have no vacuum, are more compact and can be controlled to producelight of any colour. They are particularly well suited to commercial andhospitality settings, where lights may be on almost continuously herethe payback time can be as short as one to three years.

They are also now widely used in car headlights, aircraft lighting andtraffic lights. If the UK were to replace all of its 25,000 traffic lights withLED bulbs it could save 50,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide and 16.7 m

each year. LEDs are also proving useful for lighting supermarket freezerdisplay cabinets, where they add less heat and perform better thanfluorescent lighting, as well as being more attractive to customers.

Power plants and transmission linesWhen electricity is generated in power stations with steam or gasturbines, at least 50%, and often as much as 70%, of the energy islost as heat; and then yet more is lost (3% to 10%) along the electrical

transmission and distribution lines to users. But, unlike copper wire,some materials are superconducting which means that they transmitelectricity with no resistance and no loss of heat. Superconductivityhad been thought to occur only at the very lowest of temperatures (lessthan minus 260C), but in the 1980s Nobel-prize winning research

Today, 20% of the worlds electricity is used for lighting,and this could be reduced to four per cent with optimaluse of LED lighting.

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Energy efficiency

1996NichiaCorporation producesthe first commerciallyavailable white LEDs.

2001Philips Lumiledsproduces the firstcommercially availablehigh-power white LEDlight bulbs for lighting.

2006Superconductingtransmission linesbegin supplying powerto 70,000 householdsin New York.

2010UK-basedConverteam install thefirst superconductinggenerator in ahydropower plantin Bavaria.

led to the discovery of so-called high-temperature superconductors(HTSs). These still operate at low temperatures, but now less thanminus 140C, which could, in the future, make them a feasiblesupplement to traditional copper wire. However, high material costs and

the cost of energy required to cool the superconducting transmissionlines means they have to date only been used in some cases to replaceshort lengths of underground high-voltage cables to an installation.

To transmit power for electricity over great distances, high-voltage DC(HVDC) power lines are currently one of the best available options.

These have lower power losses than conventional AC transmissionsystems due to their greater capacitance, and take up less space than

AC lines. Over long distances lower operating costs from reduced powerlosses makes HVDC an attractive option.

Energy-efficient windowsIt was first demonstrated in the 1970s that a thin film of metal oxidecould be deposited onto glass to make windows much more energyefficient. The technique used is called magnetron sputtering, whichwas first developed in plasma physics research. The windows have

been widely used in the last two decades, and their uptake is growingrapidly, especially for new-build, where they are required by buildingregulations. In the UK, low emissivity, high solar gain windows areable to reduce heat loss by as much as 40% compared to standarddouble glazing. They work by transmitting sunshine and visible light, butblocking infra-red frequencies (heat), so reducing the amount of heatleaving a room. Coatings are also available that are more suited to hot

climates to help keep homes cool in the summer.Heating and cooling materials

The heating and cooling of buildings accounts for one third of allcarbon-dioxide emissions globally. Phase-change materials (PCMs) area recent innovation that is helping to significantly reduce the amount

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2012Researchersat the University ofLeipzig claim to havediscovered a graphite-based material thatis superconductingat room temperatureand higher.

2012Cambridgephysicists develop atechnique for growingLEDs on silicon,reducing the cost ofmanufacture five-fold.

of energy needed. For example, a bioPCM gel being used in a newbuilding in the University of Seattle has reduced the amount of energyneeded to cool the building by 98%. UK-based Star Refrigeration isusing carbon dioxide as a PCM, because it changes from a liquid to

gas at a very low temperature, making it ideal for cooling computersin server farms. By piping carbon dioxide through heat exchangers, thecompany recently demonstrated that it could pull nearly twice as muchheat from the computers as the systems used at present. In 2009 themarket for PCMs was already worth $300 m. It is growing at a rapidpace and is set to reach $1.5 bn per year by 2015.

Future

Domestic appliancesAdvanced PCMs have the potential to help make appliances even moreenergy efficient. For example, it has been shown that PCMs can storethe waste heat produced by a dishwasher in one cycle for use in alater one. Such a process has been shown to make dishwashers 22%more efficient. PCMs could be used to improve the energy efficiency ofa wide range of domestic appliances, including dishwashers, washing

machines, fridges, freezers and ovens.

Smart dustSmart dust is a system of tiny microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)like sensors, each smaller than a snowflake, which can measure theirenvironment and report back on changes. This could include monitoringeven the smallest changes to big structures like bridges, or to monitorand automatically adjust lighting and temperature in buildings. Insteadof a single thermostat for a whole room, thousands of these tinydevices each less than a millimetre in size could gather informationfrom all over the building about where people are, how warm it is, howlight it is, and then use this information to control lighting and heatingin a smart way.

The heating and cooling of buildings accounts forone third of all carbon-dioxide emissions globally.Phase-change materials (PCMs) are a recentinnovation that is helping to significantly reduce theamount of energy needed.

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Energy efficiency

Facts and figures

36mthsthe timetaken historically for the efficiencyand light output of LEDs todouble

50,000hrsthelifetime of an LED light bulb

$265bnpredictedsavings if US moves rapidly toLED lighting by 2027

85mtonnes of carbondioxide could be saved each year 25% of the EU target through

the optimal use of low-emissivityglass by 2020

53mtonnes potentialreduction in carbon-dioxideemissions in the EU if high-temperature superconductors

were used in power plants

$30bnpotentialworldwide market forsuperconducting generators in the

next decade

$1.5bnpredictedmarket for phase changematerials in buildings by 2020

40mtonnes possiblereduction in annual carbon-dio

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