File 4_module d - Implementing Ffa 20 July 2011

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MODULE D

ODXP

PREVENTION & RECOVERY

WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME

Food Assistance for Assets (FFA) Manual

MODULE D: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FFA – THE PRACTICAL SIDE OF DOING FFA

This module provides some of the practical aspects of doing FFA in the main agro-climatic zones – especially in outlining the technical considerations and standards of the interventions. The “nuts and bolts” elements of doing FFA have to be considered, including defining work norms and ration/transfer composition. The intervention’s budget has to be planned, and non-food items and other complementarities need to be identified. A main element linked to Module D is Annex D-1 which includes quick technical references on main FFA interventions.

FFA Manual Module D: Implementing FFA

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FFA MANUAL:

Overall WFP uses approximately 12 to 15 percent of its yearly resources for assets restoration, rehabilitation

or creation under emergency, recovery and enabling development operations. Most countries receiving

food assistance increasingly promote policies and strategies requiring various forms of conditional transfers

(productive safety nets, special operations to improve access to food, disaster risk reduction, and resilience

building). It is therefore important for WFP staff (and its partners) to meet these challenges and emerging

demands. The purpose of this manual is to strengthen WFP staff understanding of the contexts that require

FFA, their selection and programmatic coherence to WFP global and local commitments, as well as main

design aspects.

The manual is divided into five modules and includes a number of Annexes:

Module A provides the overall rationale and framework for FFA within the WFP toolbox of assistance

Module B provides the analytical lens in which to determine if FFA is appropriate within specific

contexts

Module C helps define the specific FFA projects to be undertaken within these specific contexts,

depending on various factors

Module D provides the practical elements of implementing FFA

Module E provides the key elements that informs M&E for FFA

Caveats

. A limitation of this FFA manual is that it can not be fully comprehensive – the nature of FFA can be so

diverse that it would be impossible to capture all possible approaches and interventions. Therefore, this

guidance focuses largely on the response options and assets that are commonly related to WFP operations.

. A second limitation relates to the range of response options and FFA interventions related to pastoral and

urban settings. These are simply insufficient as documented experience regarding FFA from these areas has

been limited. However, there has been increased attention in several CO to both pastoral and urban

livelihoods in recent years that will bring further lessons and best practices. Furthermore, the current FFA

guidance is largely built upon documented evidence from a few countries where FFA have demonstrated

significant impact and have been documented both in terms of the processes that lead to positive results to

technical standards and work norms. It became clear to the authors that there are several other countries

with important experience (past or recent) that could not be taken into consideration or only marginally in

the drafting of these guidelines because of insufficient information. Another limitation is the level of

insufficient research information regarding FFA under different programme contexts and the often

anecdotal assumptions that tend to underplay the role and impacts of FFA (positive and negative).

. A final limitation is the lack of guidance on Food for Training (FFT) which is largely absent in these guidelines as cutting across all programme design components (school, feeding, HIVAIDS, nutrition, etc). In relation to FFA, these guidelines include FFT only in relation to the range of assets that would impact on disaster risk reduction and resilience building.

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Contents

D1. OVERVIEW VIII

D2. ESTABLISHING TECHNICAL STANDARDS FOR FFA INTERVENTIONS VIII

1 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 1: ARID/SEMI ARID LANDS 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Recognizing key biophysical and climatic features 1

1.3 The relevance of water harvesting 2

1.4 The technical strategies for FFA in dry lands 5

1.5 Pastoral and Agro-pastoral areas: role and type of FFA 19

1.5.1 Type of interventions 19

1.5.2 Technical aspects related to FFA in pastoral areas: 22

Useful references for pastoral areas 30

2 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 2: TROPICAL, SUB-TROPICAL, AND WET & MOIST

HIGHLANDS 31

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 Recognizing key biophysical and climatic features 31

2.3 FFA in tropical and sub-tropical areas: main focus 33

2.4 Sequence and integration of various FFA in tropical and sub-tropical areas 33

2.5 FFA design and technical strategies in tropical and sub-tropical areas 34

2.5.1 Steep and/or mountainous terrains: 35

2.5.2 Gently sloping terrains with flood plains 43

3 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 3: FFA IN FLOOD PRONE LANDS 47

3.1 Introduction 47

3.2 Countries or areas within countries highly or constantly affected by floods 47

3.3 Areas in countries recurrently flooded on a seasonal basis 47

3.4 Critical intervention within these contexts but do not include FFA 48

3.5 FFA main focus in flood prone areas 49

3.5.1 Flooding in tropical and subtropical areas 50

3.5.2 Flooding in dry zones and valley flooding in mountainous areas 50

3.6 FFA design and technical strategies in flood prone areas 52

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3.7 Other contexts 57

4 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 4: COMMUNITY AND MARKET INFRASTRUCTURE 58

4.1 Introduction 58

4.2 Main FFA 58

4.2.1 Feeder Roads 59

Useful References 61

4.2.2 Footpaths and Tracks 63


4.2.3 Social and market infrastructure (excluding feeder roads) 63


5 OTHERS FFA INTERVENTIONS (COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES) 65

5.1 Gully control measures 65

Useful references: 65

5.2 Cereal banks 67


5.3 Construction of fuel efficient stoves 67


5.4 Fish Farming and aquaculture 68


5.5 Removal of silt, mud and debris 70

5.5.1 The removal of silt from water reservoirs such as ponds 70

5.5.2 Clearing canals and drainage lines after shocks 70

5.5.3 The removal of debris following an earthquake 71

5.6 Stone collection and stone shaping 72

5.7 FFA for skills enhancement (Food/Cash-for-Training) 73

6 FFA ACTIVITIES THAT BENEFIT WOMEN (AND OTHER VULNERABLE HOUSEHOLDS) 75

6.1 Homestead level productivity intensification activities 75

6.2 WFP assisted nurseries (‘Green Factories’) 75

Useful references 76

6.3 Income Generating Activities 76


6.4 Other FFA activities that benefit women 77

6.5 Timing of FFA intervention 78

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6.6 FLA’s and women’s rights to the productive assets they create 78

6.7 Cross cutting aspects 78


6.8 Examples of innovative ideas linking gender and FFA 79

6.8.1 Celebratory Birth Trees 79

6.8.2 Take-Home Solar ‘Light’ Ration 79

6.8.3 Fuel Efficient Stoves and a Take Home ‘Green’ Ration 80

6.8.4 Eco-tourism 80


7 WORK NORMS 81

7.1 Developing work norms 81

7.1.1 Useful references 83

7.2 The relevance of gender issues in work norms development 83

7.2.1 Useful references 84

8 FOOD RATIONS – TRANSFERS COMPOSITION 85

8.1 Food rations 86

8.1.1 Major factors in defining FFW rations: 87

8.1.2 Food incentives for service providers 87

8.2 Cash and vouchers: transfers value and cost efficiency 88

9 BUDGET PLANNING 91

9.1 Budget plan for FFA interventions and/or proposals 91

9.2 Non Food Items 94

9.2.1 Tools, construction materials and equipment 94

9.2.2 Items for technical surveys, planning, and M&E 95

10 COMPLEMENTARITY 99

11 CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR FFA 105

11.1 General considerations 105

11.2 Capacity Development for FFA: skills sets and main elements 106

11.3 Awareness creation on FFA at CO and partners’ level 108

11.4 Training on FFA planning, design and implementation 108

11.5 Experience sharing on FFA: lessons from the field 109

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11.6 Capacity development for institutional building 110

11.7 Linking successful projects to national research and academia 113

11.8 Learning from past unyielding efforts 113

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MODULE D: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FFA – THE PRACTICAL SIDE OF DOING FFA

FFA Manual Module D (2011): version 1. This module was published and made electronically available in July 2011. Where relevant, this module supersedes previous guidance on FFA interventions. Please inform ODXP’s Prevention and Recovery team if you identify outdated information that causes confusion with the information presented here. Any updates to Module D will be outlined below (and include page numbers) to allow FFA practitioners with an older version to identify where changes have occurred:

No changes as yet.

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D1. OVERVIEW Learning from experience: A number of context specific FFA interventions are provided below. They

emanate from field experience and documented evidence of FFA interventions from a variety of Country

Offices. Many of these interventions have been designed and developed together with and often by

government ministries and departments that closely work with WFP staff in FFA programmes. Others are

based on the technical work from sister UN agencies such as FAO and ILO, technical cooperation agencies

like GIZ – formerly GTZ (German Technical Cooperation) and NGOs. Finally, several FFA are also inspired by a

number of households’ creative solutions and modifications to original designs of specific interventions.

Many degraded landscapes can be rehabilitated: These FFA interventions illustrate the possibility to tap on

the often enormous potential that fragile, shock prone and environmentally degraded livelihood systems still

harbour in spite of their current situation of food insecurity. FFA can defeat hunger at the source. By all

means the menu of possible FFA interventions is neither exhaustive nor prescriptive for any given broad

context. Each FFA should be reviewed and eventually modified to suit local conditions.

FROM PLANNING TO DOING The description of a range of context specific FFA has the following main purposes:

(i) Familiarize WFP staff at all levels with a number of aspects related to FFA selection, design,

implementation and integration requirements: It also provides WFP field staff with a better

understanding on how complex specific contexts are which in turn requires the selection of capable

partners for planning and implementation of FFA.

(ii) Provide WFP Cooperating and Implementing Partners (IP) with information on FFA experience and best

practices: This is often necessary for partners that do not have consolidated experience in FFA but have

the capacity to develop approaches and build these capacities over time.

(iii) Build complementary partnerships: this section helps understanding how important are the

complementary measures that other partners (e.g. FAO, GIZ, NGOs, Governments) can offer to make

those FFA more sustainable and effective.

(iv) Share experience and knowledge: the document, including Annexes and links, has a wealth of

information ready to share for testing and/or wider dissemination. It will be enriched with additional

information and best practices as FFA experience builds up.

D2. ESTABLISHING TECHNICAL STANDARDS FOR FFA INTERVENTIONS

The sections are developed to provide a:

(i) Broad description of FFA based on key agro-ecological context and how these influences the choice and

design of measures;

(ii) A description of possible FFA interventions and how they complement other interventions from

partners, government, communities and households;

(iii) A description of work norm elements, technical references, planning aspects and crosscutting issues

such as gender.

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A number of the FFA described under the agrarian and pastoral contexts also apply in peri-urban contexts.

Main contexts: For practical purposes FFA interventions potentially suitable in agrarian and pastoral

contexts are described based on two main ecosystems and two sub-systems as follows1:

I. Semi-arid and arid zones (Sahel, parts of temperate and continental areas, etc)

II. Tropical and sub-tropical zones

III. Flood prone environments (as a specific subset of the first two)

IV. Cross-cutting assets such as rural roads and social assets building

Note: FFA interventions are broadly described for agrarian, pastoral and, where applicable, references to

urban settings are made. The range of FFA possible in urban contexts, however, is limited to labour-based

interventions following rapid onset disasters (e.g. clearing of debris, canals, etc, as well as to specific skills

enhancement through Food-for-Training) that may be possible to consider. Regarding the description of FFA

strategies and activities for pastoral areas, they are included in the arid and semi-arid zones section as

pastoral livelihood systems are largely confined in dry areas. There are exceptions (cold continental areas

and some high mountain ranges) which require very context specific approaches which are beyond these

guidelines to explore.

Other detail guidelines are provided as links in the different sections and field staff is strongly encouraged to

use some of these extensively as integrated within a comprehensive planning and implementation approach.

Furthermore, Annex D-1 includes a number of technical information as 1-pagers or INFOTECHS for a range

of assets which are commonly implemented in WFP operations. These are practical handouts for

implementing partners and extension workers to use during design and implementation stages.

The following figure summarizes the main building blocks of FFA programming and

the technical areas that relate to the broad ecosystems mentioned above.

1 Since it is impossible to capture all possible range of FFA and their technical variations for the many different country

agro-ecological contexts, this guidance provides only major building blocks regarding the main agro-ecological or

ecosystems systems where FFA can be relevant, largely from existing practice and experience. The classifications used

(arid, semi-arid, subtropical, etc) are broad and approximate for practical reasons. Further documentation and reading

need to be context specific and researched locally at Country Office level, through partners and field work. However,

the guidance provided in this manual offers concrete examples of FFA activities, visuals, designs, implementation

sequences and references that field staff may find useful and of practical use.

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/communications/wfp237790.pdf

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Summary of Module D: Technical Design Basic Requirements (with links and examples)

MODULE E

Arid and semi-arid

Tropical and sub-tropical

Flood prone areas

Community Infrastructure

Others (Complementary

FFA)

Design Tools FFA that benefit Women

Work Norms

Food Rations & Transfers

Budget Planning

Complementary

interventions

Capacity development

Annex D-1 Info-techs

Technical Module 1

Technical Module 2

Technical Module 3

Technical Module 4

Technical Module 5

MODULE A

MODULE B

MODULE C

MODULE D In which context are you? Click the box (es)

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS

CONTEXT ANALYSIS

RESPONSE OPTIONS AND PARTICIPATORY PLANNING

DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING FFA

MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF FFA


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1 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 1: ARID/SEMI ARID LANDS

1.1 Introduction

This module describes the key biophysical features that influence the choice of specific FFA interventions and their design in arid and semi-arid lands. These elements are closely linked to the main livelihoods predominantly found in these areas, i.e. settled agriculture, agro-pastoral and pastoral and described in

Module B. The relevance of water harvesting is therefore at the centre of many of the possible FFA interventions. For several of the key measures suggested in the following sections, a number of more detail technical descriptions can be found in Annex D-1 of this guideline.

1.2 Recognizing key biophysical and climatic features

Rainfall:

In terms of rainfall, arid lands receive around 200-400mm/year and semi-arid between 400-600mm/year.

This latter range is nowadays modified upwards in many countries, i.e.700 mm instead of 600mm. In some

countries (India) the upper limit reaches 750mm. In Ethiopia this limit is even higher – around 900mm,

largely to acknowledge the effect of slopes on effective rainfall (often only 2/3 or half of the total rainfall is

useful for cropping as the rest is lost as runoff due to slopes and shallow soils). In arid and semi-arid areas

the rainy season is short in terms of duration, erratic in terms of distribution, is characterized by intensive

showers, and is subject to high annual rainfall variations (see Module B). Droughts or erratic rainfall over

time, amount and space (distribution) are common in semi-arid and arid areas and the highest perceived

reason for crop failure and food insecurity amongst settled agriculturalists and pastoralists.

Cropping seasons and effect of temperature and wind:

In terms of cropping seasons FAO describe “arid dry lands” with less than 75 days crop growing season and

areas with climates and “semi-arid dry lands” which have from 75 to 119 days growing season. This range

may vary in some countries depending on altitude of cropping and local classifications. Temperatures are

high during several months of the year, with typical diurnal variations ranging from 10 to 45° C. In many

situations, the fluctuations restrict the growth of plant species. High temperatures at the soil surface results

in rapid loss of soil moisture due to high levels of evaporation and evapo-transpiration.

Dry lands are also often windy, also because of limited or lack of vegetation. Hot dry winds have three

effects:

reduce the effectiveness of rainfall by evaporation from soil surface

increase evapo-transpiration from the leaf area of crops, increasing the risks of moisture stress

surface of stored waters (ponds, dams etc.) suffer from high evaporation loss (important when water

dams or storage systems are developed)

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp238105.pdf



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Biophysical conditions:

These areas are usually characterized by soils with low content of organic matter, soils with high proportion

of fine sands and loams, the tendency of soils to crust, low infiltration rates and high susceptibility to water

and wind erosion.

Local practices such as burning and grazing of most crop residues reduce the recycling of organic matter. The

biological life of the soil decreases, with termites replacing earthworms in hotter climates. Tunnelling and

turning over by termites is less efficient than with earthworms. Soils vary widely and are less homogeneous

than under moister climates. The rooting system is shallower and less widespread. Surface runoff is

therefore much greater, especially after late fires which destroy the vegetative cover before the early rains.

The soil coverage is reduced to a period of 4 to 6 months, leaving the soil exposed to high temperatures

(mineralization of the organic matter). The soil tends to become compacted and offers spatial

discontinuities: crust layers at the topsoil surface and a hard pan under the ploughed layer. Limited soil

moisture storage capacity further diminishes the biological activities of the soil and drop of the exchange

capacity for nutrients with crops.

Highlights from this section: Recognizing climatic and biophysical features help design measures able to

overcome or adapt to specific constraints. For example by encouraging plantations of trees supported by

runoff systems that increase moisture at the plant/tree level, harvesting and storing runoff water better for

crops, link up with complementary support measures with partners (e.g. drought resistant species), etc.

1.3 The relevance of water harvesting

Within the context of semi-arid and arid lands what has to be retained is the primary importance of

conserving and managing water and soils. It is increasingly clear throughout the degraded and semi-arid

areas and other similar contexts that the management of runoff and biomass at plot and sub-watershed

levels offer great returns in terms of grain (or fodder/pastures) production and better resilience against

lower rainfall rather than blue prints that advocate for extensive use of agricultural inputs (which may be

required but as one element of a broader approach) or the construction of large water reservoirs for

irrigation - interesting reading: http://www.john-libbey-eurotext.fr/fr/print/e-docs/00/03/82/D3/article.phtml).

In moisture deficit areas, water is a scarce and uncertain commodity. These areas are often those where

most farmers are poor, food insecure, exposed to droughts and cannot cope with the risk factors. In this

regard, households’ interest in improved technology is ensured only when there is a substantial increase and

maintenance of productivity. This explains why technologies applied in isolation in semi-arid and arid areas

often failed or have been rejected by farmers/land users.

In moisture deficit areas, improved land use, particularly of cultivated lands (including the productivity of

homesteads) is possible only if integrated efforts are undertaken, for which water harvesting and soil

conservation techniques are integral part of the overall improved land rehabilitation effort. It means that the

sustainability of activities undertaken for the cultivated land and homesteads, let alone their establishment

and expansion, is possible only if other areas (e.g. communal lands, steep slopes, gullies) are also protected

and improved, particularly for biomass production, tree growth and water development.

http://www.john-libbey-eurotext.fr/fr/print/e-docs/00/03/82/D3/article.phtml

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For example:

Multipurpose tree species planted around farm boundaries, reclaimed gullies, open fields and

homesteads can grow using specific water harvesting methods which often require runoff diverted from

other areas.

Specific income generation activities such as bee-keeping depend on the availability of both trees and

different flowering periods, and water harvested using a variety of methods.

Live fencing of farm boundaries close or far from homesteads would be possible only if nurseries can be

established, which in turn depend from availability of water – thus the need for larger watershed

rehabilitation which contributes to recharge springs, etc.

Vegetable gardening also linked to water supply, especially if ponds can be established or springs

developed, or rivers flow less intermittently by the means of integrated land rehabilitation efforts.

Marketing of produce is linked to infrastructure such as properly sustained feeder roads, which requires

integrated efforts for their stability and withstand heavy rainfall showers, etc.

These examples relate to opportunities for FFA to contribute to an overall resilience building effort that has

management of rainfall and runoff at the centre of the strategy for land and community infrastructure

rehabilitation. This does not mean that FFA will be used for all activities but for those that are typically

enabling and/or require a major group or collective effort for their implementation.

In principle, the following sequence should be considered:

First manage rainfall, and then

Manage runoff.

The presence of a good surface cover, which reduces soil splash, and the maximization of infiltration, which

reduces the volume and, hence, the velocity of surface runoff, are the main elements for erosion control.

Only when runoff is unavoidable and consistent that additional conservation measures will be needed.

In dry zones, this sequence is not always possible because of the absence of sufficient vegetation cover and

biomass – particularly in already degraded and food insecure areas. The sequence may even be reversed to

a certain extent. For instance, the water harvesting effect of most physical structures can stimulate

biomass production which can then be used for improving surface cover, soil structure and organic matter

content, hence, reduce splashing effect of raindrops.

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The main FFA interventions dry lands agrarian systems should focus on, includes:

i. Increase water availability and maximize moisture storage capacity for food, forage and tree crops, thus reducing the risks of drought occurrence.

ii. Conserve soil, increase soil infiltration capacity and improve soil fertility

iii. Preserve and augment biomass (fodder, food and tree crops related)

iv. Collect and store additional water for livestock and domestic uses

v. Develop irrigation schemes by collecting and storing runoff water and optimizing use of collected water – and divert safely excess runoff

vi. Enable farmers to adopt effective lean season strategies

vii. Stabilize stream banks and smoothen/regulate seasonal flooding

viii. Increase vegetative cover (trees, shrubs, grasses) in marginal and gully lands

ix. Protect irrigation schemes and major infrastructure (roads, villages, etc)

IMPORTANT NOTE:

The above strategies also largely apply to agro-pastoral areas, where a combination of farming activities

coexists with a number of households sending livestock to grazing areas during specific periods of the year.

More and more often, a number of pastoralist groups turn to cultivation of crops during specific periods of

the year, largely close to rivers where irrigation opportunities exist.

Highlights from this section: all possible means should be envisaged to combine, from the very beginning of

implementation, different biological and physical measures able to harness water. FFA should complement

and supplement other partners’ and community efforts to significantly reduce soil erosion, optimize use of

available rainfall and runoff, increase production levels and/or improve market infrastructure.

A number of runon-runoff systems described below and in technical guidelines (Annex D-1), FAO Guidelines,

specific line Ministries guidance, NGOs manuals, etc) that increase fodder production, for example, can also

reduce the need for long transhumance and search of pastures.

On the other hand, a number of techniques and approaches suggested below for the pastoralists can also

benefit agro-pastoralists and indirectly the farming communities living at the fringe of areas used by

pastoralists. For example, to avoid encroachment of animals into cultivated areas and possible disputes over

water use, etc.


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1.4 The technical strategies for FFA in dry lands

This section includes general features but also specific references to both agrarian and pastoral contexts for

those elements that are distinct

In semi-arid and arid areas, TWO MAIN STRATEGIES for soil and water conservation & management for

productive uses are envisaged.

Strategy 1

Where: In areas where precipitation is insufficient to meet crops water requirements (erratic rains frequent,

drought risks high, low rainfall, etc.) or in case crops having higher water requirements

What: FFA interventions to increase water availability, increase soil profile moisture storage capacity,

selection of drought tolerant crops, and safe disposal of excess runoff (if any)

Aim: Water harvesting and related fertility management strategies aim to manage water flows to enable the

growth of trees, fodder and food crops in most diverse and climate constrained conditions

Therefore the correct management of runoff is often the precondition to restore productivity and enable the

use of other inputs to improve agricultural productivity and improve the overall natural resources base.

Most of the measures described in this strategy use the "RAINFALL MULTIPLIER" effect, meaning measures

designed to include a run-off area (micro-catchment) serving or supplying additional water to a run-on area

(cultivated area). FAO for example has developed guidelines on WATER HARVESTING MEASURES - i.e. THE

COLLECTION OF RUNOFF WATER FOR PRODUCTIVE PURPOSES.

Figure 1: Water cycle (source IFAD)

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These measures, however, can also be found in soil and water conservation manuals, the main distinction

being on main focus (water and/or soil). For the purpose of these guidelines, of main relevance are the

different interventions that can be applied to rehabilitate degraded and food insecure areas by harnessing

soil, water, and vegetation.

Figure 2: FAO description of main water harvesting as rainfall multiplier systems

‘Water harvesting’ measures also include water reservoirs of different types (cisterns, ponds, dams, etc.)

that collect water from external micro or macro-catchments for irrigation or domestic and livestock uses.

‘Rainfall multiplier systems’ are those measures which are using internal or external catchments to supply

additional water to crops, grazing systems, and trees; or in storage systems for future use. At the same time,

these systems help controlling soil erosion.

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Rainfall multiplier systems are important in:

(1) Semi-arid areas

To introduce cash crops with high water requirements

To plant trees on marginal areas, steep slopes and shallow soils

To collect and store water for domestic and livestock uses

Main types of measures to be selected for FFA in semi-arid may include:

Stone faced soil bunds using small run-on/runoff systems (for high value crops)

Semi-permeable stone bunds or stone lines along the contours

Vegetative strips combined with physical structures or stone lines (require control grazing)

Trenches, eyebrow basins, half-moons, herring bones, improved pits

Gully control using soil sedimentation and overflow dams (in series)

Infiltration pits and ponds at break of slope to increase percolation and replenishment of water tables

Integrated dry land forestry and agro-forestry systems

Nursery establishment and seed multiplication of drought tolerant shrubs, grasses and legumes, fruit

trees, cash crops, etc

Development of irrigation schemes, water use optimization (low cost efficient systems), tie-ridging, and

drip irrigation

Homestead development with water harvesting systems such as microponds, underground cisterns,

spring development and overflow storage tanks, etc

Farm dams and water ponds for domestic and livestock uses (fenced, with windbreaks to reduce

evaporation) with design able to evacuate excess runoff

Ford crossing and feeder roads constructed with standards adapted to potentially unstable soils,

improved drainage and reinforcements at depression points

Watershed protection and area closure (+ enrichments using different conservation techniques) above

key community infrastructure and feeder roads (including check dams on small gullies)

(2) Arid areas

To convert marginal or abandoned lands into cultivated land for food crops

To convert marginal or abandoned lands into cultivated land for fodder crops or improved pastures

To establish wind breaks

To protect irrigation schemes

To collect water for domestic and livestock uses

Main type of measures to be selected in arid areas may include:

Most of the measures included in (1) above relevant. However, considering the erratic pattern of rainfall

in these areas and the increased likelihood of high powered rainstorms occurring in arid zones, there is a

need to calibrate the design of the different structures in a way that they will accommodate these peaks

(up to 200 mm/hour intensity) – that includes space between structures, spillway design, etc.

For most measures such as trenches, eyebrows, circular or trapezoidal bunds, etc. the ratio between

catchment area and the receiving area should be higher (more in the catchment area). These techniques

enables trees, fodder, staple or cash crops to grow only in one part of the total land available but to

grow in areas where nothing (or very little) previously grew.

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Examples of Strategy 1

1) Use of micro-catchments (runoff areas) and water collection structures (run-on areas) construction in

arid zones for tree planting

2) Steep slopes treated with stone bunds and continuous trenches and use of micro-catchments to direct

runoff into micro-ponds

Direction of water

flow from small

grassed micro-

catchments

Plate 2:

Micro-ponds collecting runoff water originated from stabilized slopes and micro-catchments. Please note the entire slope is treated with stone terraces and trenches (Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, PSNP)

Collection drain

Plate 1: Semi-circular basins for reforestation in Niger (Keita Project – FAO/ITA with WFP support for FFW activities)

Runoff areas

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3) Traditional water harvesting systems in the Sahel

4) Trenches and stone faced bunds in dry and bare sub-watersheds

Plate 4:

Trenches constructed on

hillsides and contour

stone bunds on lower

slopes – below detail of

trench with water (Niger

–Keita Project, FAO-ITA-

WFP)

Plate 3:

Traditional systems used in the

Sahel such as the Tassa or Zaï pits

exploits micro-catchments to

direct runoff into the pits to

maximize moisture content and

the use of animal dung.

Termites recycle organic matter

and crop residues after millet is

harvested, improving infiltration

and fertility

(Photo – source FAO)

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5) Slowing down runoff in river beds to refill water tables and allow irrigation using shallow wells

6) Rock catchments

Plate 5: A gabion and soil (laterite) percolation dam constructed across large river beds. Their function is to slow down runoff water and increase underground recharge for dry season cultivation by digging shallow wells downstream (Niger – Keita, FAO-ITA-WFP)

Direction of water flow

Infiltration zone – for shallow wells and cultivation during dry season

Plate 6: Rock catchment water scheme - a cemented dam collecting water in depression points (WFP-WV, Turkana, Kenya). A water collection system with pipes and taps is established downstream.

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7) Integrated approaches using water harvesting trenches

Plate 7: Above - Trenches on steep slopes collect runoff and protect the newly constructed feeder road as well as downstream orchards and crop fields (Ethiopia, S. Wollo zone, MOA-WFP, MERET) Below – Detail of a portion of the area before and after treatment (1 year)

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8) Stone faced and trenched bunds with semi-circular basins for tree planting

Plate 8:

Semi-circular structures and

stone faced bunds using

micro-catchments in semi-arid

area with degraded and

shallow soils (Kambata zone,

Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, MERET)

Note the water collected in

the micro-catchments

Plate 9:

The same semi-arid area,

approximately 9 years later

The area is fully managed by

the community for grass

collection and temporary

grazing

13

A note on tree planting and on other plant species – [this note applies to all Technical Modules 1-2-3]

WFP helps planting millions of trees every year – supporting many Governments, technical departments and

partners to promote forestry and agro-forestry in food insecure and degraded areas. Whilst a number of

water harvesting and soil conservation measures explain in this and other technical design modules will help

the growth of trees in difficult environments, the choice of tree and other shrubs species need to be

undertaken with great care and concern for possible negative effects on the environment and to other crops

in general.

This is especially true for alien species introduced without sufficient research and testing in new agro-

ecological systems. Some tree species have, for example, become invasive and disruptive of cultivated crops

in South Africa. Species such as the Prosopis sp introduced in the 80’s in some African countries has also

invaded ranges, cultivated lands and rural towns creating problems to local economies (e.g. parts of Kenya,

Somalia, etc).

Therefore any FFA support to forestry and agro-forestry efforts need to recognize these potential problems,

especially when some trees and other species are sometimes advocated for merits that have not yet proven

true. For example, a number of concerns exist around the introduction of Jatropha Curcas as a drought

resistant plant for bio fuel production and erosion control – in several countries evidence reveals that

jatropha not only has detrimental impacts on people and the environment, but that it also isn’t economically

viable’ (http://www.foeeurope.org/download/jatropha_FoEIreport_Jan2011.pdf).

The same may be true with other species considered excellent for nutrition, for conservation or animal feed

which may be performing well in one country or region and very poorly in others. Sometimes food habits are

huge barriers that need to be considered (for example young twigs, leaves and buds of Azadiracta sp or

Neem are eaten boiled in Myanmar and but not in Africa; Moringa sp is used as cabbage in Southern

Ethiopia but rarely elsewhere in the country, etc). Years ago Vetiver sp was pushed relentlessly as a

miraculous stabilizer grass and a most cost effective replacement of physical conservation structures by

several organizations.

These assumptions proved to be simplistic and detrimental both for the good place that Vetiver grass need

to occupy as one (of many) plants useful for stabilization and to the other structural measures that are

essential in many contexts where slopes and soils demand for well designed physical structures as enablers

to retain moisture and support plant growth.

Overall, testing and experimentation for innovative approaches should be encouraged and FFA may support

these efforts (including through training) – however with caution, and relying on competent partners for

advice and technical support when required (e.g. FAO, GIZ, etc).

It must be noted that there are already a wealth of existing species, most of them indigenous or introduced

long time ago, that are available and that should be reproduced in nurseries and planted. In this regard, the

degraded lands offer a wide range of opportunities for more integrated efforts, at plant and area level.

http://www.foeeurope.org/download/jatropha_FoEIreport_Jan2011.pdf

14


Useful references

1. http://www.fao.org/forestry/en/ - FAO main portal on forestry activities – a main source of information

and links regarding forestry

2. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf - the 2010 the FAO Global Forest Resources

Assessment – states that globally, around 13 million hectares (ha) of forests were converted to other uses

(including agriculture) or were lost through natural causes each year between 2000 and 2010.

3. Forestry and Agroforestry Development Interventions – Betru Nedessa, WFP - Haiti, 2010

4. Homestead Development Initiative and the Rehabilitation of Degraded Ecosystems in Haiti (Technical

Note for Training of Trainers - ToTs) – Betru Nedessa, WFP – Haiti, 2010

http://www.fao.org/forestry/en/

http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf




15

Strategy 2

Where: Where rainfall is sufficient to meet crop water requirements most years but is erratic in distribution

over time and space

What: FFA should support interventions focusing on maximum water retention, increase soil profile

moisture storage capacity and eventually evacuation or storage of excess water for subsequent use (if any)

Aim: Water harvesting and related fertility management strategies aim to manage water flows to enable the

growth of trees, fodder and food crops

This second strategy applies to most of the cultivated lands in semi-arid areas. Although climatic risks may be

high, farmers would not accept to leave part of their fields as a runoff area. The strategy would then focus

on measures able to capture rainfall and make the best use of it. That is, to:

increase and improve the storage capacity of the soil and infiltration (physical barriers, gully control,

biological stabilization, moisture and fertility management measures, dry land agro-forestry, infiltration

ponds and pits, etc)

introduce crop varieties that withstand gaps between rains (e.g. WFP providing seasonal conditional

transfers for Zai pits construction where new crop varieties by FAO or other partners are introduced and

planted),

prevent or reduce soil and water losses by runoff (water harvesting schemes, soil and stone bunds and

terraces, low-cost irrigation schemes, diversion schemes and storage of runoff water, etc)

reduce evaporation and plants loss of moisture (e.g. by mulching of crop residues, shading of micro-

ponds, specific intercropping, etc).

The main type of measures for FFA to be selected may include:

Same measures listed for Strategy 1 with the opportunity to increase fertility management measures

Run-on/Runoff systems possible for most land uses except for cultivated lands where most or all land is

cultivated (no need for much extra rainfall)

Useful Technical references

A number of Guidelines and Technical Notes are available through the following links below.

Some of these guidelines are semi-arid and arid zones specific (3 and partially 2) while others (1 and partially

2) also apply to tropical/sub-tropical degraded environments:

1. Community Based Participatory Watershed Development Guidelines – Ministry of Agriculture and

Rural Development, Ethiopia – Part 1 and Part 2; 2005

(Refer to Infotechs for technical specifications – pages 64-167)

2. Rainwater Harvesting and Management Technologies for arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya – Ministry of

Arid Lands and WFP, 2009



16


3. http://www.cilss.bf/IMG/pdf/etudesahelrapportNE.pdf - These guidelines present an interesting outlook

of different interventions and projects undertaken in the Sahel, including aspects of efficiency, costs and

perceived impact/benefits.

4. Tree nurseries establishment for multipurpose tree planting: this handbook from Kenya developed for

extension workers and farmers helps in guiding staff through the major steps required for the

establishment of a nursery. Major principles apply to all contexts and need to take into consideration

species selection, farmers’ preferences, market issues and seasonal requirements.

http://worldagroforestrycenter.net/sea/Publications/files/manual/MN0045-10.PDF

5. Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation Groundwater Recharge:

Retention, Reuse and Rainwater Storage

http://www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/finalversion_3R_book_0408.pdf

http://www.cilss.bf/IMG/pdf/etudesahelrapportNE.pdf



17

Examples of Strategy 2

1) Bench terraces and stabilization (semi-arid areas)

2) Bench terraces and tie-ridges (arid area)

3) Water pond and soil conservation + drought resistant crops

Plate 10: Stone faced bunds upgraded to bench terraces for maximum rainfall retention, and tree planting and bund stabilization with grasses in a semi-arid area (Southern Wollo, Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, MERET)

Plate 11: Tie-ridging used to harness water within terraces and maximize distribution (Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, MERET)

Plate 12: Cultivated land treated with soil bunds and water pond for domestic uses constructed to collect excess runoff from stabilized gullies – the area is also planted with drought resistant varieties of Sorghum (Oromia, Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, and MERET)

18


4) Contour bunds on steep slopes

5) Micro-pond used for small-scale supplementary irrigation

Annex D-1 provides a rapid description of a number of key technologies that field staff may find important

within the context of semi-arid and arid contexts.

However, a more detail description and technical specifications of these and other measures are also

available and included in various guidance notes and links provided in this PGM.

Plate 13: Soil bunds precisely constructed along contour lines (water collected above the bunds can be noted – this creates a percolation effect that moisturizes the entire area, particularly the first few meters above the

terrace (Hararghe, Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, MERET)

Plate 14: Micro-ponds constructed around homesteads (lined with plastic geo-membranes) collect runoff water from micro-catchments (from road sides, grassed or rocky areas) that can be used for horticulture after the rainy season or to supplement additional water to vegetable and cash crops during and after the main rainy season

(Eastern Tigray, Ethiopia, MOA-WFP, MERET)


19

1.5 Pastoral and Agro-pastoral areas: role and type of FFA

1.5.1 Type of interventions

The seasonal livelihood programming exercise (Module B) and specific planning tools such as the Drought

Management Cycle (DCM) are extremely important for pastoral areas as it provides an overall platform o

practically identify:

I. The overall set of possible programme response options during good, bad or typical years (not only

FFA but an entire range of interventions – many of which also highlighted in the DCM above);

II. What is realistically possible using FFA considering local and partners’ capacity;

III. The opportunities for joint planning and integrated efforts.

Table 1 below captures the key information sources and main response mechanisms suitable for pastoral

areas, largely emanating from the collection of best practices and experience in the Horn of Africa and

various parts of the Sahel. They are described in general but offer an important range of response options

which can include FFA interventions.

Table 1: Broad description of potential interventions and role of FFA in pastoral and

agro-pastoral areas

Description of main intervention

areas

Possible FFA Remarks

A) Pre-drought (or normal/good years)

1 Consultative and planning meetings with clan representatives and run seasonal programming exercises

a. Support regular training and workshops (e.g. cash for training)

. To be undertaken with clan, gvt and NGO representatives . Utilization of seasonal programming results as platforms for major district planning and partnered efforts

2 Organization of inter-clan meetings or workshops to prevent possible conflict, plans for utilization of specific ranges, access to water points, etc

a. Support conflict resolutions workshops (e.g. cash for training) for clan leaders and community members

. To be undertaken with clans, gvt and NGO representatives at regular intervals . Institutionalize regular meetings between different clans and Government representatives

3 Provide skills training in Early Warning, livestock diseases detection and certification, water harvesting techniques and mapping of ‘pastoral assets’, etc

a. FFA for skills and on-the-job training at different levels

. Requires qualified technical partners (e.g. FAO, specialized NGOs and Gvt departments)

4 Organize mapping of rangelands and other key assets (rivers, water points, drought reserves, ‘wet patches’, areas of inappropriate agricultural and bush encroachment, degraded lands, etc.) in each district

a. FFA for training and undertaking of main mapping exercises and reconnaissance surveys

. Requires support from specialized departments and/or NGO staff

5 Develop clan and sub-clan based community action plans for natural resources management and rangeland

a. FFA for training at community level b. FFA for planning work

. Partners’ efforts required to establish viable animal health systems

20



areas


improvement, including protection and enhancement of water points, livestock health improvement, etc

. Gvt improves livestock marketing policies and directives

6 Prepare contingency plans and establish contingency funds for drought preparedness

None . Contingency plans should include range of FFA that can be activated during shocks

7 Develop technical guidelines for pastoral regions, dissemination and training of pastoral leaders and selected community members, including women groups

Limited except for training in specific technical efforts

. Ensure skills training supports women groups remaining behind in settlements while men move with livestock

B) Alarm and drought phases

9 Drought Feeding – open drought reserves and establish supplementary feed fund to support drought feeding (concentrates/ bi-products)

a. Some labour based cut & carry and drying/storage of hay b. Molasses/grass mix preparation c. Transport of animal feed

. Requires pre-arrangements with riverine communities to provide grass . Alternatively requires that several areas are put to rest and open to grazing only during shocks . May require significant support for transport of grasses and bi-products

10 Emergency Animal Health – build capacity to scale up animal health system to respond to additional demands during drought

a. Limited/none except training and deployment of pastoral households with the task of large scale vaccination campaigns (use of cash or vouchers for providing such service)

. Requires adequate planning and production of vaccine + support measures to ensure outreach . Vaccinations need to take place before animals are distressed (early stages of alarm phase)

11 Commercial destocking and slaughter destocking – support livestock marketing system to absorb increased off-take

a. Limited/none except for specific training on improved drying meat and preservation methods b. Support to the construction of abattoirs

. Major arrangements for quality control and for organizing traders off-take required

12 Livestock redistribution and restocking a. Limited to specific FFA interventions related to improve animal feed through moisture conservation measures

. Build upon customary livestock redistribution systems

13 Labour based efforts around settlements and towns

a. De-siltation of water points, eradication or control of invaders, b. Other labour-based safety nets (context specific)

. Activities based on community plans and contingency plans . Requires that safety net programmes are in place and funded . Requires concomitant food assistance support to people unable to work

14 Collection of dyes and gums a. FFA to kick start collection . Need partnership to identify market outlets and traders . Quality control required

C) Post drought/shock recovery phases

15 Labour based safety nets integrated with skills training efforts (especially targeted to support drop outs)

a. FFA to build community or HH assets b. Skills training

. Specific opportunities linked to trade and provision of services – requires technical support

16 Establishment of nurseries for fodder multiplication and dry land agro-forestry, including fruit trees

a. FFA for nursery work, transport of seedlings b. Construction of runoff-runon

. Requires identification of suitable sites, provision of materials and adequate training

21


areas


systems for planting dry land species

. Can become important sources of income generation

17 Rehabilitation of irrigation schemes a. FFA for de-silting or constructing main canals, and flood control construction measures b. Diversion systems (spat irrigation, weirs construction etc)

. Technical support for design and water use essential . Major partnership for cropping methods and marketing (e.g. FAO, etc) required

18 Major investment targeted to women and poorest households around homestead areas

a. FFA for water harvesting systems b. Agro-forestry c. Skills training

. Focus around permanent settlements . Integrate these activities into productive safety net programmes

19 Reclamation of gully networks and marginal lands for water collection and fodder/food crops production

a. FFA for various labour intensive SSDams, sand dams, etc b. Runoff/runon systems in degraded areas for increased grass growth

. Technical training required – including major arrangements on use of such lands (community planning)

20 Development of trade and market centres for livestock and other pastoral land products

a. Limited role for FFA . High priority as complementary effort from partners

Note: This table is only indicative as several of the above listed interventions can also occur in other phases

or partially overlap. For most of these interventions a main aspect to consider is the need for robust

partnerships between Government stakeholders, communities and partners (NGOs, WFP, other UN

agencies, private sector, etc) on the ground.

22


1.5.2 Technical aspects related to FFA in pastoral areas:

Technical principles for most of the FFA measures are similar to those for agrarian but adapted to arid land

contexts and pastoral livelihood systems requirements. The following table 2 is an attempt to capture a

range of possible interventions that would require FFA. The table includes a brief description of the

intervention, its main purpose, and the complementary interventions required to maximize the FFA

activities.

This example shows how degraded lands have been developed:

Table 2 on the following page provides additional technical information regarding some of the FFA interventions considered earlier (a number of which also applicable in agrarian and agro-pastoralist settings). New techniques will require significant testing before scaling up.

Plate 14: Development of degraded and crusted rangelands in arid areas, using water run-on/runoff systems (Niger – FAO/WFP/ITA). Small stone bunds placed along the contours on a 1:8-10 ratio between runoff areas and the receiving (run-on) area protected by the stone bund.

23


Table 2: Technical information regarding some of the FFA interventions in arid and semi-arid areas

1. Water Harvesting for Productive uses (conservation based)

Type of interventions Target groups

Main advantages Limitations Complementarities Capacity building requirements

Environmental risks

. Runoff farming using conduits and micro and macro catchments (trapezoidal and circular bunds, soil and/or stone-faced structures with run-off plots, large half-moons, etc)

Individual HH and/or groups (5-20 av.)

. Can be implemented in arid areas (with rainfall as low as 250-300 mm) and support cropping of food, fodder and tree crops . Reduced risks and availability of fodder/residues for animal feed . New income and opportunities for poorest HHs and women . Resilience building and possibility to apply for carbon credits

. Need initial technical support . Need control grazing arrangements (not possible in some pastoral areas) . Not possible in highly transhumant systems unless solid arrangements made (no control)

. Improved cropping methods and drought resistant varieties . Hay making and cut &carry . Tree and cash crops planting along structures . Can be integrated with large scale catchment protection/reclamation

. High at initial stages . Technical support from sectors’ technicians (water experts, agriculture, forestry, livestock) . Training in runoff farming required

Medium-low (design and construction problems may generate cascade breakages)

. Soil & Sedimentation and overflow dams across large gully networks

. Individual HHs and groups

. Rehabilitation of large gullies for crops, horticulture and forestry . Replenishment of water tables . Multipurpose uses . Does not require construction materials . Resilience building and environmental protection

. Requires thorough supervision and trained staff at initial stages of the technology

. A variety of cash crops or fodder crops can grow . Can create new jobs as trained HHs can be hired to construct such structures for better off HHs . Environmental protection

. Training and supervision required

High-medium (can break if not properly designed and constructed)

. Runoff-runon systems for sylvi-pasture sites development (narrow stone lines or semi-permeable structures along ranges with minimum disturbance, stone faced bunds with 1:5-10 runoff ratio in extreme dry areas, combinations trenches-stone lines, etc)

Groups and community (with individual benefits output)

. Reclaims degraded ranges and environments using different measures based on slopes and soils . New income and opportunities for poorest HHs . Replenish water tables (especially trench systems) . Creation of dyes and gums/resins sanctuaries . Can empower large women groups . Possibility to apply for carbon credits

. Same as above . Nursery development or supply of planting material required . Adequate tools (e.g. crow bars, pick axes, etc) for difficult terrains . Can be complemented by infiltration pits and shallow wells along depression points / breaks of slope . Conditioning of planting pits required in very depleted soils

. Training of staff in rainfall x systems for arid land forestry . Provision of adequate tools . Establishment of nurseries or supply of seedlings . Training in seedling handling and site management

Low

24


1. Water Harvesting for Productive uses (conservation based)



Environmental risks

. Low cost micro-ponds (90-120 cubic meters)

Individual HHs and/or small groups (max 5)

. Can be implemented within or adjacent to homestead . Enable to prolong growing season of specific crops . Access to water for small livestock kept near homes . Can support most destitute HH and women HH . Resilience building

. Water usually sufficient for small plots and as supplementary irrigation . Cost per HH relatively high

. Small scale irrigation and cash crops production (non or less perishable crops) . Low-cost drip irrigation . Micro-enterprise development . Livestock fattening . Apiculture and bee-forage . Shading with mats required to reduce evaporation and malaria breeding . Fencing to avoid accidents

. High (technical support from water experts key) . Cement or plastic lining required (including skilled masons for cement) . Training on micro-ponds construction key

Low (small structures) except health related issues (unsafe drinking and possible malaria breeding)

. Stone lined extraction wells (water 5-10 m depth)

Individual HHs and/or small groups (max 5)

. Near homesteads or in specific reclaimed areas under catchment protection . Small scale irrigation (continuous) . Major asset for women HH and poorest HH

.Suitable in locations with close water table . May trigger conflict if not accessible to other HHs at times of water scarcity

. Benefits from integrated approach (e.g. above measures)

+ . same as above . Stones required for lining (cement lining expensive)

. Training Low (same as above)

. Irrigation schemes (creation of new schemes or rehabilitation of damaged ones)

Groups and community (with individual benefits output)

. Exploit potential sites along rivers . Can provide significant food security to ex-pastoralists . Can create food supply zones and provide fodder to pastoralists at times of drought . Resilience building and environmental protection

. Technically complex and demanding . Many potential areas are at high risk of floods . Some soils not suitable (prone to salinization)

. Agro-forestry sites development . Large scale fodder production and preservation enterprises development . Windbreaks . Low cost drip irrigation . Large scale apiculture . Cooperatives formation . etc

. Need significant technical support (water and irrigation experts) . Market analysis key . Training of communities and group formation (water users associations) required . Tenure aspects key

High without thorough technical appraisal and proper risk mitigation measures in place (e.g. flooding for sites located near major flooding prone areas/rivers)

25

2: Nursery development and arid land forestry development



Environmental risks

. Linked to the activities listed above – ideal for women HHs . Based on the establishment of individual and small group nurseries for multi-purpose tree, shrubs and cash crops species production . Potential to develop riverine areas

Individual HHs and/or small groups of HHs Highly suitable for women HH

. Increased IGA opportunities . Resilience building and environmental protection . Support from forestry dept.

. Availability of planting materials major obstacle for expansion

. Nursery tools and nursery management training . Fruit trees and other species seeds and planting materials handling (grafting, seeds scarification, soaking, pruning, etc) . Apiculture and small animal fattening from nursery residues . Compost making

. Training in nursery management, seeds and planting materials handling . Provision of tools . Training in other complementary activities

None

. Seed and planting materials collection of specific plants for dry lands forestry, aerial pasture, stabilization, etc


. Preservation of indigenous species . Environmental conservation

NA . Seed sorting and collection techniques . Green fencing . Seed preservation . Seed markets

. Training Low (care in handling thorny or toxic plants)

. Area enclosure – limited periods until growth is ensured

Same as above

. Environmental protection . Pasture availability . Possibility to apply for carbon credits

. Forms of control grazing required . Community level agreements needed first

. Tree planting using runoff systems (see above 1 and 2 sections) . Cut & carry systems and fodder production/reserves

. Training on fodder preservation and pasture enrichment

Low (fire)

. Dry and green fencing of individual portions of sylvi-pasture sites for groups & individual investment efforts using local species (euphorbia, sisal, etc)

Same as above

. Improved tenure and investment

. Same as above . Complement area closure or groups’ pasture areas under control grazing systems

. Handling of vegetative materials . Community planning

Low

26


3: Control and exploitation of invaders



Environmental risks

. Conservation based approach for controlling Prosopis juliflora . Pods collection and processing for animal feed (in mixes) . Pruning and selective charcoal making using prosopis

Individual HHs and/or small groups of HHs

. Income generation

. Control vs eradication of species

. Difficult to harness without proper tools

. Improvement of pastures

. Availability of animal feed

. Possible commercialization

. Training and provision of tools (hooks and machetes)

– medium (total removal may cause considerable soil erosion if large areas are cleared without protection measures)

4: Homestead Development



Environmental risks

. Dry land forestry (including fruit trees, dyes and gums trees and cash crops) using runoff systems around homesteads . Fodder belts (backyard plantations) . Multipurpose trenches for growth of fruit trees, fodder and valuable species . Zai and/or “Tassa” moisture and soil conservation systems . Multi-layered agro-forestry . Strip cropping in tie ridges for home gardens . Medicinal plants (Neem, Arthemisia, etc) . Fuel saving stoves enterprises


. Direct impact at HH level

. Reduced hardships

. Income generation and saving

. Direct control and easier management of rehabilitated areas . Can be demonstrated to many households . Empowers women . Can be done as a form of solidarity effort targeted to destitute able to manage assets (as opposed to establish assets)

. Need integrated approach not always possible in arid areas . Inter and intra household dynamics need to be addressed . Initial stages require considerable follow-up

. Complemented by water harvesting (e.g. micro-ponds, shallow wells, roof-water harvesting, drip irrigation, etc) . Compost making key . Training in food storage and preservation . Apiculture . Establishment of small selling points

. Training required as “basic packages” . In each community group formation and small group creation required (3-5 groups of 4-5 women or vulnerable HH each) . Training in basic saving, book keeping and micro-enterprise development (groups of women)

Low

27

5: Productive skills enhancement



Environmental risks

. Training of community members in Community Conversation (CC) for HIV/AIDS mainstreaming & anti-stigma and sensitization

. Small groups of HHs with minimum literacy Highly suitable for women

. Sustainability

. Livelihoods diversification

. Require specialized trainers . Cultural barriers in specific pastoral setting a possible major obstacle

. With social advancement skills, gender training, participatory planning approaches, etc

. Specialized staff and training

NA

. Training in Water Harvesting & Conservation skills in dry lands

Individual HHs and/or small groups of HHs

Same as above NA . Linked to all above activities . Same as above Medium-High (poor training may result in low quality standards for WH & SC activities resulting in damages)

. Training pastoralists in principles and modalities of range management, design, layout and construction of runoff/run-on systems

Groups of HHs

Same as above . Requires specialized IP

. Linked to all above activities . Same as above Medium (same as above)

. Rangeland mapping and community action planning with customary pastoral institutions

. Groups of households . Community

. Improved planning

. Assist in conflict resolution and resting of degraded pastures

. Same as above . Supports conflict resolution . Same as above None

. Training of women HH in gum arabic collection . Support replanting ac. Senegal and other gum producing trees

. Women HH . Income generation activities . Resilience building

. Same as above . IGAs and arid land forestry None

28


6: “Overhauling” of community assets for productive uses



Environmental risks

. De-siltation & deepening of existing pans . Application of clay blankets for seepage control . Construction of embankments protecting wells (water deflection) . Construction of silt traps before water ponds . Fencing of pan area . Small vegetable production area adjacent pans . Apiculture around pans . Fish production in deeper water pans

. Women groups and vulnerable HH groups

. Covert a communal assets into a multipurpose and groups managed assets . Resilience building . Environmental protection of water points . Limited contamination . IGAs

. Water pans far from settlements not suitable . Community agreements required

. Support from machinery

. Integrated water points management . In case of aquaculture need for fish nursery and fingerlings, provision of nets and materials, preservation techniques and follow-up

. Community awareness . Setting of bylaws

Low

7: Low tech/low risk measures (support to other assets) (*)



Environmental risks

. Stone collection for feeder road repairs or other structures

. Women groups and vulnerable HH groups

. Supplementary measures

. Limited impact at HH level

. Complementary to several activities (roads, WH, etc)

. NA NA

. Stone shaping and/or brick making . Vulnerable groups

. IGA . Specific tools required

. Same as above . NA NA

. Manure collection for Farm Yard Manure (FYM) applications and/or compost making

. Same as above

. Complementary to zai pits . Can become an entrepreneurship, i.e. compost makers as service providers

. Cultural barriers . Organic farming in marginal areas . Reclamation of crusted soils using zai, tassa, etc . Homestead dev.

. NA NA

. Manuring of planting pits (forestry in degraded areas)

. Same as above

. Support forestry and IGAs at homestead level

. Same as above . Same as above . NA NA

. Others (list by 1Q of 2008) - - - - - -

29

The following are some visuals of the FFA activities described above:

Plate 15: Semi-circular bund constructed in Chumvi Yare, Isiolo district of Kenya (2010).

Plate 16: Rock catchment water harvesting scheme (GoK/WFP/WVI, Kenya)

Plate 17: Manyatta (homesteads) agro-forestry intensification plan. This figure includes trenches and eyebrows for fruit and other multipurpose trees, compost pits, zero grazing for dairy purposes and backyard fodder production.

30


Useful references for pastoral areas

1. The Horn of Africa Food Security Initiative (2007) – Country Reports on Multi-Stakeholders Consultations

(Ethiopia, Djibouti, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, and Eritrea; Summary Report English version; Summary

Report French version.

A number of these reports include relevant measures for pastoral (but also agrarian) livelihood systems.

Field staff are strongly encouraged to read excerpts from these reports as they include semi-detail

explanations on specific initiatives for pastoral and agro-pastoral settings.

2-A. Rainwater Water Harvesting and Management Technologies for arid and semi-arid lands in Kenya

(Ministry of Arid Lands/WFP - Kenya, 2010)

These guidelines include a number of technical design aspects related to specific water harvesting measures

for dry zones. They are mostly suitable for agro-pastoral areas or around permanent pastoral settlements.

2-B. Rainwater Harvesting and Management Project Planning format in arid and semi arid lands of Kenya

(Ministry of Arid Lands/WFP - Kenya, 2010). This planning manual completes the guideline above and

provides the tools necessary to complete a landscape based community plan.

3. Pastoralist Livelihoods Initiative (PLI) Enabling Afar & Borana Livelihood Efforts, (ENABLE) Project (2008)

The PLI main objectives were: (1) to improve the resilience of Borana and Afar’s pastoralist households to

predictable emergencies, and (2) to strengthen the local capacity of systems and partnerships among

government and local/traditional institutions promoting the resilience of pastoralist livelihoods. The

document offers a wide spectrum of possible interventions, many of which require complementary efforts.

4. Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation: Groundwater Recharge,

Retention, Reuse and Rainwater storage – Guideline - RAIN (2011)


5. The Pastoral Livelihood Initiative (PLI) - Improving drought response in pastoral areas of Ethiopia Somali

and Afar Regions and Borena Zone of Oromiya Region (ODI – 2008)

(http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/1382.pdf)

The report summarizes the overall experience of the PLI and how it complements other programmes in

pastoral regions of Ethiopia.

6. Recherche sur les strategies d'adaptation des groupes pasteurs de la région de Diffa, Niger oriental – IIED

(2009). http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02725.pdf. Is an excellent report on pastoral strategies, the mapping of

transhumance routes, and outlining a set of response options.

7. Annex D-1, Rapid technical reference & toolkit for FFA

A number of techniques summarized in Annex D-1 are suitable for dry lands and pastoral/agro-pastoral areas

– particularly runoff/runon systems for agroforestry and fodder production, water harvesting, etc.

8. Managing Dryland Resources – A manual for Eastern and Southern Africa (IIRR – 2002)

http://www.preventionweb.net/files/7981_DrylandResourcesbk.pdf
















http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/1382.pdf

http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02725.pdf


http://www.preventionweb.net/files/7981_DrylandResourcesbk.pdf

31

2 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 2: TROPICAL, SUB-TROPICAL, AND WET & MOIST

HIGHLANDS

2.1 Introduction

A number of countries or parts of countries with sub-tropical and generally high rainfall climate may require

food assistance through FFA – for example countries or regions as follows:

1. Countries with a significant past history of land degradation caused by conflict, high population

rates, and with a significant proportion of mountainous or hilly and degraded topography. For

example Rwanda, Burundi, Eastern DRC, Nepal, Madagascar, Peru, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ethiopian

higher portion of the highlands, Haiti, etc.

2. Some of the countries with the above characteristics with the aggravating factor of being affected by

cyclones or hurricanes (e.g. Haiti, Madagascar, etc)

3. Countries or parts of countries with both wet and dry seasons and one or more of the characteristics

mentioned in 1-2.

With regards to livelihoods, increased population rates and fragmentation of landholdings push farmers to

diversify incomes by selling timber, make charcoal and sometimes hunting wildlife. Increasingly smaller farm

plots are insufficient to provide all year round produce and income, pushing farmers to encroach steeper

slopes or areas unsuitable for cultivation. Landslides are also common in tropical and sub-tropical areas. The

deforestation problems that occur along the entire mountain ranges are not only a major risk to local

livelihoods but also bear potentially dire consequences to the downstream populations.

A major point worth noting is that hunger and the deterioration of food security are less evident in some of

these environments, where the association “green and high rainfall areas” and hunger is not usually made. It

is also true that compared to arid and semi-arid zones, in tropical and subtropical areas there is a greater

coexistence of people who make a decent or good living and many others who do not – therefore concealing

these problems.

Finally, the loss of precious biodiversity in these contexts is a major collective concern as tropical and

subtropical environments are often the major sanctuaries of biodiversity in the world. Many of these areas

are also the same areas where WFP is increasingly called upon to tackle food insecurity problems,

demonstrating that these systems are at high risk of destruction which could affect entire ecosystems in the

longer term.

2.2 Recognizing key biophysical and climatic features

In terms of cropping seasons

These areas are where agriculture production is usually higher (with the exception of high altitudes) and can

potentially recover much faster than semi-arid lands after a climatic shock. Crop production can be higher,

32


with the possibility of greater use of irrigation, double cropping, and improved crop varieties. Aspects to

consider will relate to cropping practices such as plough or hoe cultures, the relevance of livestock (e.g.

oxen) in cropping, main cropping patterns (single, double or mixed cropping systems), fertility management

practices, pests and diseases, etc.

In terms of biophysical conditions

These areas are usually characterized by higher content of organic matter when well vegetated – soils have

usually better infiltration capacity, are much deeper and higher moisture holding capacity. However, warm

temperatures, high rainfall and type of soils (e.g. red soils rich in iron) can lead to rapid acidification of these

soils when vegetation is removed and organic matter is depleted because of exploitative cultivation practices

(lack of crop residues management and limited or no manure or compost applications, continuous burning,

mono-cropping, etc.) .

In mountainous terrains erosion can become extremely serious as soils are deep and similarly can be the

ravines and gullies generated from poorly managed landscapes. Gullies can be 10 or more meters deep and

dissect fields in all directions, making rehabilitation a difficult and complex (as well as costly) exercise.

Take away: The rehabilitation of steep and mountainous degraded tropical environments requires intensive

vegetative support, well integrated from the start of projects with tree, shrubs and grass species. These

species need to be selected and planted based on the local agro-ecological system and people’s preferences.

In such environments physical barriers such as terraces and various soil or stone bunds may not be required

as vegetation strips can be more effective and cheaper.

However, physical measures (always integrated with biological and vegetative measures) may be also

required and of major relevance for the following main reasons:

i) Steep terrains (usually above 30% gradient) would usually require a combination of physical and

vegetative stabilization as vegetative strips, particularly at initial stages of establishment, are insufficient

to slowdown runoff and soil erosion.

ii) Areas with steep terrains and where control grazing is problematic, physical barriers are needed to

protect downstream productive fields and/or divert excess runoff.

iii) Areas where physical structures are required for the production of specific water-dependent crops such

as rice.

iv) Areas with steep and degraded slopes (showing high disparity of soils and soil depth, limited fertility, etc)

need to be treated with a combination of robust physical structures and trees/shrubs planting, and then

protected from livestock interference.

v) In any other area where farmers decide that specific gully control measures across valley bottoms or

protection dikes are required to reclaim degraded lands and protect cultivated fields, homesteads or

villages.

33

Problems of hunger and associated ecosystem degradation are deceitful in these areas as non degraded

parts of an area continue to produce sufficient crops. In reality these areas, once affected, are difficult to

return to a satisfactory level of production if at all, as many red soils tend to become acidic and

unproductive. Gullies tend to be very deep and floods capable to destroy centuries of investments in

floodplains management.

2.3 FFA in tropical and sub-tropical areas: main focus

Many of the principles identified for the semi-arid and arid areas apply in tropical and sub-tropical

environments (e.g. soil conservation, protection of infrastructure, integration, water and fertility

management, etc). However, a major focus has to be placed on:

I. Protection of existing vegetative cover:

Through the sound management of existing vegetation and/or through the reforestation or enrichment

plantation with multipurpose trees, shrubs and grasses/legume along conservation structures,

homesteads, crop fields, farm boundaries, gullies and degraded hillsides.

II. Management of water resources:

For example, through improved drainage, waterlogged areas and valley bottom reclamation, protection

and development of irrigation, water diversion for productive uses, water storage and utilization, etc.

III. Homestead productivity intensification:

Particularly for farmers that are landless or land poor but have the possibility to grow crops around their

homes, and/or manage/become land use sharers of rehabilitated or reclaimed areas.

IV. Ensure feeder roads are constructed with side drains and scour checks:

Additional water drains above road sides (sloping lands), culverts, and adequately covered with gravel or

stones as required.

The production of biomass and growth of vegetation is higher in tropical environments – however, degraded

and steep slopes in tropical and subtropical environments, especially those areas hit by cyclones, are difficult

to stabilize with trees without support structures. A combination of spot planting using specific structures

(e.g. eyebrow basins and trenches) and runoff diversion systems such as cut-off drains placed at mid-slope or

at the break of slopes may be considered.

2.4 Sequence and integration of various FFA in tropical and sub-tropical areas

A logical sequence of activities should be based on what problems need to be fixed. In most cases, however,

the following need to be retained:

(i) The need to manage excess runoff through cut-off drains and improved waterways or dikes in highly

degraded areas at high risk of tropical storms and cyclones.

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(ii) The need to manage excess rainfall in waterlogging prone areas through improving drainage,

establishment of graded systems, introduction of waterlogging tolerant crops and several other water

management measures.

(iii) The need to consider reforestation of homesteads and degraded areas often a priority to divert the need

to cut down forest areas and encroach steep slopes. The need to have significant planting material

available for reforestation and biological measures in general (seeds, cuttings, seedlings, etc), demands

that nurseries are established or expand their production of planting material.

(iv) Utilize irrigation potential as an integrated approach and not in isolation from the entire area

rehabilitation requirements.

(v) The need to ensure high standards of design, implementation and regular maintenance of feeder roads.

To the extent possible this activity need to be well integrated with other land management works.

IMPORTANT NOTE:

1) Since feeder roads are often a preferred WFP supported FFA intervention, it is key that sufficient

engineering and planning skills are in place before any rural feeder road is undertaken. In countries or

areas where WFP is engaged in significant feeder roads construction measures, sufficient M&E capacity

through partners or within WFP need to be ensured. Different guidelines and approaches for road

maintenance and management are indicated below.

2) All possible means should be envisaged to combine, from the very beginning of implementation, different

biological and physical measures able to complement and supplement each other effectively and thus

significantly reduce erosion and increase production levels. Overall, if watershed management is properly

planned together with communities, for instance by using participatory planning and robust technical

standards, the rehabilitation of these areas and increased production can happen much faster compared to

dry lands.

2.5 FFA design and technical strategies in tropical and sub-tropical areas

From a FFA and resilience building perspective the technical strategies need to acknowledge the

concomitance of abundant and often excessive rainfall and one or more of the negative factors that affect

food security. For example, severe erosion levels and deforested steep slopes, landslide prone areas,

increased population pressure and small plots (fragmentation), and episodes of conflicts between

communities (e.g. those located downstream – affected by floods – and those upstream which cause

damage due to poor management of slopes and cutting of vegetation/overgrazing).

As a result, FFA interventions may contribute to:

a. Improve water management and maximize moisture storage capacity for food, forage and tree crops,

thus reducing the risks of waterlogging during the rainy season and shortage of water during the lean

season (s).

b. Control soil erosion using vegetative methods and/or a combination of physical and biological measures

35

c. Ensure safe evacuation of excess runoff through improved drainage systems

d. Conserve soil, increase soil infiltration capacity and improve soil fertility

e. Preserve and augment biomass production (fodder, food and tree crops related)

f. Collect and store additional water for livestock and domestic uses

g. Develop irrigation schemes in areas where high value crops cultivation or multiple cropping is possible

h. Protect irrigation schemes and optimize use of water, particularly during the dry (lean) season2

i. Enable farmers to adopt effective lean season strategies

j. Protect forests and vegetation in fragile lands – alternatively, improvement of vegetation cover through

reforestation and vegetative stabilization measures

k. Support re-vegetate farm boundaries, homestead, road sides, stream banks and for increased

production of biomass, and recycling of part of the biomass to improve soil fertility levels

l. Establish nurseries and multiplication of planting materials (for crops, fodder, and trees)

m. Protect of valuable infrastructure such as roads, schools, health facilities and villages or dwellings

exposed to landslides, mudflows and flash floods

n. Ensure that feeder roads and related infrastructure are built/rehabilitated to withstand long rainy

season and rainstorms

o. Stabilize landslides and protect landslide prone areas with tree planting and stabilization measures

p. Stabilize active gullies and ravines with vegetative and/or biophysical measures

There are two main contexts to consider – namely (i) Steep terrains, and (ii) Gently sloping terrains with

flood plains. The following main technical strategies, discussed for each one of these two contexts, are not

exhaustive bit present some of the main ones possible within these contexts.

2.5.1 Steep and/or mountainous terrains:

Description: Mountainous and steep terrains which are often degraded, in high rainfall areas (tropics and

subtropics), with high population densities, severe or moderate deforestation and erosion, and frequent or

occasional landslides. FFA activities can include:

Plantation of steep slopes using direct planting or structures such as eyebrow basis and reinforced

trenches (e.g. on stony and shallow soils)

Semi-permeable stone bunds

Landslide protection measures on steeper slopes (inter-woven plugs and ravine head cut stabilization,

etc)

Cutoff drains and waterways combined with gully control measures or storage of collected runoff

Grass strips and hedgerows of multipurpose grass and legume shrubs along the contours or on graded

bunds and terraces

Re-modelling of deep soils (e.g. China loess plateau bench terraces, Rwanda terraces radicales, etc) for

bench terracing and cultivation of high value crops (e.g. rice, bananas, etc)

Homestead plantations using multi-storey agro-forestry systems, compost making, water cisterns, fuel

efficient stoves,

2 Subtropical environments can have an abundant rainy season followed by a relatively long dry spell or season,

particularly in specific mountainous environments

36


Nursery establishment for high valued fruit and timber/fodder trees growing and cash crops planting

material multiplication

Feeder roads of lower width (3-4 meters with side drainage) and constructed with sufficient number of

culverts and side drainage – to the extent possible feeder roads covered with gravel (e.g. laterite

materials) and stone slabs (in portions of the road most exposed to potential excess runoff, reinforced

stone shoulders on turns, etc)

Protection structures above roads prone to landslides (runoff breaks, gully plugs and check dams on

small gullies, vegetative belts, grids, etc)

Integrated gully control with the possibility to convert gully lands into highly productive units (using Soil

Sedimentation and Overflow dams, large gully check dams, re-vegetation, etc)

Water reservoirs, silt traps, fish ponds, irrigation schemes development and protection

37

Examples: FFA on steep slopes

(1) Agro-forestry systems on steep slopes (Burundi) (2) Community Forestry with Household Benefits

Plate 15: Soil bunds are visible in between small plots of cultivated fields. On upper parts of the hillside scattered trees protect patches of less stable ground (Burundi – WFP).

Plate 16: Small heaps of compost visible in lower parts of the fields.

Plate 17: Community forest managed using selective cutting and rotation (Chencha, Ethiopia, MOA/WFP, MERET). Fields and road infrastructure downstream are protected from heavy rains

38


(3) Deforested and cultivated steep slopes treated with terraces and vegetative stabilization (Haiti)

Plate 18: Photo on the left shows small stepped terracing on steep slopes stabilized with Napier grass (World Bank Project - Haiti) The photo below shows the stabilized terraces with dense plantation of grasses – worth noting the presence of scattered trees

Note: The main selection issue is to avoid that more unstable slopes are deforested and then terraced for cultivation. These measures need to be carefully planned and support reforestation or agro-forestry as a transition to reforestation

39

(4) Community forest rehabilitation on slopes and terraced fields downstream (5) Effective vegetative fences around homesteads

(6) Access roads in difficult escarpments

Plate 19: Mixed plantations and terraces (lower side of the watershed) after 20 years from integrated rehabilitation (Ethiopia, MOA/WFP, MERET)

Plate 20: Grevillea robusta trees, bananas, and fodder shrubs planted behind a thick fence of finger euphorbia (Burundi – traditional systems) – such systems can be replicated by supporting the multiplication of vegetative cuttings for the fence and those for fruit and multipurpose trees on nurseries (Alaba, Ethiopia, traditional fencing)

Cutoff drains and infiltration pits

road

trenches

Plate 21: Road protection systems – side drains and runoff control systems for major tree planting and stabilization build above constructed road in high rainfall areas (high/medium altitude) – (MERET, Amhara region of Ethiopia, MOA/WFP, MERET)

40


(7) Detail of paved road flooded by heavy rains (8) Nurseries as income generation for farmers and women

Plate 22: Left - road temporarily flooded but remaining functional and not damaged (Madagascar, WFP) Right – feeder road and paved waterway (dual function) in high rainfall and waterlogged prone areas – noticeable the entry point of the graded stone faced bunds (Ethiopia, MOA/WFP, MERET)

Plate 23: Picture above - project beneficiary trained in grafting of fruit trees and seasonally employed in seedling production (Alaba, Ethiopia, MOA/WFP, MERET). On the right photo see detail of grass strips along the contours along soil bunds. Fruit trees also planted in between grass strips.

41

(9) Water harvesting

Plate 24: Water pond (excavated) for domestic use and irrigation of a nursery – approx. 7000 m³

Plate 25: Micro-ponds (lined up with plastic membrane) for homestead horticulture

Plates 26 & 27: . Micro-ponds (small sized micro-pond for individual users, approx. 60 m³ (photo on left) . Larger micro-pond for group of households, approx. 500 m³ (photo on right) (Cemented ponds for horticulture purposes) (MOA/WFP, MERET, Ethiopia)

42


(10) Reclamation of gully lands

Plate 28: The rehabilitation and transformation of a gully land into productive units by building soil sedimentation and overflow dams (SSD) is possible across large gullies and in all agro-ecological conditions (MOA/WFP, MERET, Ethiopia)

Plate 29: Series of SSD dams in Myanmar (FAO) – a large gully network can be converted into series of production units for cultivation of rice or other crops (maize crops grow in the first plot recovered above the first structure)

43

2.5.2 Gently sloping terrains with flood plains

Description: Gentle sloping terrains mixed with flood plains in high rainfall areas, with tropical conditions,

significant forest cover but showing discontinuities, and low access to food during the rainy season – i.e. with

severe access to food problems caused by lack of social and market infrastructure, lack of planting materials

(e.g. post conflict areas). FFA activities can include:

Measures listed in 5.2.1 (steep and mountainous terrains) apply under these conditions, except for

landslides (which are rare in these contexts), and:

Prevent and put a stop to shifting cultivation (slash and burn)

Support to training on productivity intensification and low cost fertility enhancement measures

(mulching of crop residues, etc)

Restoration of overgrown coffee, cocoa or other cash crop plantations

Reclamation of swamplands for rice, horticulture or other cash crops cultivation

Reforestation of cleared spots and agro-forestry when full reforestation not possible

Rehabilitation of irrigation canals and irrigation schemes

Water reservoirs, fish ponds and aquaculture

Application of feeder road construction standards for tropical environments (high and continuous

rainfall)

Culverts construction, bridges, etc

Examples: FFA on gentle slopes terrains with flood plains

(1) Clearing of overgrown vegetation around coffee and cocoa plantations

(2) Reclamation of swamps and waterlogged valleys

Plate 30: Clearing of overgrown vegetation in old cocoa plantations after conflict in Sierra Leone provides income generation opportunities and rebuild livelihoods in war affected areas – a GTZ project promotes organic cocoa production

44


(2) Clearing of swampland for rehabilitation

(3) The need to work on prevention of fires and work on acceptable alternatives

Plate 32: Left photo: widespread use of slash & burn cultivation observed in Madagascar destroys remnants of natural forests. The soil remains exposed to rain showers, particularly after ploughing (severe erosion). Agreements with communities should include the removal of this practice and the protection of remaining forests while investing in reforestation or agro-forestry systems.

Main canal

Plate 31: A good example of swamp land rehabilitation for maize and wheat production in Rwanda (WFP-MINAGRI) – main canal and secondary canals built using FFW

45

Highlights from this section: the technical strategies in wet and moist areas are extremely diverse

depending on rainfall, soils and topography but largely apply to agrarian systems. Some of the most difficult

landscapes to rehabilitate in the world are included in these environments (e.g. Nepal, Rwanda, etc). Higher

rainfall usually implies greater opportunities to grow trees, increase vegetation cover, and accumulate water

for productive uses. Critical in these areas will be to stabilize community and market infrastructure,

particularly in unstable terrains, and integrate biological and physical structures immediately.

Useful Technical References

Annex D-1 provides a rapid description of a number of key technologies that field staff may find important

within the context of tropical and sub-tropical contexts.

However, a more detail description and technical specifications of these and other measures are also

available and included in various guidance notes and links provided in this PGM.

The guidelines and references below also offer a number of techniques relevant for FFA in tropical and

sub-tropical areas:

1. Community Based Participatory Watershed Guidelines – Part 1 (Ethiopia, MOARD – 2005, pages 81-91,

93-99,101-110, and others till page 165 context specific) – these guidelines apply to a wide range of

contexts and specific interventions are explained in semi-detail as “Infotechs”

2. Annex D-1: Rapid technical reference & toolkit for FFA - A number of techniques summarized in Annex

D-1 are suitable for sub-tropical/tropical areas – particularly soil and water conservation and safe

disposal measures, agro-forestry and vegetative stabilization, and water harvesting, etc.

3. Rural Road Maintenance Management - (Cambodia, 1999) – a guideline that focuses on practical steps

for managing rural roads and ensuring their sustainability.

http://www.ruralworks.com/reports/maintenance/MaintenanceManual.pdf

4. Rural Roads Maintenance (ILO, 2007) – a manual that puts emphasis on the fact that rehabilitation of

rural roads as one of the key elements of improving access and thereby reducing poverty, is justified

only if equal attention is paid to the maintenance of these roads and, hence, the sustainability of

physical access.

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/setp/setp19.pdf

5. Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning in Nepal (ILO, 2005) – A manual that details detail planning for

rural roads construction and management – from community to district level.

http://www.ifrtd.org/new/issues/IRAP/Guidelines/Integrated%20Rural%20Accessibility%20Planning%2

0in%20Nepal.pdf

6. Nurseries and related references – this site provides a significant number of links related to the

establishment and management of tree nurseries and various references to a variety of planting

materials and growth requirements. http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD228E/AD228E07.htm





http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/setp/setp19.pdf

http://www.ifrtd.org/new/issues/IRAP/Guidelines/Integrated%20Rural%20Accessibility%20Planning%20in%20Nepal.pdf

http://www.ifrtd.org/new/issues/IRAP/Guidelines/Integrated%20Rural%20Accessibility%20Planning%20in%20Nepal.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD228E/AD228E07.htm

46


7. Tree nurseries establishment for multipurpose tree planting – this handbook from Kenya developed for

extension workers and farmers helps in guiding staff through the major steps required for the

establishment of a nursery. Major principles apply to all contexts and need to take into consideration

species selection, farmer’s preferences, market issues and seasonal requirements.



47

3 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 3: FFA in flood prone lands

3.1 Introduction

This section does not relate FFA to a single agro-ecological zone but across all zones which are prone or are

recurrently affected by flooding. In this regard, there are a number of technical considerations that concern

specific areas that need to be included in programme design and the selection and design of specific

activities.

3.2 Countries or areas within countries highly or constantly affected by floods

Most of these areas get flooded as they are geographically located downstream of major river basins which

fall largely outside the control of the country or regions to regulate. This becomes particularly dramatic

when most of the flooding depends from the concomitance of high powered tropical storms and/or cyclones

and the opening of dams upstream.

Key factors to consider would include the variations in terms of extent of flooding and the agro-ecological

features of the area most affected by the raising water. In Bangladesh for example, flooding occurs in about

20% of the country and may cover over 50-60% of the land every during bad years

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floods_in_Bangladesh). In Mozambique flooding is also a recurrent

phenomenon, depending on heavy rains and cyclones falling over the main river basins (e.g. Limpopo -

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Mozambique_flood) and the regulation of water of major dams in

Zimbabwe and/or South Africa. In addition to Early Warning and Preparedness work, FFA will need to focus

on flood protection measures and protection against tropical storms and cyclones.

3.3 Areas in countries recurrently flooded on a seasonal basis

Seasonally, or intermittently flooded areas, are those that experience these floods for 3 to 4 months a

year.

These areas can be found in both semi-arid and arid environments as well as tropical/sub-tropical areas.

1. Flooding in dry zones: in these areas, high intensity storms can generate floods over small or wide areas

as a result from the expanse of river beds. This phenomenon is critical for cropping on the valleys of many

parts of the Sahel (called also “epandage” in West Africa Sahelian countries) which takes advantage of the

moisture accumulated into the soil following the receding water.

However, many areas nowadays suffer from violent overflows resulting from destructive flooding which is

the reflection of deforestation and depletion of the vegetative cover on major upstream catchments.

Following high intensity rains, fast speed runoff drains into river beds that then flood cropped fields with

excessive force, damaging crops. In this case FFA will focus largely on the same measures indicated for the

dry lands – however, positive impact on reduction of destructive flooding requires large scale efforts which

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floods_in_Bangladesh

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Mozambique_flood

48


have rarely been pursued in the last 3 decades with the exception of parts of Niger, Burkina Faso and

Ethiopia, India, China and a few other countries as localized efforts.

2. Flooding in tropical and subtropical environments: these are areas where seasonal flooding occurs in

lowland areas affected by drainage problems, flood plains and where years of deforestation have increase

the level and duration of seasonal flooding. This results in difficult or no access to markets and social services

for weeks or months in specific areas and communities. In these areas poorest households reduce food

consumption, dietary diversity drops, human diseases and low access to health facilities increases and

unplanned seasonal outmigration adds considerable burden to families. Women and children are usually the

most affected and malnutrition rates spike during these periods. FFA will need to be linked to watershed

rehabilitation and improving access to food during periods of seasonal flooding.

3. Occasional flooding and twinning of droughts-floods: There are also countries or regions with in

countries that witness episodes of flooding only every few years but with increased frequency – due to a

combination of factors, largely to the slow degradation of ecosystems and the consequent increase of runoff

from less vegetated or deforested areas. There are also increasingly episodes of floods following prolonged

droughts – these are of limited duration but extremely destructive as bare large catchment areas can release

massive amount of runoff downstream into valleys and cultivated areas. Significant floods, for instance,

occur in parts of Northern Kenya, South-Eastern Ethiopia and Northern Uganda after long periods of dryness

followed by major rainfall downpours. In this particular case the type of interventions that need to be

undertaken in settled agricultural areas will need to be closely linked to those interventions occurring in

areas used by pastoralists.

3.4 Critical intervention within these contexts but do not include FFA

1. Early warning and preparedness measures (mapping of areas at risk and with a history of flooding, pre-

positioning of food stocks, identification of higher grounds or locations where people can gather and

wait for help, water and other essential items stock, training and awareness, provision of essential

equipment to civil protection authorities, partners or specific communities, etc).

2. Unconditional seasonal safety nets provided to poorest and asset-less households unable to work.

3. Major capacity development of government institutions and partners on Disaster Preparedness and

Management –ODEP http://epweb.wfp.org/ep2/hp/ and related links.

http://epweb.wfp.org/ep2/hp/

49

3.5 FFA main focus in flood prone areas

FFA in flood prone areas will focus on:

1. Disaster risk reduction efforts both aimed at mitigating the impact of the floods on livelihoods and to

limit its damages on key social and access to food infrastructure.

2. Supporting building of cyclone proof shelters and homes.

3. Support to upstream watershed rehabilitation (see previous sections) to prevent runoff formation.

4. Build feeder roads able to withstand periods of flooding or stand above flooding levels.

Sequence and integration of possible FFA interventions:

The type, number and coverage of interventions required to control widespread flooding is most of the time

beyond one single country and often more than one country capacity to plan, find adequate resources, and

implement.

Countries like Bangladesh have embarked into massive investments in the past that have attempted to

control flooding and mitigate the impact of floods – with mixed results. Overall, it is undeniable that the

amazing work done in past decades (and continuing to date) on dikes construction, the raising of ground

levels, and the construction of cyclone proof shelters has had tremendous positive impact on the local

population. However, much remains to be done and WFP contribution to support DRR interventions should

remain a major priority in places like Bangladesh and areas in other countries affected by similar problems.

In terms of sequence and integration there is a need to consider local contexts and determine why and from

where water comes from, who is affected and for how long, and what has already been done to tackle this

problem, on what scale and effectiveness.

In other areas intermittently affected by floods or where flooding is the manifestation and consequence of

the gradual deterioration of ecosystems, the range of measures will not be dissimilar from the ones

mentioned in Technical Modules 1 and 2.

50


Overall and depending from context one or more of the following need to be considered in programming

FFA:

3.5.1 Flooding in tropical and subtropical areas

1. Flood protection measures should be linked to flood risk management planning work that need to be

developed based on each country specific context of flood risks;

2. In countries where areas are predictably affected by floods due to cyclones, tropical storms and the

concomitant topographical conditions that cause flooding (flat terrains, etc) measures such as shelters

on higher grounds and more of flood protection measures such as dikes, raised grounds and reinforced

sections of river bends to avoid the erosion of river banks and clumping would be possible interventions

suitable for FFA.

3. The need to ensure adequate engineering capacity to build flood protection structures as a key

precondition – either from government or implementing partners (otherwise FFA not advisable).

4. The need to look at possible upstream watersheds treatment whenever it is possible to realistically

reduce flooding. Large scale watershed management would depend from the availability of major joint

rehabilitation programmes or productive safety nets with strong focus on DRR and adaptation to climate

change. WFP can become a major stakeholder in such programmes by contributing to reduce

vulnerability, offset seasonal hunger and provide the means for labour-based efforts of scale. This

assumes major resources and capacity in place for planning, implementation and M&E.

5. Consider the utilization of regulated flooding to improve irrigation potential (as an integrated approach),

and support the stabilization of embankments with vegetative material from nurseries and seed

multiplication centres employing most food insecure households (e.g. the ultra-poor in Bangladesh).

6. The need to ensure high standards of design, implementation and regular maintenance of flood-

resistant feeder roads or feeder roads to be raised above flooding levels.

3.5.2 Flooding in dry zones and valley flooding in mountainous areas

1. Same as point (4) above adapted to these contexts and;

2. The realization that control flooding in dry lands would require a combination of large scale efforts over

critical watershed areas to harness runoff using various water harvesting systems (largely activities

described in Technical Modules 1 and 2 above and Annex D-1).


51

Useful References

The following guidelines offer a number of relevant techniques in these contexts

1. ISDR (International Strategy for Disaster Management) guidelines on flood management – it includes

background information on various aspects of flood management – which are useful to position possible FFA

interventions as part of a wide set of preparedness, prevention and mitigation efforts.

http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/isdr-publication/flood-guidelines/Guidelines-for-reducing-floods-

losses.pdf

2. Community Based Participatory Watershed Guidelines (Ethiopia, MOARD – 2005)– these guidelines are

not specific to flood prone environments but some of the techniques described apply to a wide range of

contexts and can be relevant in flood prone areas with occasional seasonal flooding or intermittent flooding

such as in parts of the Sahel and Eastern Africa.

3. Rural Road Maintenance Management (Cambodia, 1999): A guideline that focuses on practical steps for

managing rural roads and ensuring their sustainability.


4. Roads in flooded environments – a number of experiences can be taken as reference. For instance flood

resistant roads supported by IFAD in Bangladesh, http://www.ifad.org/newsletter/pi/20.htm

5. Best Practice Guidelines for Integrated Flood Risk Management Planning and Impact Evaluation

(Cambodia – The Mekong River Commission Secretariat, 2009), - these guidelines describe detail steps

regarding community planning and impact evaluation in flood risk management.

http://www.mrcmekong.org/download/fmmp-reports/3B_BPG_IFRM_P&IE_21Dec09.pdf

6. Mangrove plantations and nurseries – this link provides information on how to raise mangrove seedlings

and key requirements.

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/restoration/pdfs/Mangrove_Nursery_manual_HR.pdf

http://www.preventionweb.net/files/13225_ISMEManualoncoastalforestrehabilita.pdf

7. Tree nurseries establishment for multipurpose tree planting – this handbook from Kenya developed for

extension workers and farmers helps in guiding staff through the major steps required for the establishment

of a nursery. Major principles apply to all contexts and need to take into consideration species selection,

farmers’ preferences, market issues and seasonal requirements.


8. Forestry and Agroforestry Development Interventions, Technical Note for Training of Trainers (ToT) -

Betru Nedessa – WFP Haiti, 2010

http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/isdr-publication/flood-guidelines/Guidelines-for-reducing-floods-losses.pdf

http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/isdr-publication/flood-guidelines/Guidelines-for-reducing-floods-losses.pdf



http://www.ifad.org/newsletter/pi/20.htm

http://www.mrcmekong.org/download/fmmp-reports/3B_BPG_IFRM_P&IE_21Dec09.pdf

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/restoration/pdfs/Mangrove_Nursery_manual_HR.pdf

http://www.preventionweb.net/files/13225_ISMEManualoncoastalforestrehabilita.pdf



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3.6 FFA design and technical strategies in flood prone areas

The following types of interventions are considered (excerpt from Best Practice Guidelines for Integrated

Flood Risk Management Planning and Impact Evaluation, Cambodia):

1. Structural measures aiming at the reduction of the flood hazard, i.e.:

Creation of storage and/or retention capacity, including small scale retention at field level

Reservoirs and river floodplain restoration

Improvement discharge capacity by river and/or diversion works

Dikes and/or polder schemes

2. Structural measures aiming at the reduction of the flood vulnerability, i.e.:

Flood proofing of buildings and infrastructure

3. Non structural measures aiming at the reduction of flood hazards, i.e.:

Watershed management

Forestation (e.g. mangrove plantations)

Unsealing

4. Non‐structural measures aiming at the reduction of the flood vulnerability, i.e.:

Land use control

Awareness raising

Flood forecasting

5. Disaster management measures aiming at the reduction of the damages once flooding is imminent, i.e.:

Early warning

Emergency planning

Temporary defences

The following focus on main flood proofing efforts where FFA activities may have a major support role as

part of major DRR and adaptation to climate hazards3 plans. Other complementary watershed rehabilitation

and management measures are explained in previous modules.

1. Flood resistant feeder roads

These can be divided into two types: The first can go underwater without being damaged and the

second type stay above peak flooding levels. The latter is common in areas affected by prolonged

flooding while the first type would be an appropriate solution for temporarily flooded zones. Raising

roads can be very demanding in terms of size of the embankment and excavation needs that take away

land from cultivation.

3 Recurrence of climate shocks is likely to increase in the longer term due to climate change effects. In a number of

countries where WFP operates, there is evidence of increased frequency of climate shocks in the last few decades.

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2. Raising of homesteads and of livestock paddocks

This activity need to be integrated with other flood protection measures such as flood protection

embankments or dikes.

3. Coastal line defences such as dikes, polders and tidal flood protection systems

To avoid the intrusion of saline water, etc. These measures require major engineering capacity and

resources to be in place. Such past efforts did not always bear expected results as communities have not

always been involved in these activities, and some of these schemes have hampered the natural flow of

“beneficial flooding” in some areas.

4. Coastal line plantations

To control tidal flooding and storm surges (i.e. mangroves).

5. Support to the construction of cyclone proofed houses and shelters

This effort will need specialized partners (e.g. UN HABITAT, specific NGOs, and Gvt specialists) and the

provision of adequate complementary resources and materials.

6. Stabilization of embankments using multipurpose fodder and tree species

Including seasonal stabilization of irrigation embankments and dikes with legume shrubs (e.g. pigeon

peas, species suitable for forage production to feed livestock during lean season, etc). This activity need

to build upon a wide range of embankment stabilization efforts undertaken in countries like India,

Indonesia, Philippines and Bangladesh, to name a few. Bangladesh, for example, in addition to

commonly spaced trees planted on embankments could benefit from a large scale legume shrubs

seasonal stabilization of small and large structures to increase production of pulses which are currently

being supplanted by cereal cultivation.

7. Homestead development

Planting fruit trees and/or robust vegetative fencing on the top of flood resistant walling, etc.

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Examples (flood prone areas)

(1) Flood resistant feeder road (2) Drainage channels and protection of irrigated fields in Bangladesh

Plate 33 Flood-resistant roads in Bangladesh (example of IFAD-supported Sunamganj Community-Based Resource Management Project) – the road is paved with slabs made of concrete and sealed with cement. The road is about 2 meters top wide allowing the circulation of carts and light vehicles but not of trucks that can damage the road and dike.

Plate 34 Main excavation on drainage lines for protection against seasonal flooding of homesteads (below photo – left bank) and of rice fields (below photo – left bank) These major drainage canals have been built in the past using FFW and regularly maintained to remove silt and raise additional ground in other parts of the area. However, additional stabilization of the middle slope of the embankments may be possible using legume shrubs on as seasonal basis (for example by using pigeon peas and other legumes planted in rows) (Source WFP, Dhaka)

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(3) Raising homesteads above flooding levels (4) Raising feeder roads to ensure access to basic services (5) Vegetative belts on stabilized embankments around homesteads

Plate 35 Raised ground with on top the homestead – this activity is not done on isolation but integrated within larger flood protection measures, often on top of existing raising grounds and embankments (Bangladesh, WFP, 2010)

Plate 36 Work on raising road levels (Bangladesh, WFP, 2010)

Plate 37 Vegetative belt using bamboo, fodder shrubs, trees and cash crops (bananas, etc) – (Bangladesh, traditional fencing, 2010)

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(6) Embankment plantation (Bangladesh) (7) Tropical storm resistant houses (Madagascar)

Plate 38 Water pond and rice fields fenced with robust embankments and planted with trees – these plantations show, however, that ample space remains available between and below the trees for plantation of seasonal shrubs and legume crops.

Plate 39 Houses are designed to resist the impact of moderate cyclones and built with specific construction criteria and orientation based on wind direction (WFP, 2008)

57

Highlights from this section: the technical challenges in flood prone areas relate to both the type and scale

of interventions necessary to reduce the risk of destructive floods, and to the possibility of building or

strengthening assets able to withstand floods when they occur. These two strategies can occur in parallel

although the second (assets able to withstand floods) are often the main priority in areas or countries where

flooding problems are massively complex and large scale. Raising grounds, making roads flood proofed and

stabilizing embankments are some of the key measures complementary to early warning and rapid response

mechanisms required in flood prone areas. However, several activities and approaches (e.g. community

based watershed rehabilitation, etc) highlighted in Technical Modules 1 and 2 should be considered as

integral part of a flood control efforts.

3.7 Other contexts

Note:

In addition to the above there are other specific contexts which are country or sub-region specific that

require different approaches although some of the measures listed above would also be relevant in these.

For example:

I. High altitude mountain ranges with snow caps and melting cycles, and long dry seasons

Many of the measures listed in above section would apply – with differences in design, specific

attention on selection of species, collection of melted water, etc.

II. Deserts and areas affected by extreme dryness

This second group is partially dealt in the pastoral section for those areas bordering the lower fringes

of the arid zone. However, there are limited FFA efforts possible in areas with rainfall <200mm,

except for some dry land forestry and sand dunes fixation.

III. Dense forests

This third group would require limited or no FFA except for forest preservation and protection,

specific activities such as collection of tree seeds or specific products, maintenance of feeder roads,

and special projects linked to reintegration of marginal populations and support to forest

management.

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4 TECHNICAL DESIGN MODULE 4: COMMUNITY AND MARKET INFRASTRUCTURE

4.1 Introduction

The following interventions may be considered as cross cutting all contexts although for feeder roads ample

reference has been already made in previous sections.

This section will provide additional references to feeder roads construction and maintenance, and other

related specific technical aspects. Furthermore, additional FFA interventions are listed (social assets, etc) for

possible consideration as WFP food assistance may be required to assist partners in such type of

interventions under specific circumstances and joint programmes.

4.2 Main FFA

Three main sets of interventions are considered, namely:

Feeder roads

Footpaths and tracks

Social and market infrastructure (excluding feeder roads)

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4.2.1 Feeder Roads

WFP is largely involved in feeder roads maintenance, repair or construction. Overall, WFP focuses on

community based feeder roads, linking communities to main roads and towns.

Context specific technical aspects linked to feeder roads construction have been described in the previous

sections. This section treats their rationale in broader terms, to underline their key role in promoting access

to food and markets, and to complementary rehabilitation efforts such as local purchase, and access to

education and health services.

Key aspects to consider:

This activity is required to improve access to food, markets and essential social services. The construction of

feeder roads is often seen as an ideal employment generation scheme in a number of rural rehabilitation

and infrastructure restoration projects around the world.

Feeder roads can be used either as:

I. An emergency activity:

To restore immediate access to food and emergency relief to isolated communities at times of

shocks,

II. An early recovery intervention:

To rebuilt access to food and restore trade and access to basic services (post conflict, post disaster),

III. An enabling development effort:

To free up new market potential areas, complete a major rehabilitation effort providing access to

markets for newly developed areas (e.g. irrigation schemes, support to P4P, etc)

WFP support to feeder roads is usually labour intensive (e.g. approximately 70-80 of labour inputs out of

total costs) or labour-based (40-50% of labour inputs). However, the levels of vulnerability and the number

of needed beneficiaries should not be the reason why feeder roads are selected as an activity. Feeder roads

should be selected only when there is a robust justification for their construction or maintenance and when

the minimum technical and capacity requirements are ensured.

Maintenance schemes are justified only for major restoration of these assets, for instance when feeder

roads are impassable following years of neglect caused by conflict or because of sudden shocks such as

landslides, excess runoff and floods, etc.

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Design:

Feeder roads require specialized design and, to the extent possible, need to get through an environmental

screening process before proceeding with their design and construction.

Feeder roads should be increasingly designed to have less impact on the land they cross and be of narrower

width compared to all weather trunk roads. Before considering feeder roads, alternatives such as mountain

tracks and foot or mule paths (see next section) may need to be considered. Therefore, feeder roads may

not be always required. There are experiences in Nepal, Pakistan, South Sudan and Afghanistan that need to

be tapped into to expand the scope of such type of FFA.

Example

Building the rationale for feeder roads: the case of Southern Sudan

Roads are the backbone of development, access to food, markets and inputs, and access to basic education

and health services. Unfortunately Southern Sudan has a very small trunk road network. There exist only

around 3000km gravel roads out of 5000km identified as key trunk roads. Over 7000km of feeder roads have

been identified, but to date very little has been done for these key access roads to link to food production

centers.

The greater the isolation of communities the higher is the risk of exposure to malnutrition, disease and

hunger. Massive flooding problems further contribute to isolate entire counties and parts of several States

during the rainy season. A significant increase of investments in the rehabilitation of the feeder road

network needs to be perceived as a key food security imperative in Southern Sudan.

Access to food through feeder roads rehabilitation and community based maintenance will need to become

a major component of any Food Security framework and of any safety net programme. Feeder roads will

free up markets, encourage farmers to produce more and access inputs and technical support faster. They

will increase the perception of State presence, as well as enable the use of a broader variety of transfers

(cash, food & cash and vouchers) to support safety nets as markets and financial services develop. Feeder

roads will also be important for pastoralists, particularly at times of shocks as commercial off-take of weak

animals or an enhancement of the outreach capacity of veterinary services for vaccination of animals will be

essential to prevent the collapse of these livelihoods – which often triggers conflict over pastures and other

resources. Anecdotal evidence appears to suggest the correlation between the lack of access roads and

insecurity as communities are isolated from protection.

The vastness and complex nature of the terrain in Southern Sudan, e.g. black cotton soils, flood prone areas,

etc, demand that very good technical and organizational capabilities are put in place. The use of technically

competent partners could also become an opportunity to support community participation in seasonal

employment schemes, particularly in areas with high vulnerability and seasonal food insecurity. To this

effect feeder roads, although requiring significant mechanized and material support because of the nature of

unstable soils and flooded terrains in Southern Sudan, could also include community participation in various

aspects of their repair or construction. This is an opportunity to provide employment opportunities to

specific groups such as women, untrained youth or former combatants, and to landless or asset-poor

households.

61

As many feeder roads tend to cross areas with communities (small or large) located along the way or nearby

their villages, e.g. within a 5-10 km radius from the feeder road, specific arrangements could be made to

complement this activity with community mobilization and self-employment efforts for the management of

sections of the feeder roads. Private sector or the Government may decide to allocate funds to specific

communities engaged and equipped to maintain feeder roads on an ongoing basis, thus avoid expensive

maintenance at every few years. Providing employment opportunities to communities using specialized

partners is also linked to the possibility to use cash or vouchers as a mode of payment and specific

complementary support measures may be considered in the form of vouchers for tools or seeds as a start up

for specific groups willing to engage in agriculture. NGOs with consolidated expertise in microfinance like

BRAC and agencies like FAO could support such complementary programmes, and use the feeder roads as

entry points for more integrated food security endeavours.

There are also opportunities for feeder roads not directly linked to highly vulnerable areas but to areas

where there is untapped agriculture potential currently highly constrained by lack of access to markets.

These areas are of high interest to WFP from the perspective of the potential increase of produce that could

be purchased and transported in food insecure States or counties. Although major attention should be

placed to free up areas highly affected by seasonal hunger due to poor access, a number of feeder roads will

need to be constructed in existing productive corridors.

Useful References

The following are links related to technical standards and designs used in various contexts. Suggestion is

made for field staff to refer to these experiences when developing proposals for feeder roads or providing

partners with the required documentation needed to prepare FLAs.

1. Contractor’s Handbook for Labour-Based Road Works (ILO):

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/zam_contr_hand.pdf

http://www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/publications/1_471_PA1290_1993.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/public/french/employment/recon/eiip/publ/reference/general.htm

2. Manual for the supervision of labour based road rehabilitation works (ILO):

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/lbt_road_rehab.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/skills/areas/lang--en/WCMS_DOC_SKL_ARE_DBL_EN/index.htm

3. Road Maintenance Manual

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-

bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_226_en.pdf

4. Emergency road repair

Framework for the implementation of Community Labour Based Road Maintenance in Emergency Road

Repair Project – Southern Sudan – WFP 2008

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/zam_contr_hand.pdf

http://www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/publications/1_471_PA1290_1993.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/public/french/employment/recon/eiip/publ/reference/general.htm

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/lbt_road_rehab.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/skills/areas/lang--en/WCMS_DOC_SKL_ARE_DBL_EN/index.htm

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_226_en.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_226_en.pdf



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5. Green roads on steep mountains

The experience from a few countries and Nepal in particular illustrates the need for roads that have a low

impact on the ecology and that are implemented following a phased approach to allow stabilization and

proper layout and construction of drainage measures. The following illustrate the concept of green roads

developed by GTZ and local Swiss NGO partner in Nepal and supported by WFP – this approach is now been

adopted in large parts of remote areas of rural Nepal.

A must read report and technical guidance is the GTZ/SDC ‘Green Roads in Nepal - Best Practices Report’

produced in 1999:

http://www.trans-web.ch/mobility/downloads/Green_Roads_in_Nepal.pdf

Green Road Approach in Rural Road Construction for the Sustainable Development of Nepal (A. D.

Mulmi, Department of Roads, Nepal)

http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jsd/article/view/2605/3699

Harmonizing Rural Road Development with Mountain Environment: Green Roads in Nepal (H. R.

Shrestha, SCAEF - Nepal)

http://scaef.org.np/conference/conference/pdf/Session-6/9.%20Hare%20Ram%20-

%20Green%20Road%20-%20Theme.pdf

6. Rural roads and WFP - examples from the field

Presentation on WFP experience on rural roads at IFAD workshop on Rural Roads, Transportation and Travel

(RTT), and the relevance of watershed management; 2008.

http://www.trans-web.ch/mobility/downloads/Green_Roads_in_Nepal.pdf

http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jsd/article/view/2605/3699

http://scaef.org.np/conference/conference/pdf/Session-6/9.%20Hare%20Ram%20-%20Green%20Road%20-%20Theme.pdf

http://scaef.org.np/conference/conference/pdf/Session-6/9.%20Hare%20Ram%20-%20Green%20Road%20-%20Theme.pdf

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp237996.ppt


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4.2.2 Footpaths and Tracks

Important activities under several contexts where space is constrained by crowded housing or specific

conditions of the terrain such as steep slopes. A narrower footpath or track may be preferred to wider roads

to improve access between communities. The guidelines below include a number of design, layout and

implementation aspects for the construction and management of footpaths and tracks, with practical and

interesting examples applicable under different contexts.

Useful References

Footpaths and Tracks - A Field Manual for their Construction and Improvement (2002, I.T. TRANSPORT

Ltd.)

http://www.ittransport.co.uk/documents/Footpath%20manual.pdf

4.2.3 Social and market infrastructure (excluding feeder roads)

WFP has also supported the repair, rehabilitation and construction of various social assets such as school

classrooms, and others such as the construction of grain stores, improvement of market places, etc. Most

commonly found activities supported through FFA under this category are the following:

1. Repair and/or Construction of classrooms

2. Repair and/or Construction of gender friendly sanitation devices in schools

3. Bricks making

4. Thatching and roofing

5. Construction of protection shelters

6. Construction of grain stores

The design and construction of these assets, particularly classroom and sanitation devices need to adhere to

safe technical standards provided through the Government protocols available or developed in each country

by qualified and delegated (by Government) partners. Alternatively, internationally agreed standards need

to be considered by WFP and the implementing partner with regards to the construction of classrooms and

sanitation devices.

The role of WFP in this type of FFA is largely confined to complement other partners’ support and inputs and

to promote self-help efforts. The provision of food or cash incentives for a proportion of the labour provided

by beneficiaries to build these assets need to be seen as one component only of what partners provide. FFA

should not become the substitute for funds that should have been provided by the Government or other

partners for these projects. Therefore, support to activities such as repair or construction of schools should

be well justified, often as post conflict or after a major shock occurrence, and as an exceptional measure.

The design, complexity and costs of these structures can vary enormously depending on each of the country

contexts, construction protocols, rules and standards, and of the materials used. To the extent possible, very

low or no use of building materials that deplete local natural resources should be used to support the

http://www.ittransport.co.uk/documents/Footpath%20manual.pdf

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establishment of these assets, e.g. avoid the felling of valuable trees for construction purposes, ensure

construction does not occur in unsuitable places such as on slide prone hillsides, flood prone areas, near

gullies, etc.

Useful References

There are no specific references as the technical standards are country and location specific – adherence to

high quality standards is, however, a requirement, particularly for safety reasons, and should be ensured in

all FLA.

65

5 Others FFA interventions (complementary measures)

5.1 Gully control measures

Gully control measures have been described in a few contexts above but can be also defined as

complementary to many other assets building or their repair. Gullies are the ultimate result of severe

erosion, dissect landscapes cutting through productive cultivated or grazing land, and carry a lot of

sediments downstream. Therefore small or large gullies represent a major threat to assets such as water

ponds, farm dams, terracing, irrigation schemes development, and feeder roads. Gully control is therefore

essential to stabilize eroded catchments and to prevent the destruction of those many community and

household assets.

Main interventions include:

1. Loose stone check dams

2. Brushwood checks (vegetative measures)

3. Soil Sedimentation and overflow dams

4. Gully reshaping and re-vegetation (often integrated with one of the above)

5. Gabion checks

These measures are integrated with other watershed development works and their design needs to be

related to the estimates the size of the catchment and expected runoff, gradient of the gully bed, type of

soils, width of the gully, rainfall patterns, and the potential use of the reclaimed gully area. To this effect,

gullies can become important assets for landless or land poor farmers that can use these areas for tree,

fodder and food crops production. Some of these interventions are described in the technical info-techs of

Annex D-1

Useful references:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad082e/AD082e03.htm

Community based Participatory Watershed Development Guideline Part 1

Plate 40: Gabion checks and gully reshaping (in steps) planted with grasses (Adwa, Tigray, Ethiopia – MOA/WFP/GTZ, 2008)

Plate 41: A soil sedimentation & overflow dams across a large gully filled up with soil and planted with forage shrubs


http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad082e/AD082e03.htm


66


Plate 42 Stone stepped & soil filled SSD planted with grasses and with stone paved spillway (left side)

Plate 43 SSD under construction in V-shaped gullies (N. Wollo, Ethiopia, 2006)

Plate 44 Head of gully with stepped stone riser and checkdams + grasses (Ethiopia, MOA/WFP, 1995)

Plate 45 the same gully 5 years later stabilized with grasses

Plate 46 Upstream side of SSD in large gullies (Myanmar, FAO, 1999)

SSD with sunflower crops after water receded

SSD with water after rains

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5.2 Cereal banks

This activity is not commonly considered as a FFA intervention. However, it may be linked to a different

range of FFA (e.g. integrated land rehabilitation, homestead development and irrigation, etc), and become

complementary to specific measures that include saving of part of the food or cash transfers generated from

labour-based FFA interventions. Cereal banks can provide additional opportunities for income generation

while offsetting seasonal hunger. There are a variety of positive and negative experiences regarding cereal

banks establishment and management. Some studies suggest that the experience in the Sahel has been

predominantly negative – main problems being misappropriation, disruption of local trade and traders-

households traditional relationships, limited or no trading experience, poor storage facilities, etc.

It is an activity that needs to be tested carefully first and evaluated before any incremental scaling up. It also

requires competent partners, a careful market and seasonal analysis, robust training of participants and

regular follow up.

A few examples regarding cereal banks are provided in the Useful References section below, based on

experience in West Africa and elsewhere.

Useful References

1. Kenya: some practical start up guidance offer useful entry points:

http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=50

2. Niger: Study on the evaluation of cereal banks and Annexes that support the creation of cereal banks:

http://www.afriqueverte.org/r2_public/media/fck/File/Documentation/Outils_information/ETUDE%20s

ur%20%20BC%20nig%20Rapport%20principal.pdf

3. CILSS – A technical note on the performance of cereal banks in the Sahel and some of the issues that

need to be considered for their establishment and proper management:

http://www.cilss.bf/fondsitalie/download/down/NT_banques_cereales.pdf

4. Cambodia: WFP Rice Bank Guidelines

5.3 Construction of fuel efficient stoves

FFA may include support to the construction of fuel efficient stoves in various contexts, as an income

generation activity and to reduce firewood and charcoal consumption. For example, FFA can support initial

phases of the work required to build the stoves and offset food consumption requirements until fuel

efficient stoves are sold and generate income.

This activity can also be promoted as a livelihood support measure, with major focus on reducing pressure

on scarce natural resources. This intervention is particularly effective if implemented at significant scale,

integrated with reforestation measures and linked to offsetting carbon emissions and the possible

generation of carbon revenues at community level. To this effect, the WFP pilot programme (OMJ-Kampala

platform) experience has provides examples of opportunities that may be pursued by WFP or partners in

http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=50

http://www.afriqueverte.org/r2_public/media/fck/File/Documentation/Outils_information/ETUDE%20sur%20%20BC%20nig%20Rapport%20principal.pdf

http://www.afriqueverte.org/r2_public/media/fck/File/Documentation/Outils_information/ETUDE%20sur%20%20BC%20nig%20Rapport%20principal.pdf

http://www.cilss.bf/fondsitalie/download/down/NT_banques_cereales.pdf


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terms of linking specific WFP supported activities to the carbon market. The pilot effort however, has also

highlighted the difficulty of preparing carbon compliant proposals and the need for WFP to have a stronger

role in terms of facilitation and advocacy rather than direct involvement in project proposal.

Useful References

http://www.pyroenergen.com/articles08/eco-rocket-stove.htm

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/sectors/files/uganda_fin

al_summary.pdf

http://www.saee.ethz.ch/events/cleancooking/Marlis_Kees_31st_IAEE_Istanbul.pdf

http://www.bioenergylists.org/stovesdoc/GTZ/Rocket_Stoves_ProBEC_North_am.pdf

http://www.hedon.info/docs/EthiopiaScalingUpApproach.pdf

Evaluation of fuel efficient stoves introduced in Darfur (USAID – Sudan):

http://www.fuelnetwork.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=237&Itemid=5

7

Carbon Credit Feasibility Study – Opportunities for WFP to Access Carbon Finance (OMJ - Ecosecurities

– 2009) Volume 1 and Volume 2

5.4 Fish Farming and aquaculture

A number of Country Offices recurrently engage in aquaculture activities – often as complementary activities

to what FAO or other implementing partners support in specific countries and food insecure districts. This

activity is particularly suitable to provide income generation to specific groups, such as women and

marginalized food insecure households.

Typical FFA includes the construction of fish ponds or water ponds for multipurpose uses. There are a

number of technical specifications regarding ponds construction that are included in previous sections and in

Annex D-1.

Technical considerations: this activity requires solid technical support from the implementing organization

and sufficient training and follow-up provided to the fish farming activity. These include:

Creating an income generation and management group (preferably composed by women and most food

insecure households)

Design of fish pond (s) able to retain water during entire fish production cycle (hence to calibrate other

uses against the primary purpose of guaranteeing sufficient water for the fish)

Ensuring the prevention of pollution and contamination of the water pond

Training of IGA groups in fish farming, harvesting, preservation and marketing

http://www.pyroenergen.com/articles08/eco-rocket-stove.htm

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/sectors/files/uganda_final_summary.pdf

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/sectors/files/uganda_final_summary.pdf

http://www.saee.ethz.ch/events/cleancooking/Marlis_Kees_31st_IAEE_Istanbul.pdf

http://www.bioenergylists.org/stovesdoc/GTZ/Rocket_Stoves_ProBEC_North_am.pdf

http://www.hedon.info/docs/EthiopiaScalingUpApproach.pdf






69

Undertake an environmental assessment on possible negative effects of fish ponds on natural resources,

and of stagnating water (for water born or generated diseases) as well as the possible safeguards

required.

On more specific hazards, ensure that fish farming does not occur at the expense of natural forests.

Although an unlikely area where WFP FFA interventions will be needed, aquaculture in coastal areas has

destroyed mangrove forests and their role as natural barriers against shocks4 such as Tsunamis in parts

of the Philippines and other countries in South East Asia.

Useful References

FAO -ADCP/REP/89/43 - Aquaculture Systems and Practices: A Selected Review

http://www.fao.org/docrep/T8598E/t8598e00.htm

FAO - Inland fish farming alternatives for Ghana: technical and economic aspects

http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AC109E/AC109E00.htm

USAID - Environmental Guidelines for Small-Scale Activities in Africa (EGSSAA) – 2009

http://www.encapafrica.org/EGSSAA/fisheries.pdf

WFP, “Sharing what works” information note – a best practice in Northern Uganda, 2007

4 In this regard WFP may contribute to the reforestation of mangrove depleted coastal areas in districts where food

insecurity and recurrent shocks is a common problem.

Plate 47 Example of fish farming in Nepal targeting marginalized groups of the Dalit communities – the ponds have become an important source of income and food

http://www.fao.org/docrep/T8598E/t8598e00.htm

http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AC109E/AC109E00.htm

http://www.encapafrica.org/EGSSAA/fisheries.pdf


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5.5 Removal of silt, mud and debris

There are three most common FFA activities, which include:

5.5.1 The removal of silt from water reservoirs such as ponds

Community water ponds and small earth dams may be filled up with silt on a regular basis, following heavy

rain showers or as a natural process when most of the runoff water is generated from eroded catchments or

cultivated land. The latter is something to avoid when ponds are constructed.

Nevertheless, there are situations where ponds constructed several years ago or recently silted because of

errors in design of the pond or lack of treatment of the catchment need to have their sediments removed to

restore or improve their function. In case of sedimentation because of lack of catchment protection, specific

treatment of the catchment area need to be undertaken before or concomitantly to the de-siltation of the

pond. All water ponds need to have silt-traps constructed and regularly de-silted.

NOTE: De-siltation of ponds and of small dams need to become a routine activity done on a self-help basis,

and de-siltation only an exceptional even, not a regular maintenance activity that requires payment as this is

a clear sign of lack of sustainability and ownership by users. Best practices exist, such as the removal of one

wheelbarrow fill of soil (or of two stretchers or baskets/other containers) for each container filled with

water. Around the pond area a few shovels or hoes are left for each beneficiary to dig out deposited silt near

the collection point – moving downwards following the receding water.

5.5.2 Clearing canals and drainage lines after shocks

Typically, this relates to the removal of clogged canals/drainage of sediments and mud after mudflows. This

removal of drying or dry mud and boulders from urban and rural settings may occur in hurricane or tropical

cyclones and storms prone areas where high powered rainfall events can cause havoc and generate

landslides and mudflows.

For example in Haiti, the town of Gonaives was engulfed by millions of tons of mud for several months. As a

result major joint CFW and FFW activities took place to free roads, schools, health centres, drainage lines

and other key infrastructure from mud and debris.

Plate 48: Main damage and clogging of the primary irrigation canal (Artibonite, 2008 - Haiti)

Irrigation fields destroyed and in need of major rehabilitation

71

Technical requirements are simple and related to the amount of hours worked (6-8 hours/day), volume of

soil/mud to be removed (usually 1.5-3.5 m³ of soil/materials removed per person/per day - from

inexperienced/partially experience workers), and availability of the right tools, as well as other factors

related to local contexts (climate, organization, topography, etc).

Basic equipment may need to include protection equipment in case of contaminated or polluted

environments, for example providing workers with items such as plastic boots, working gloves and masks.

In rural settings it is important to ensure that the clearing of main irrigation, cultivated fields and other

productive infrastructure is undertaken following basic but sound technical standards such as the

accumulation and compaction of soil sufficiently far away from the main canal, shaped to retain stability and

avoid the return of removed materials into the canals following subsequent rains.

For example:

5.5.3 The removal of debris following an earthquake

This activity, in spite the fact that local needs can be significant, is often not recommended as a FFA

intervention following a major earthquake or not until basic security requirements are in place and when

there is no danger that damaged buildings may collapse adjacent to FFA working sites. However, there may

be exceptions and situations where lack of machinery and difficult access to specific areas demands labour

based efforts to be organized and there are partners in a position to meet minimum security and safety

standards.

Plate 50: Farmers clearing rubble chocked canals after the earthquake in 2005 http://www.usaid.gov/stories/pakistan/cs_pk_irrigation.pdf

Plate 49: A farmer cultivating small plots of farmland cleared from stones and boulders after major landslides (Haiti, Chauffard, 2009)

NO 25-50 cm

YES

http://www.usaid.gov/stories/pakistan/cs_pk_irrigation.pdf

http://www.usaid.gov/stories/pakistan/cs_pk_irrigation.pdf

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5.6 Stone collection and stone shaping

These two activities relate to specific needs that some interventions may require as in need of specific

reinforcements. For examples road side consolidation works, construction of culverts, stones for irrigation

canals, and repairs of damaged buildings.

I. Stone collection:

This activity is often undertaken as a relay activity and need to be carefully handled. Injuries during transport

from falling stones may occur and hurt workers and transport of heavy weights should not persist for long

hours.

As this activity requires a number of phases such as extraction, lifting, transport, dropping into collection site

and piling, work groups need to be organized to ensure that different people rotate around tasks that

require less effort with others that are more difficult. In each site, attention to the safety of workers is to be

provided and discussed prior to the start of the work.

WFP should also provide to Implementing Partners the guidelines on how to ensure basic safety measures at

the work site. The following leaflet Nr 6 of the PGM provides recommendations that implementing partners

need to follow and that can be reflected in the FLAs.

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/other/wfp042701.pdf

II. Stone shaping/cutting

This activity requires much more attention to safety aspects than stone collection as injuries such as crushing

fingers or stone splinters ricocheting into workers’ eyes are potentially frequent hazards. Clean water and

first aid kits need to be provided at the working site. Protection gloves and items such as masks and cheap

plastic goggles should be also provided by implementing partners to workers engaged in this activity. T

here are a number of recommendations included in the following ILO guidelines that may be considered in

different contexts. This is a FFA activity that is often critical in mountainous terrains and that requires semi-

skilled stone cutters for works such as culverts, bridges, reinforcements on shoulders, etc.

http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/hdo/htm/stone_cutter.htm


http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/hdo/htm/stone_cutter.htm

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5.7 FFA for skills enhancement (Food/Cash-for-Training)

FFT can be linked to a number of activities that can complement WFP and partners’ efforts in assets creation

and programming. The range of FFT activities treated in this manual focuses largely on three type of FFT

efforts.

1. Skills enhancement in emergency preparedness at community level – for example:

Training of communities in basic Early Warning, mapping of safe zones, etc

Training on Disaster Risk Reduction

2. Skills enhancement linked to resilience building and related FFA interventions – for example:

Training on participatory watershed or area based planning for community members/planning

teams

Training on specific design, layout and construction of FFA (soil and water conservation, feeder

roads, water harvesting schemes, gully control, forestry, etc)

Training & awareness creation on conflict resolution, area management planning, etc

Awareness sessions on environmental safeguards and impacts

Experience sharing and inter-community study tours

3. Skills enhancement linked to complementary efforts from partners and for income generation

activities linked to the sustainable use of assets create – particularly focused on women and women

and marginalized groups – for example:

Support training sessions on Income Generation Activities (IGAs) linked to the management and

development of natural resources, basic literacy and skills training (mostly women groups)

Training on establishment/management of cereal banks, small grain reserves, etc

Training on forest management, fuel efficient stoves construction and use, etc

Training of farmers using the Farmer Field Schools (e.g. partnership with FAO and/or MOA)

Technical considerations:

Targeting: FFT is often a suitable option to reach marginalized groups or gender affected by food insecurity.

For example women and youth in culturally complex contexts or in post conflict situations In this regard FFT

need to reach most affected households in the form of packages with other partners’ inputs.

As FFT may not cover long periods of time, it may be considered as an additional activity to other labour

based FFA or to the provision of unconditional transfers. For example, there are contexts where labour

based efforts can not be undertaken because of heavy monsoon periods but where there are partners able

to deliver specific training indoors to most food insecure households.

Need for competent partners for training: Food or cash for training (FFT) can be provided to support

partners such as FAO, GIZ, local institutions and NGOs to undertake training on skills such as conservation

agriculture, integrated pest management, agroforestry, improved storage and prevention of post harvest

losses, management of saving and credit schemes and basic bookkeeping, among others.

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Work norms: the work norm is normally related to a working day under FFA and equivalent to the standard

payment provided as a daily wage (food ration or cash). Other context specific modalities may be considered

(e.g. half a day payment and half a day self-help, etc). It needs to be clear that FFT using food or cash is

meant to support the most food insecure.

Complementarity: FFT is successful when it is attached to a partner programme that ensures the effective

use of acquired skills and provides the complementary inputs necessary to translate these skills into practical

action. For example, training of a women group on the use of reforested areas and water ponds for

beekeeping and related activities may require FFT but will not be effective unless inputs such as beehives

and processing materials are provided.

Note: Elements of FFT are also included in specific Nutrition, HIVAIDS and, to a lesser extent School Feeding

and educational activities in specific contexts (e.g. skills training and literacy for women in Afghanistan, etc).

These are developed following specific requirements at the country office and partnerships. However,

programme design guidance on FFT and documentation on best practices regarding FFT is limited. Additional

guidance on FFT is therefore planned to be developed in the foreseeable future, and will be based on and

highlight CO experiences and examples. This body of work is expected to be completed in the next version of

the current guidance.

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6 FFA activities that benefit women (and other vulnerable households)

The following FFA interventions can benefit women and men alike and cut across all agro-ecological zones.

However, these FFA are thought to benefit women more as it often involves major investments made at

their homestead, to optimize space and capacities, and promote income generating activities (IGAs).

6.1 Homestead level productivity intensification activities

Techniques aimed at increased productivity of small spaces around homesteads and cultivated plots. This

reduces the hardships faced by women and girls and is closely linked to the establishment of nurseries which

supplies planting materials.

Activities can include compost making, planting of vegetative

fencing, stabilization of terraces with fruit trees and useful

grasses (see Plate 50), construction of simple water collectors

from foot path, roof water harvesting and shallow well

construction.

Details on the implementation of these activities are outlined in

the previous section 1.

Plate 51:

Soil bunds stabilized with

Elephant grass and bananas

6.2 WFP assisted nurseries (‘Green Factories’)

Seedling production and supply orientation for private or community use and land rehabilitation.

For women, the nursery environment is ideal for many reasons: it is safe and usually close to a main road or

crossway and the type of works in nurseries, usually less labour-intensive than physical structures

construction, is preferred by women (i.e. pot filling and seedling care, transplanting, compost making, seed

collection, etc.).

Composing most of the nursery work force (above 70%), women are organized in groups of 5-10 people

(usually each nursery has 20-30 workers) of which may also include one or more men as required.

Nursery workers:

i. raise seedlings and planting material for the purposes indicated above;

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ii. raise seedlings for themselves (to sell, or for plantation, etc.) and;

iii. use the extra unused land for income generation, by growing vegetables, cash crops, fruits or

other species of interest (see next section on IGA).

Training on crop management and agro-forestry practices that can be used in homesteads, is an additional

benefit derived from participation in WFP-assisted nurseries. Nurseries can also be used by WFP and

partners such as FAO and other NGOs to run practical training sessions on skills training and IGAs. Regarding

FAO, of interest would be to establish a Farmers’ Field School (FFC) or Farmer Training Centre (FTC) not far

from the main nursery as to provide additional training services to women groups but also to approach

overall community and farmers attending agricultural training to environmental aspects, agroforestry, tree

planting and the role of women in agriculture and overall rural development.

Additionally, women’s groups could be made ‘shareholders’ of the seedlings they grow (5-10% or more),

enabling them to sell a percentage of the seedlings produced. As shareholders, they have an incentive to

improve the level of care and attention provided to raising seedlings and planting material.

Useful references

Homestead Development initiative and the Rehabilitation of Ecosystems in Haiti (Technical Note for

Training of Trainers - ToT) - section on Nursery Management - Betru Nedessa, WFP, 2011

Technical Note on Nurseries as “Green Factories” (WFP Ethiopia, 2005)

6.3 Income Generating Activities

1. Small nursery development - involves the growing of fruit, vegetables and multi-purpose trees (in

previously established nurseries or independently) to generate income, start agro-processing micro-

enterprises and invest in homestead-based agro-forestry systems.

Nurseries are privileged areas. They are close to sufficient water, they are protected, and the land

they occupy is usually productive, benefiting from years of composting and biomass growth. These

nurseries generally have ample unused space and as such, can be developed by women’s groups as

an income generating activity.

Each group is provided a piece of unused land within the nursery to plants crops intended for use to earn

income (vegetables, fruits, cash crops like chillies, pigeon peas, coffee, plants for dyes and medicinal

purposes, etc). The women are provided with technical assistance and planting materials to work on their

own plots outside the time dedicated to regular nursery works (for which they are receiving their FFA

allocation).

Additional IGA activities like beekeeping and rearing livestock using part of the biomass available in

the nursery should be encouraged. A small dairy activity could also be promoted. All of these

activities are possible as most nurseries are guarded. If not, the IGA groups can hire a guard paid

from the revenue of the nursery activities.

Selling points within the nursery could be established and open to the public during specific hours or market

days as an outlet for selling the items produced, including sales of quality seeds from trees and fodder

species, medicinal plants, leaves, gums and dyes, and seedlings.




77

This activity requires an inception period of about 6 months to ensure participant training, provision of

essential nursery kits, start up grants and the establishment of a partnership between the nursery and the

household based productivity intensification efforts that will need to be established.

2. Compost making – most often linked to homestead productivity intensification activities but can also be

a viable entrepreneurship.

When compost makers organize as service providers to other farmers, from preparing the compost pits to

distribution in the fields of the better off farmers, particularly those involved in irrigation but also along

terraces where moisture content is higher and better yields can be obtained.

Useful references

Homestead Development Initiative and the Rehabilitation of Degraded Ecosystems in Haiti

(Technical Note for Training of Trainers - ToTs) – Betru Nedessa, WFP, 2011

6.4 Other FFA activities that benefit women

1. Feeder roads – The creation of feeder roads can increase access to valuable services such as healthcare

and schools for women and children.

2. Woodlots – the planting of community woodlots can reduce the time women and girls spend collecting

firewood, often in unsafe conditions and at the expense of girls’ education.

3. Solidarity efforts or social contracts - 5-10% of food or cash wages earned by FFA participants are

pooled in a food fund to assist these vulnerable households in meeting their food gap.

4. Homestead assets for vulnerable households - 10-20% of the total assets constructed in a given

community, are invested in the land or homesteads of the most vulnerable households. These should be

productive assets that that the household can manage with little effort but would not have been

possible for them to construct themselves. This rebuilds social cohesion while reducing food insecurity.

Growing a future for girls

In a small village in India, a minimum of ten trees are planted to celebrate the birth of a girl.

The payment of a dowry by the bride’s family is tradition, and can be a heavy burden on poor

families.

As a result, dowry deaths and female foeticide is a common occurrence in the region. The

multi-generational tradition of ‘birth trees’ has ensured that this not the case for the girls of

this small village. The tree are seen as ‘fixed deposits’ as each year the fruit is sold and a

portion of the funds raised are placed in a savings account opened in their daughters names -

Amarnath Tewary for BBC News



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6.5 Timing of FFA intervention

The timing of the FFA intervention is important because it can create barriers to participation for women.

Avoid labour intensive programmes targeting women during the busiest period when they are involved in

the fields or during the dry season when women spend more time collecting water. The seasonal livelihood

analysis can assist in identifying these times. For example, March to May is the busiest time for Haitian

women because the men have left to seek out work elsewhere and they are left to search out paid labour

while cultivating their own crops.

6.6 FLA’s and women’s rights to the productive assets they create

The engagement of women in FFA activities demands that local authorities and implementing partner’s

ensure, to the extent possible, that women manage to acquire land use rights over the productive assets

they create. This can be done through agreements with customary chiefs and together with district ward

level council representatives. The inclusion of a clause in the FLA’s regarding gender and the role of women

that requests detailed description of steps and arrangements to be made by partners on the rights of

women over land use rights and tenureship can assist with this.

6.7 Cross cutting aspects

Synergies: Gender dynamics is a cross-cutting issue, with implications in all the programme categories

(EMOP, PRRO and CP) and all programmatic responses (School Feeding, Nutrition, FFA, etc). Synergies

between various WFP activities should be sought to maximize the impacts of ‘women and girl friendly’

programming. For example, in communities with school feeding and FFA activities, the rehabilitation or

creation of school rooms and separated latrines, can facilitate access to education for girls.

Policies & strategies: Gender issues in relation to FFA need to be highlighted and addressed in major

national policy documents as they can providing an anchor for which programmatic planning can be tied to.

For example, in Sierra Leone the National Policy Framework for the Social Protection Policy addresses the

needs of the poorest and most vulnerable populations, women and children in particular. The policy

recognizes the reduction of hardships and access to productive opportunities, such as provision of land, as

key priorities. The above information is in line with the 2009 WFP Gender Policy.

Useful references

WFP Gender Policy (2009) http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfp194044.pdf

Women and Land - The Rural Development Institute http://www.landesa.org/women-and-land/

Gender and Livelihoods in Emergencies - The IASC Handbook

http://www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster%20approach%20page/

clusters%20pages/Gender/Gender%20Toolkit/E_GH_09_Livelihoods.pdf

Technical Note of Nurseries as Green Factories – MOA/WFP, Ethiopia

Women and Food Security series (2010) - The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) http://www.fao.org/SD/FSdirect/FBdirect/FSP001.htm

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfp194044.pdf


http://www.landesa.org/women-and-land/

http://www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster%20approach%20page/clusters%20pages/Gender/Gender%20Toolkit/E_GH_09_Livelihoods.pdf

http://www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster%20approach%20page/clusters%20pages/Gender/Gender%20Toolkit/E_GH_09_Livelihoods.pdf


http://www.fao.org/SD/FSdirect/FBdirect/FSP001.htm

79

6.8 Examples of innovative ideas linking gender and FFA

The following are some ideas to link gender with FFA and other programme intervention:

6.8.1 Celebratory Birth Trees

Concept: In celebration of the birth of a girl, her family will receive fruit trees to plant on the homestead.

(Drawn from the earlier example of the recent BBC article which described a village in India where the birth

of a girl is celebrated by her family with the planting of a minimum of ten fruit trees).

The rationale is that by the time the girl has matured and reached marriageable age, the fruit trees will also

have matured providing fruit that can be sold and used for her dowry. In a region where foeticide and dowry

death is the highest in the country, the village is an oasis for the young girls who are born there.

Gender inequality is one the leading causes of food insecurity in the world. Girls are undervalued and as such

experience abuse, neglect and inequitable treatment as a result of gender discrimination.

Benefits

promotes gender equality and attributes value to girls

provides a productive asset to the family to assist with food security

can be linked to carbon credit programs

Implementation: in partnership with WFP assisted nurseries, families in the community where nurseries are

located, will receive a start up kit that includes 10 fruit tree seedlings for the birth of every girl. Families will

be encouraged to plant the trees in their homestead as an investment in their future.

6.8.2 Take-Home Solar ‘Light’ Ration

Concept: A low cost, solar powered light will be provided to girls/children upon completion of their first year

of school

Many households in rural communities do not have access to electricity nor could afford it if it was available.

This hampers children’s abilities to do homework after sunset, negatively impacting their success in school.

Benefits

Serves as an additional incentive for the completion of school

Provides a light source for children to complete homework assignments at home improving their success

in school

Households have a light source which will allow for productive work to continue after sunset

Implementation: In partnership with WFP assisted schools, children will receive low cost, solar powered

lights contingent on the completion of their first year of school. This can be done alongside take home ration

distribution if that distribution modality is in place or independently, as a ‘graduation’ present for all

vulnerable school children (one per family) upon their graduation from the first grade. A similar project in

Ghana has been implemented and can be used for reference.

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6.8.3 Fuel Efficient Stoves and a Take Home ‘Green’ Ration

Concept: Fuel Efficient Stoves as an Income Generating Activity (IGA) for Women and a Take Home ‘Green’ Ration Supplement for Girls. Training and materials will be provided to women for the building of fuel efficient stoves as an IGA, linked to School Feeding as an additional incentive for school attendance.

Women can spend hours a day collecting firewood and cooking because of an inefficient stove. Often, to

assist with this time consuming task, young girls are withdrawn from school. This is time that could be

better spent on productive work in the homestead or in the case of young girls, in school getting an

education. Additionally, women have fewer opportunities available to them to generate income and are

more vulnerable to food insecurity due to lack of access and control over productive assets.

Benefits

Increased earning potential for women which in turn promotes better food security

Linked to school feeding program having the additional benefit of promoting school attendance

Food is cooked in half the time, using half the amount of fuel required in traditional stoves freeing up

valuable time for women to dedicate to other productive work

Can be linked to carbon credit programs

Implementing: Women’s groups can be provided with the materials, training and start up funds needed to

build and sell fuel-efficient stoves. A condition of the grant will be that a percentage of the stoves made will

be given to local schools to be used as an attendance incentive for girls.

6.8.4 Eco-tourism

This is an activity that can be promoted where FFA have generated significant changes in terms of land rehabilitation. FFA may be eventually also used for awareness creation and skills enhancement training for women and other vulnerable groups to support managing restored natural resources and related landscapes with tourism potential. There are, for example, a number of income generation activities linked to eco-tourism that are possible in sites with breathtaking landscapes that have benefited from a FFA investment. This activity is largely for NGOs or private sector partners to support and will rarely require FFA as an investment but complementary resources and training. Women can benefit the most from these activities as there are a number of complementary efforts such as production of handicrafts, foods and specific products that can be promoted as part of this activity.

Useful references

Guidelines on MERETourism and improved packaging within the context of promoting Income Generation Activities (IGAs) – 2005 (WFP/MOA, Ethiopia)



81

D3. THE “NUTS AND BOLTS” OF FFA The “nuts and bolts” of the FFA guidance relate to some of the most common tools that are required to ensure that the different type of FFA interventions meet quality standards. It often relates to the information that field staff requires the most for FFA implementation. For example work norms, wage rates, the type of non food items requires such as tools, budget planning, technical references necessary for training, and capacity development aspects.

7 WORK NORMS

Work norms are integral part of planning, implementation and M&E of FFA activities – they range from

simple to complex depending from the type of FFA.

7.1 Developing work norms

Work norms are required to:

1. Establish the qualitative standards required to complete a given unit of work

2. Provides the basis for the provision of food, cash or vouchers rations to targeted beneficiaries in

exchange of a given unit of work achieved

The old PGM guideline indicates that work norms are:

1. A useful tool to plan the project;

2. An effective way to organize work on site;

3. Help to monitor progress of work; and

4. Help to raise participants’ productivity

In practical terms, work norms are constituted by two main elements:

1. The technical standards required to achieve a specific activity designed to suit a given context (for

example the shape, gradient, height and width of an irrigation canal, earthen or cemented, etc);

2. The work norm elements or steps required to complete the intended activity (in the example of the

irrigation canal above, the steps include layout of the canal, construction and verification of gradient, the

removal and compaction of embankment, provision of gates, and the possible sealing, paving and cementing

of the pond, etc).

FFA interventions have two main types of work norms:

1. Inclusive: the work norm is established by adding the main work requirements of the different steps or

stages that are required to complete a given activity.

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However, one specific activity (for example a stone bund) may have significantly different work

requirements based on the different type of soils and climate where they are planned to be

implemented. To come up with an average work norm that fits different contexts, an exercise of testing

the construction of any given activity need to be undertaken – for example in 5-6 locations. When results

are analyzed, normally the two extremes (highest and lowest norm) are removed and the rest is

averaged to come up with the standard work norm for the selected activity.

In this case, work norms are developed for each activity based on average but also, when available,

experience in various locations. Work norms should not be considered “easy” and to the extent possible

include a level of self-help or voluntary contribution to reinforce ownership and solidarity.

Note: The risk of work norms defined as “easy” or “generous” is to be avoided. Work norm considered

easy by beneficiaries tend to create dependency, lack of dedication to the activity, low efficiency, and

waste of resources (as too much is being provided for a given unit of work).

2. Integrated: this is a combination of different norms for specific activities that constitute the activity.

These norms are required when main interventions are made of several specific tasks or specific

activities (e.g. road construction and earth dam construction) that demand sub-set of specific norms for

different activities that make up the activity.

Integrated norms need to be careful not to become a combination of dozen or more different activities,

too complicated to measure and control. There is a need to ensure that while all aspects of design are

fulfilled, there is flexibility in the way field work is organized and assigned workers operate in shifts,

sharing lighter and heavier duties.

Examples

Inclusive:

Activities such as stone bunds, micro-basins, trenches, tree planting, volume of canal and earth dam

construction, etc, should possibly have one work norm.

Integrated:

Activities such as road construction need different norms to include different activities such as: i) stone

collection, ii) excavation and filling, iii) compaction, iv) stone masonry work and v) others as required.

For practical reasons the less complicated are the work norms the easier will be the monitoring aspects.

What is ultimately key is in developing sound work norms, is that they contain high quality technical

standards.

Work norms and the need for transparency:

The setting of work norms need to be communicated and explained to FFA participants – to ensure greater

transparency and understanding of what is expected in terms of achieving acceptable quality standards, the

supervision requirements necessary from work leaders/foremen and implementing partners’ staff. In this

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regard, signboards or pamphlets can be prepared and illustrate the different work norms and related wage

rates, number of hours to work and starting and closing dates of projects.

An ILO guideline for Projects in Bangladesh makes the following recommendations:

It is recommended that information on conditions of employment be prepared as a one page “conditions of

employment” circular published by the implementing agencies applicable to all work sites and including the

specific information relating to the approved food and cash package applicable to the particular site. Each

worker could then take home his project information and obtain assistance in having the information

explained. Further clarification of working conditions could also be provided by mass meetings of labourers

called by the implementing agency prior to the beginning of work on any scheme. Labourers’ entitlement and

work obligations can be clearly set out and questions asked and answered. For additional details link to:

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/bangladesh_norms.pdf

In other contexts, work norms and technical standards can be provided in the form of guidelines or

embedded in info-techs developed for participants and extension workers. The latter have, however, the

responsibility to explain to FFA participants each work norm and related technical standards as well as

aspects of division of labour, entitlements, verification procedures and gender considerations. To this effect,

a general community meeting or assembly should then be used to discuss work norms and related

implementation arrangements.

7.1.1 Useful references

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Project_activities:Food_for_work_and_assets:Leaflet_2


Report on the establishment of Work Norms (Ethiopia, WFP/MOARD, 2002)

Community based Participatory Watershed Development Guidelines (MOARD, 2005)

WFP-FAO-EU – Technical report on work norms for FFW and FFT – Guatemala – 2010

7.2 The relevance of gender issues in work norms development

There is ample reference in WFP, ILO, IFAD and other organizations’ guidelines in terms of work norms that

can be taken as a reference. In relation to work norms, key aspects to consider relate to:

1. Working hours (you may agree for less hours to be worked by women than for men) and hours of the

day preferred by women to work while accommodating key domestic tasks – often 2-3 hours in the

morning and 1-2 hours in the late afternoon

2. Type of works preferred by women (e.g. nursery activities, collection and sorting of seeds, etc)

3. Safety for women to walk in and out of the project site (to avoid danger for abduction and theft for

example) – specific arrangements to be made with elders and other members of the work force to

ensure basic safety is ensured at all times.

All FFA schemes define work norms which should include control mechanisms that ensure women carry out

tasks designed for women and that men carry out tasks designed for men. Work norms should also ensure

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/download/bangladesh_norms.pdf

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Project_activities:Food_for_work_and_assets:Leaflet_2





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that men and women are remunerated equally for their contribution and that a safe working environment

and conditions are ensured for all workers.

Other important considerations regarding safety aspects are included in the following link and specifically

relate to arrangements that partners need to include in FLA or major agreements. Leaflet 6 Working

conditions, health and safety considerations. In addition to the above and indirectly related to work norms

are the working conditions at site level – more specifically:

Systems to set in place for child caring for mothers that do not have sufficient support (tent or shelter

attended by volunteers selected amongst those beneficiaries receiving free transfers but willing to

provide a social service)

Payment in the preferred form of transfers (food, cash, combinations of food and cash, vouchers)

Selection of those FFA activities that mostly interest women and that can have women as site managers

and maintenance (e.g. water points, orchards, nurseries, woodlots etc).

Complementary services such as child care and sensitivity training for men can also assist in the successful

participation of women. Inability to participate in the building of assets due to pregnancy or household

demands such as childcare should not be a barrier to access for women or other vulnerable households.

Instead an alternate strategy for those not able to participate needs to be determined at the planning stage

to ensure their needs are met (unconditional handouts or provision of food/cash in exchange of light

services and activities such as child care, food preparation, etc).

Lighter forms of FFA should be introduced to engage women unable to participate in heavy duty labour

activities. Such FFA activities can include: care of small children for parents involved in other FFA activities,

collection of specific seeds for nursery work, sweeping of courtyards for manure/droppings and roughage

and weaving of shelters.

Additional support for vulnerable, food insecure households can include solidarity efforts or social contracts,

and through the building of assets in vulnerable, food insecure households.

7.2.1 Useful references

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDADWYGIDAEWYG

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDAFYYGIDAGYYG

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDAK5YGIDAL5YG

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDAMBZGIDANBZG

http://www.ifad.org/english/water/innowat/topic/Topic_10web.pdf

Useful although dated piece on water and gender provides interesting reading on why water development

schemes are so important for women in rural areas.

http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/2gender.htm



http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDADWYGIDAEWYG

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDAFYYGIDAGYYG

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDAK5YGIDAL5YG

http://home.wfp.org/manuals/GuidelinesECW/manual.asp?s=DocID2_IDAMBZGIDANBZG

http://www.ifad.org/english/water/innowat/topic/Topic_10web.pdf

http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/2gender.htm

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8 Food rations – Transfers composition

The following largely build upon specific existing PGM sections that relate to food, cash and vouchers

aspects.

There are 2 main aspects to consider, namely:

1. What transfer modality is appropriate and cost effective; and

2. Its implications regarding FFA.

The processes whether to use food, cash and/or vouchers, or a combination of food and cash transfers

relate to the set of processes that look into seasonality, markets, choice of communities, capacity, and other

factors such as security and gender. The existing cash and vouchers guidance include key steps for planning

that should be consulted when deciding on the feasibility and planning of cash or vouchers:

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Project_activities:Cash_and_Vouchers:Planning

The overall programme formulation and design guidance (ODXP Programme Design Chapeau - 2011)

explains how a given transfer modality (e.g. food or cash) is clearly important in relation to seasonal needs

and markets, livelihood settings and opportunities.

With regards to FFA the choice of transfer is secondary to the fundamental question of what FFA intends to

achieve (i.e. the results expected) and more specifically how these assets can impact positively at the

individual or community levels. However, a measurement of cost effectiveness, for example through an

estimate of the Alpha value, can provide additional justification for the need of cash, food or combinations

of cash and food based on seasonal variations and market analysis.

There may be additional social benefits to use only food, cash or a combination of both. Vouchers often

imply more stable systems and market supply ensured through retailers and a network of accessible shops

or market places.

The calculation of food rations in the following section largely follows food consumption needs and energy

requirements commonly used by WFP (although some specific nutritional aspects and context specific

considerations are also important). Decisions to use cash or vouchers instead of food, and specifically for

assets building, requires accurate analyses on how much cash is needed to offset consumption needs based

on reasonably accurate market considerations, how fungible cash is compared to food in a given context,

and the delivery mechanisms that are required to put in place to reach beneficiaries.

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Project_activities:Cash_and_Vouchers:Planning

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp237152.docx

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/General_guidance:Analysis#Alpha_values

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8.1 Food rations

Reference to the calculation of food ration is included in the existing PGM guidance and summarized as

follows:

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Topics:Rations#Rations_for_food-for-work.2Frecovery

The provision of incentives or payment using food is based on work norms that are appropriate to the local

circumstances – typically, it provides workers with the equivalent of about 80% of a local wage. If cash is

available from other sources it may be preferable to pay part in food and part in cash.

Food-for-work (FFW) rations enable participants from food insecure households to

contribute to meeting their households' immediate food needs while engaging in an

activity that contributes to their longer-term food security or (in an EMOP or PRRO

only) to the restoration of community services.

Particularly in a development project, the rations and the activity should make it

possible for beneficiary households to gain or preserve long-lasting assets that

contribute to their food security.

When FFW is organized in the context of an acute food supply crisis as part of an EMOP

or PRRO, the ration complements other assistance being provided to households who

are unable to obtain sufficient food to meet their needs. In general it replaces part --

exceptionally all -- of the food assistance that would otherwise have to be provided in

the form of general (free) distribution.

In all cases, the ration should be an adequate recompense for the participants but the

food basket should be simple -- usually restricted to 1-3 different commodities -- in

order to simplify logistics.

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Topics:Rations#Rations_for_food-for-work.2Frecovery

87

8.1.1 Major factors in defining FFW rations:

The following aspects must be considered when designing any FFW ration (for EMOP, PRRO, or CP/Dev

projects):

Economic transfer value to the beneficiaries – that is, the local market value of the food commodities

supplied. For guidance on calculating transfer values, see PGM: Transfer value and Alpha value.

Nutritional and dietary considerations are critical when the beneficiaries are expected to consume the

majority of the ration and do not have access to other nutrient-rich foods. This is likely to be the case

when there is little or no food available on the local market and the target beneficiaries are not receiving

other food items from general distributions or other sources. See PGM: Rations for general food

distributions for summary guidance on nutritional and dietary considerations Refer to: Stages of

Planning Rations in WFP Food and Nutrition Handbook, Chapter 8 Planning Food Rations (e |f |s ) for

more details.

Market conditions - care must be taken to avoid creating a situation in which there is an excess of any

particular commodity in the locality, to avoid 'flooding the market'. When commodities are in excess,

they end up being traded by the beneficiaries at a fraction of their real value. Beneficiaries will suffer

and the cost-effectiveness of the transfer becomes very low (i.e. large amounts of resources are

effectively wasted).

Other aspects – such as the risks of spoilage and theft of attractive items before and/or after distribution

to the beneficiaries. The relative importance given to nutritional and economic considerations depends

on the local situation, the objectives of the activity, and the role identified for food aid. Usually, the

value of a labour based FFA ration is slightly lower (80%) than the local daily wage, but designed to take

into account both the transfer value and the food requirements of an average household.

8.1.2 Food incentives for service providers

Food may be used as incentives to community service workers in refugee and IDP camps. Before providing

food incentives to personnel (e.g. teachers and health workers) in other contexts, it is important to ensure

that an exit/phasing-out strategy is in place.

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/General_guidance:Analysis#Transfer_values

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/General_guidance:Analysis#Alpha_values

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Topics:Rations#Rations_for_general_food_distribution

http://pgm.wfp.org/index.php/Topics:Rations#Rations_for_general_food_distribution

http://home.wfp.org/organisation/divisions/pd/PDP/Handbook/English/fnhb_en_cover.html

http://home.wfp.org/organisation/divisions/pd/PDP/Handbook/French/fnhb_fr_cover.html

http://home.wfp.org/organisation/divisions/pd/PDP/Handbook/Spanish/fnhb_sp_cover.html

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8.2 Cash and vouchers: transfers value and cost efficiency

The calculation of the alpha value provides a good indication on whether cash transfers are preferable -

although this indicator is only one of many that enter into the final choice on whether to choose cash,

vouchers or food in any given context.

In the EB document “Vouchers and Cash Transfers as Food Assistance Instruments: Opportunities and Challenges” (WFP/EB.2/2008/4-B)5, cost efficiency aspects are summarized as follows:

“In a context of high food prices and high transport costs, the provision of vouchers and cash transfers may

be a way for WFP to mobilize assistance more cost-efficiently when international food prices (combined with

transport costs) are higher than national and local prices. On the implementation side, vouchers and cash

transfers are often more cost-efficient than food transfer programmes – but only when local capacity exists

and markets function adequately”.

The Cash and Vouchers manual6 (page 7- 2009) suggest the following to guide the choice of these transfers:

Seven indicators for establishing when context is favourable:

1. Market function: Local markets are functioning and/or recovering

Indicator: number of shops/sellers is adequate and/or increasing

2. Food availability: Staple food commodities are mostly available on local markets

Indicator: food quantities and types in markets are adequate and/or increasing

3. Physical access: Households have continuing/easy access to markets

Indicator: seasonal access by road in wet and dry seasons improved or unchanged

4. Inflation: General inflation trends

Indicator: consumer price indices are stable

5. Prices/wages: Prices of staple foods and wages

Indicator: stable compared to long–term trends

6. Financial transfer: Reliable systems for financial transfer

Indicator: available or increasing number of financial service providers

7. Security: Security situation in general

Indicator: stable or improving

5 http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfp187787.pdf

6http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp214529.pdf#page

mode=bookmark


http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp214529.pdf#pagemode=bookmark

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp214529.pdf#pagemode=bookmark

89

These indicators are meant to be simple enough to allow regular monitoring by VAM and programme teams

in the country office without assistance from a market expert.

Specifically to FFA, the cash or vouchers value is thereafter discussed from a local level perspective, and not

from an overall cost effectiveness analysis of the overall costs to WFP to deliver cash or vouchers instead of

food. This section then discusses only to the value of the cash transfers from the perspective of the

beneficiaries receiving such transfers.

Value: In principle the cash transfer value is calculated considering the following:

1. The need to offset basic standard food consumption requirements - i.e. be sufficient to purchase an

amount of food able to fulfil the energy and nutrition requirements of an average household;

2. The value should be slightly lower (80-90%) to the average accepted labour wage to avoid affecting

labour markets (this does not include most exploitative labour markets); and

3. Should be able to provide a small balance (after fulfilling the food costs) that can be used as savings (e.g.

for an IGA), or dedicated to purchase other livelihood items such as tools or planting materials.

The above combinations are often difficult to achieve because labour markets can be distorted and highly

volatile, with the tendency to be exploitative (i.e. the demand for labour much lower than the supply on

offer) in several contexts or seasons.

However, point 1 above should be ensured to provide a food assistance objective to FFA. This is extremely

important considering that FFA projects are an integral part of food assistance objectives, whose rationale

rests on the fundamental need to meet the food requirements of the most vulnerable communities and

households living in fragile and shock affected areas – in other words to fill a food gap.

Several situations, however, will demand careful planning. The following examples will illustrate a few

scenarios that are likely to be found in the field:

Situation 1:

Scenario: In district A, cash is identified as a suitable and cost efficient transfer modality. However, although

the daily cash wage provided can procure sufficient food from the market, it is significantly lower wage than

the prevailing labour wage rates. In this situation, cash for work may be seen as exploitative and not

attracting a sufficient number of food insecure people that would be required to achieve the objective of a

specific FFA project. On the other hand, some may argue that the project is likely to attract the most

vulnerable (able bodied) people who for some reasons can not access such labour market – and as such will

strongly acting as a self targeting mechanism.

Considerations for situation 1:

The situation suggests that there is a labour market that can offer better opportunities to vulnerable

people that are able to work, and who can chose to earn more cash (and hence buy more food).

However, there may be specific marginalized and vulnerable groups that would still want to work for

a lower wage - for example, because these households can not access the labour market, or because

there are seasonal interruptions in labour availability that coincide with the hunger season, etc. In

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these cases, programme staff should identify which asset/activity would be suitable for

implementation during such periods. These assets should not require the involvement of the rest of

the community or of another relevant group for their implementation (especially maintenance).

Situation 2:

Scenario: In a district B, cash is identified as a suitable and cost efficient transfer modality. However,

although the daily wage provided can procure sufficient food from the market, it is higher than the prevailing

daily labour wage rate. In this situation, FFA using cash is likely to attract many more people who may

compete for the labour opportunities offered. The risk is that most vulnerable groups may be penalized or

not able to participate for sufficient periods of time. There is the possibility to disrupt local labour markets

that may affect agriculture or other local economic activities.


Depending on how much higher is the cash wage compared to the prevailing labour wage, a voucher

transfer may be preferred to cash transfers (this may be considered for wages 30-50% or higher than

prevailing labour wages – excluding situations of exploitative wages) coupled with a thorough

targeting approach. Another possible solution would be to seek an adjustment downwards of the

cash transfers to reach the average prevailing labour wage rate whilst recognizing it is insufficient to

buy the full food requirements of the household, and shortfalls covered through the provision of

complementary food handouts. Overall, this situation requires accurate planning at community and

groups level, with precise targeting criteria discussed and decided by the community.

Situation 3:

Scenario: In country C, cash rates for FFA (CFW/FFW) projects are pre-determined by the Government and

are considerably higher that the prevailing labour wage rate.


A main approach would be to opt for vouchers linked to a given food basket. In case vouchers are

not possible and cash for work is the only option, select shorter periods within a month for work

(e.g. 12 days), during specific months of the year, and with activity types that do not affect periods

of high labour demand in agriculture.

Annex D-2: Excerpts from a World Bank Report (2009) “How to Make Public Works Work”:


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9 Budget planning

This section covers an example of budget planning for a typical FFA investment, both in terms of the food

(and/or cash) transfers costs and of the Non-Food-Items (NFI’s) costs.

Very simply, the number of estimated FFA participants and the food/cash transfers period provides a rough

indication of total food budget and associated costs although not defined by main FFA interventions.

However, as it is very difficult to come up with a standard budget planning approach for each main context

and FFA intervention, the main elements to consider in budget planning relate to the following:

i. The costs related to wages for implementation: relates to what it takes to complete a given piece

of work or asset over a given area or distance, for a given group or community. The work norms

should then define the food and/or cash & vouchers resources needed for a specific amount of work

or assets to be constructed for a given location, area and purpose. This results in the determination

of the food and/or cash & vouchers costs for the selected FFA interventions.

ii. The costs associated to staffing: which relate to the Direct Support Costs (DSC) - any FFA

programme component need to have a number of programme staff budgeted for technical support

and M&E. The number of staff at CO and Sub-Office levels varies with the size of the FFA component

and its complexity. However, minimum requirements need to be ensured.

iii. The costs related to capacity development: is largely considered under Other Direct Operational

Costs (ODOC) and includes budget for training of counterpart staff, training of beneficiaries and

team leaders, experience sharing, advocacy, and other costs such as those related to non-wage or

Non-Food-Items (NFI) costs.

9.1 Budget plan for FFA interventions and/or proposals

Filed staff are confronted with the need to make budget plans and/or estimates for FFA interventions to

submit to management ore potential donors, or simply to support the rationale on what is required to

address specific food insecurity problems. Budget planning for FFA is context, objective and intervention

specific but will include both food or cash & vouchers costs and non food (or non wage) costs. In case of joint

programmes or complementary efforts, these plans may include other non –WFP costs that will be met by

the partner (s). On the other hand, confirmed or predicted Government and communities’ contribution

should be always included in WFP budget planning.

Of relevance is to think budget planning in relation to the outcomes that FFA is supposed to generate. For

example on what it takes to achieve resilience at community or area level. This exercise helps in defining a

number of requirements, both in terms of assets needed to be established (and how to phase the different

interventions), the tools, equipment and materials needed, and the capacity development efforts necessary

to support these investments.

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Example: How much is an investment for “change” in terms of resilience on an average food

insecure community?

The following is an estimate based on average costs/community based on experience from the

Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development and WFP supported MERET7 project in Ethiopia.

Average community sites to be treated include an area of approximately 500-1000 hectares and a

population of 1200-1800 people. The level and range of investment/site assumes at least 60-70% of

the total area is in need of significant support in terms of establishment of various bio-physical and

infrastructure assets.

Furthermore, the “investment” includes minimum

requirements for capacity building at counterparts and

beneficiaries level, which include critical aspects of

participatory planning, empowerment and management

activities. These latter aspects are covered by ODOC

budget.

Table 3 below offers a breakdown on what are the

minimum food and non-food requirements in a FFA supported community able to induce the

desired changes. The food tonnage coupled with self-help support indicated below is considered

the “standard requirement” 8 able to induce significant changes in terms of rehabilitation, food

security and livelihoods enhancement. The non-wage budget, however, is considered only as a

minimum requirement (as related to ODOC only). This should increase based on local conditions

and partnerships.

Table 3: Intervention areas and level of investment required in Food/Cash-For-Work per average

community

A) Food/Cash-for-work requirements by type of intervention

(over a 5 years period)

Land use/unit Food costs9

(MTs)

1. Upper watershed treatment with trenches and eyebrow

basins in communal areas (10% self-help)

120 ha 171

2. Middle steep slopes cultivated area treatment with

conservation measures (25% self-help)

85 ha 56

3. Lower cultivated land treatment with various conservation

measures (50% self-help)

170 ha 90

4. Vegetative stabilization of conservation structures, fertility

management and agroforestry (80% self-help)

250 km 8

5. Water collections ponds (6-7000 m³ each) (20% self-help) 2 50

7 MERET is a WFP supported participatory rural land rehabilitation programme operational in some 400 communities

8 These costs are only estimates, based on the Ethiopia experience, and may be revised upwards or downwards depending on food

prices and the use of cash or a mix of cash and food transfers for FFW/CFW 9 This assumes equivalent food/cash costs – however, in most cases cash based transfers will reduce costs of A in several contexts

What can $4.5 million buy? 25 communities will be able to make 12,500 hectares of degraded, drought-prone land, productive, benefiting almost 40,000 people, for decades.

93

A) Food/Cash-for-work requirements by type of intervention

(over a 5 years period)

Land use/unit Food costs9

(MTs)

6. Spring development (30% self-help) and irrigation 2 5

7. Nursery establishment (100,000 seedlings/year) (20% self-

help)

1 15

8. Shallow wells on individual/groups basis (50% self-help) 50 7

9. Feeder & rural roads (average 5 km/community – 10% self-

help)

5 km 45

10. Sedimentation & overflow dams and checks in gullies (10%

self-help)

15,000 m³ 80

Total (5 years) 527 MTs

Total USD (value approx. 500 USD/Ton all costs included) 263,500

B) Minimum non-wage requirements (for 5 years) Units USD

1. Agricultural tools 250 sets (5tools

each)

2,500

2. Surveying and layout equipment 15 sets 150

3. Transport means 1 2,000

4. Running costs NA 1,250

5. Training of farmers 50 persons 3,500

6. On the job training for professionals + educational incentives 2 4,000

7. Construction materials such as cement, gabions, iron mesh NA 5,000

8. Revolving fund to support use of improved technologies

(IGA)

300HH 15,000

Total additional non-wage requirement costs for the 5 years period 33,400

GRAND TOTAL A)+B) for 5 YEARS (USD) 296,900

GRAND TOTAL/YEAR (USD) 59,380

Scaling up:

1. In any selected priority country, a minimum of 25 community-based model watersheds/areas is

considered as appropriate to demonstrate a scalable dimension of implementation. For such a scale

approximately 7.5 million USD are required for a 5 years period or approx 1.5 million USD/year. An initial 3

years period of major investments is considered as key to establish the main assets required in any average

degraded and highly food insecure community – which is about 4,500,000 USD.

2. Further scaling up does not necessarily need to wait full 3 years and may be envisaged after 2 or more

years based on results.

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9.2 Non Food Items

The term Non-Food-Items (NFI) needs to be understood also as Non-Cash-Items or more in general as a non-

transfer/wage-item. Furthermore, these items should not be limited to tools and small equipment but also

related to training materials, office equipment, support to planning and surveys, and support to capacity

development of local and national level institutions.

It is quite common to find a number of projects very well planned and in line with priorities at the local level

that have poor performance just because of the late arrival of tools, lack of quality tools, scarcity of the

means required to ensure minimum supervision, and the lack of funds for training required for proper

planning or implementation.

There are three major categories of non-food (or cash) items:

I. Items required for implementation such as tools, construction materials and various equipment;

II. Items needed for technical surveys, participatory planning and, subsequently, for monitoring and

evaluation;

III. Items for capacity development (including institutional building).

More specifically:

9.2.1 Tools, construction materials and equipment

Planning the correct set of tools is important. There are examples of poorly performing feeder roads simply

because the tools used have been inadequate (e.g. only hoes, shovels and pick axes – but no crow bars and

sledge hammers), forcing to compromise with the layout of the road such as removal of large stones and the

excavation of side drains, consolidation of shoulders around curves and carving steeper tracts at the correct

angle. Similar examples abound for other works – for instance shallower and poorly performing water ponds

or the lack of stone rip-rap and aprons in waterways simply because of the lack of adequate tools to dig hard

pans, shape or break stones.

In other instances, a minimum of construction materials are required without which it is often not

recommended to start a given FFA. These items should be provided either through WFP (ODOC budget) or

through partners when WFP resources are not sufficient to cover these costs. For example, mesh wire for

gabion making, iron bars and concrete slabs for specific road sections, moulds for bricks or cement rings for

shallow wells, logs and culverts for bridges, cement for full concrete surround structures for culverts (i.e.

construction of masonry head and wing wall) to cross drainage lines, polythene tubes for seedling

production, etc. Regarding equipment these range from manual rollers for compaction, to rented trucks for

transport of sand, stones or other construction material, an irrigation pump, etc.

The following aspects are critical to plan the needs for tools, materials and equipment:

1. Type of activities implemented (e.g. feeder road, pond, bridge, terraces, other);

2. A sufficiently accurate understanding of the physical contexts (e.g. soil type, rockiness, etc);

95

3. Cultural factors (some tools not used in specific contexts and local tools can be more effective –

therefore the possibility to buy such tools from local markets);

4. An approximate understanding of the availability of local tools (taking advantage of existing tools and

abilities);

5. Timing and availability (e.g. how to synchronize start up of the intended project activities with purchase

and provision of items).

Table 4 - Example of planning hand tools

A community has decided that the extension of a pond would increase its capacity to cater for water

consumption needs of the entire community during the dry season. The major task in improving this asset

will be excavation of 300m³ of medium soil, removal of the soil to a distance of 150m and then spreading it

out in the new area away from the pond.

Activity Quantity

(m³)

Worknorm

(m³/day)

Total Number of days

No. of persons per day for 10 days

Hand tools required

Excavation 300 2 150 15 15 hoes and shovels

Loading wheelbarrows

300 6 50 5 5 shovels

Transporting by wheelbarrow

300 4.5 67 7 Minimum 7 wheelbarrows

Optimally 14

Spreading 300 10 30 3 3 hoes and 3 rakes

Sub-total 297 30

10% Contingency 30

Total 327

If 15 people are excavating, then 5 people are needed for loading, 7 people for transporting the soil with the

wheelbarrows, and 3 people for spreading. 30 people could achieve this activity over a period of 10 days. It is always

recommended to allow 10% extra during planning as often it takes a little time to organize the activity and to reach the

required productivity levels. This means that any small number of extra days, required to complete the asset, are

covered in the planned food allocation. About 300-330 daily rations of food incentives would be required for the

physical asset creation. This plan anticipates that the correct type and number of good quality tools and equipment will

be available for each operation, and that the haulage route for the wheelbarrows will be at a reasonable gradient and

relatively smooth.

9.2.2 Items for technical surveys, planning, and M&E Items needed for technical surveys, participatory planning and, subsequently, for monitoring and evaluation should also be planned for and budgeted.

Basic surveying equipment is often necessary even for simple works. For example, ropes, nylon strings,

wooden poles, graduated poles, meter tape, line levels, water levels, A-Frame level, direction compass,

topographic maps, clinometers (to measure slope gradients), etc. More sophisticated measuring equipment

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may include optic levels (to measure points of same elevation), stereoscopes (to interpret aerial photos and

delineate watershed boundaries), and other equipment that relate to measurements or layout of specific

structures. Table 5 provides some common key surveying equipment needed by main intervention areas

required for staff:

Table 5

SR Type of Intervention Surveying & layout equipment

1 Soil conservation works (contour

terraces, graded structures, gully control

measures, etc)

. Line levels (hooked levels on 5-10m string),

. Water levels (alternative to the above)

. A-frames (allows to check top level of soil or stone bunds, and layout

of small structures along contours)

. Graduated poles and pegs to mark contour lines

. Measuring tape (50-100m)

. Clinometers (for slope measurement – from portable instruments to

very basic ‘paper’ clinometers)

2 Water harvesting works (ponds, farm

dams, reservoirs, spring development)

. Soil texture chart (to classify main soil materials – e.g. for use for

core of embankment, clay blankets for seepage control, etc )

. Water quality control kit (specific measures only)

. Line levels – as above

. Topomaps, aerial photos, stereoscope, for catchment area

delineation, etc.

3 Forestry interventions (particularly in dry

zones)

. A-frame (layout of trenches & other structures along complex slopes,

etc)

. Clinometers

. Measuring tapes, etc

. Topomaps and aerial photos (as required).

4 Feeder roads construction and

rehabilitation

. Optic levels (e.g. Abney level), line levels.

. T-pegs, rope,

. Graduated poles/rods, measuring tape

. Clinometer, etc

5 Removal of debris . Aerial photos or satellite images of areas impacted by shocks (for

example Haiti after the earthquake) to classify priority areas, access

problems and priority efforts, etc)

. Pegs, poles, warning cordons, etc, as required

Example of specific requirements: the case of feeder or ‘green’ roads in Nepal

This excerpt derives from the GTZ/SDC ‘Green Roads in Nepal - Best Practices Report’ (link below) produced

in 1999 – which is an excellent report inclusive of steps, procedures, designs and sketches that can be taken

as a major guidance for road construction in mountainous and fragile landscapes:

http://www.transweb.ch/mobility/downloads/Green_Roads_in_Nepal.pdf

‘Green roads are generally constructed by people’s participation, where sophisticated survey and detailed

design works are not so essential. In fact, detailed desk design work consumes a lot of time and energy, and

usually ends up with voluminous reports that are hardly used during construction. Therefore, Green Roads

emphasize only minimal survey and design essential for technical and official purposes. To guide technicians

in the field, typical designs for retaining structures as well as water management structures prepared

beforehand are used. Most important is that the road follows a smooth longitudinal gradient with an

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average of 7% and a maximum of 12%. The horizontal alignment generally follows the natural contour, but

can be gradually improved in major rehabilitation works later on.

After selecting the optimum alignment, the minimum requirement for a technical survey works is the following:

Longitudinal alignment setting is done with “Abney level” or levelling instrument, staff and measuring tapes.

Road Centreline Pegs are fixed at intervals of 25m, and the cross slope at each peg point is measured.

Bench Marks are established at intervals of 500m, and Reference Points are located at the rates of 4 per km.

A more detailed survey by using Theodolite is carried out only at critical sections, such as gullies, hairpin bends

(switchbacks) etc. which could include contour mapping.

A local plant availability survey is conducted at certain intervals to identify suitable plants, which could be later

used for bioengineering purposes.

A land-use survey (forest, agricultural land, pasture land, rock cliffs, etc.) and a soil survey (earth, gravel, rock,

conglomerate, etc.) are carried out.

Simple and robust survey instruments are to be used for survey and construction supervision works. Some of the most

essential instruments are listed here as follows:

Measurement tapes of different lengths (5m, 30m, 50m, 100m, etc.)

Ranging Rods

Abney Level

Magnetic Compass

Clinometer

Camera

Binocular

Engineering Level with horizontal compass and circle

Cross Staffs

Plumb bobs

Theodolite for specialised survey works at critical sites such as at switchbacks, landslide prone zones, steep rocky

portions, gullies, settlement areas

Pipe water level (5 m transparent pipe)

Wooden triangle frames to fix the road surface (camber, slopes, cross section of drainage, etc.)

A typical Design Report would consist of the following:

Longitudinal Profile of the road alignment (1:1000 Horizontal and 1:100 Vertical)

Horizontal plan of the road on an existing topographical map (1:25000 or 1:50000)

Cross Sections at given intervals and typical cross sections of varying mountain slopes

Detailed Cross Sections at critical areas including layout plan in contour maps, if necessary, specially at switchbacks

Typical type designs of structural works, such as retaining walls and water management structures

Estimate of quantity and cost of different work items, preferably for each construction phase, and finally number of

skilled and unskilled labour person days required

Quantity and cost of construction materials to be procured from outside (cement, gabion wires, etc.)

Quantity of tools and equipment to be procured from outside (wheelbarrows, shovels, crowbars, etc.)’.

The photos on the next page show a set of simple instruments being used for layout, design and

measurement of different interventions.

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Delineating maps using direction compass Watershed delineation with topomaps

Checking of soil texture and properties Using A-frame for layout and design of trenches

Measuring gully width for major rehabilitation Using aerial photos and stereoscopes for mapping

Layout of soil bunds using line level & poles Level of the soil bund checked with A-Frames Plate 52

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10 Complementarity

As FFA interventions are often planned together with partners, the role of complementary assistance (from

NGO and UN partners, government and communities, etc) is also described, including some practical

examples.

A main outcome of the seasonal livelihood programming exercise (Module B) is the ability to engage and understand various partners’ comparative advantages from the perspective of their capacity, area coverage and complementarities. Community based planning approaches further provide the platform for greater coherent and complementary efforts. To this effect, FFA should not be seen in isolation but as a value added activity. Opportunities to foster partnerships with UN agencies such as with FAO and IFAD in particular need to be

explored, often using pilot sites as areas for convergence of activities.

For example, FAO can provide technical training and support to specific activities (e.g. post harvest losses,

aquaculture, integrated pest management, etc) and organize agricultural enterprises for outputs markets

development. IFAD can support institutional capacity efforts, infrastructure development and major efforts

linked to income generation. WFP, FAO and IFAD could also explore greater opportunities for local purchase

from smallholder farmers, invest in watershed based development, livestock based initiatives and overall

support to households’ enhanced food security.

What it means in concrete terms:

i. There is a limit to what FFA can do and can do well; ii. That there is a need to verify whether specific NGO or other partners from Government or at community level have the technical skills to design and implement FFA activities but also those that will reinforce or improve the sustainability of FFA interventions. For example a tree nursery supported through FFA will benefit from skills on how to graft specific fruit trees, etc; iii. Complementarity is often the way to rapid handover to institutions and communities. In each country there are a number of potential partnerships and complementary support measures that need to be explored more deliberately. The following Table 6 is an example from the Zimbabwe Country Office (2011) which outlines significant potential efforts and their applicability.


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Table 6: Menu of possible10 F-CFA interventions by focus groups, complementary measures

MAIN F-CFA (semi-arid areas focus) Focus Group (s) Complementary measures from

partners (not for F-CFA)

Integration requirements

Physical soil and water conservation

measures such as:

. Level Soil Bund (level contour)

. Level Fanya Juu (level contour in deeper and more stable soils - see infotech for main technical specifications) . Small stone or soil/stone faced bunds with run-on and run-off areas (rectangular or trapezoidal bunds, etc) . Training in SWC measures

Mainly groups of

households and

individual

households based

on size and

location of

cultivated plots

1. Conservation agriculture (CA)

practices in between level bunds

2. Within CA promote improved

selection of crops (e.g. shift from

maize to small grains, etc)

3.Within CA promote compost

applications – particularly 2-4 meters

above bunds where soil is deeper

and moisture higher

4. Within CA also promote

intercropping of drought resistant

deep rooted legumes (e.g. pigeon

peas) every 5-8 lines of cereals,

possibly along ripped lines

5. Within CA test vertical mulching

along the contours in between

bunds (e.g. 3-4 lines every 20

meters) using cereal stocks + legume

rows

6. Control grazing, fencing, livestock

management

7. Others as required

1. Physical structures need to be integrated

with stabilization of embankments with

legumes and shrubs (see infotech Annex D-1

for main spec). They can increase the

effectiveness of CA, particularly in sloping

terrains and soils with low water retention

capacity. The whole system requires

agreements on control grazing for at least the

first year to avoid trampling and damage of

contour level structures.

2. For runon-runoff systems are suitable to

grow crops in lower rainfall ranges, require

accurate layout and testing on the ratio micro-

catchment/cropping area (usually 3-5:1)

10

This list is not exhaustive and focusing largely on what F-CFA can support within the context of semi-arid lands. The range of complementary measures is also simplified around main intervention areas (such as CA) within which numerous packages and designs are developed by partners (FAO, GTZ, AAA, etc) and possible to modify based on local contexts.


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Small scale water harvesting measures such as: . Hand-dug shallow wells . Low cost micro-ponds . Spring Development . Training in home gardens planning (rotation, IPM, species selection, utilization, etc)

Mainly small groups of households (2-5) and individual households

1. Introduce and test low cost drip irrigation systems 2. Low cost water lifting devices 3. Home gardens and CA practices 4. Provision of improved horticulture seeds 5. For springs possible to construct overnight storage cistern/tank to collect overflow for subsequent use

1. Low cost drip irrigation systems need to be

re-introduced with adequate package of

training, follow up and adjustments, including

integration with home gardening skills,

selection of crops, etc.

2. Training on management of the scheme and

on small repairs needs to be undertaken.

3. Maintenance responsibilities need to be

agreed by beneficiaries, including the possible

establishment of a pool fund for such

maintenance.

Water harvesting ‘support’ measures such as: . Percolation pits . Percolation Pond

Village groups 1. Most of the measures listed above


These structures are established to improve

the recharge of water tables as well as protect

downstream fields. They can be established

below rocky outcrops and hilly terrains at the

break of slope. Infiltration pits or ponds are

fed with runoff using a cutoff drain – they may

be de-silted every few years using community

joint self-help efforts (infotech in Annex D-1)

Medium scale water harvesting (WH) measures such as: . Farm Dam Construction . Farm Pond Construction . Diversion Weir Construction . Cut-off Drains . Irrigation schemes rehabilitation and development (canals digging, repairs, etc) . Dams and spillways repairs or rehabilitation . Silt traps construction . De-siltation and deepening of existing ponds

Village level/cluster

of villages

1. Provision of construction

materials (pipes, cement, mesh wire,

etc) and supervision of rehabilitation

or construction of WH schemes

2. CA within rehabilitated plots

3. Fencing and protection of

schemes

5. Provision of seeds or planting

materials for the re-vegetation of

1. These activities may require a number of

integration measures such as small-catchment

protection, soil erosion control and

conservation measures, and fencing to avoid

rapid siltation of pond or damage to dams

during high powered rainfall showers.

2. Integration with self-help efforts and

organization of user groups should be key


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. Establishment of clay blankets to reduce vertical percolation in ponds . River-bed sand dams . Training in irrigation management/user groups

embankments

6. Training in farmers’ business

enterprises

7. Market development and

organization of seed fairs


prerequisite for establishing such schemes.

3. Some of the measures indicated such as

sand dams need careful selection and may

only be suitable in few locations.

In situ moisture conservation such as: . Tie Ridge (s) . The Zai and Planting Pit System

Individual and

small groups of

households

1. Mainly CA measures

2. Undertaken in between physical

soil conservation measures such as

contour bunds

This activity may require fine tuning to better

adapt the specific Zimbabwe semi-arid

conditions, particularly effective in drier parts

and only with Sorghum.

Selected homestead development measures such as: . Compost making . Stabilization of physical structures and farm boundaries . Vegetative Fencing . Multi-storey gardening . Seed collection . Training on the above measures

Household and

small groups of

households

1. Mainly CA measures and water

harvesting

2. Small nursery development and

provision of planting materials

3. Provision of training on seed

collection, storage and preparation

for planting (e.g. possible

scarification, soaking, etc)


1. These measures are selected as they may

require F-CFA support for the collection of

planting materials (for fencing), excavation of

double pits (8-12m³ each) for composting, etc.

2. Compost making entrepreneurship can

become a business at village level, with groups

of unemployed or poor households

undertaking compost preparation at

significant scale for others and become service

providers for farmers with sufficient land.

3. These measures integrate with a number of

previously listed activities

Physical and protection measures for agroforestry in dry lands: . Area Closure . Micro-basins (MBs) . Eyebrow Basins (EBs) . Herring bones (HBs)

. Household focus (within homestead) . Group focus (within groups gardens, small catchments)

1. Tree/cash crops planting – seed provision 2. Provision of fruit trees, including improved grafted varieties 3. Training on grafting techniques 4. Use of grasses and forage for

1. Area closure (AC) safeguards specific areas from livestock and people’s interference by reaching agreements with villages or the community. AC can protect settlements, water reservoirs, etc. Areas put under area closure can be fenced and rehabilitated with physical

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. Micro-trenches (MTRs)

. Trenches

. Improved Pits (IP)

. Village or community focus (small catchments, WH schemes protection, SWC in degraded spots)

livestock rearing 5. Improved animal husbandry associated to development of backyards

measures and planting of multi-purpose species. 2. Trenches, eyebrows and other structures allow the growth of tree species using small micro-catchments – effective in using small spaces within homesteads (see Annex D-1)

Nursery establishment . Fencing, seedbed preparation, composting, pot filling, transplanting, weeding, watering, etc . Seed collection, preservation and storage . Grass and legume seeds multiplication centres

. Small groups of

HH

. Village

. Community

1. Provision of materials, equipment,

reels of polythene tubes, etc.

2. Provision of training on specific

planting and nursery management

techniques

3. Establishment of selling points for

seedlings or cash crops, fruits, etc

4. Livestock integrated packages

1. The establishment of nurseries is closely

linked to water harvesting measures and the

enabling effect that these measures have on

water availability.

2. Nurseries organized by women can become

major production centres, including

integration with small livestock fattening,

small dairy development, beekeeping, etc.

3. Seed multiplication can also be linked to

major animal feed enhancement programmes

Gully control measures such as: . Stone Checkdams . Brushwood Checkdams . Gully Reshaping, Filling and Re-vegetation . Sediment Storage and Overflow Earth Dams (SS Dams) for productive gully control . Training on the above

Groups/village

/community

1. Provision of technical expertise

and planting materials as required

2. Provision of gabions (only if

required)

3. Transport means for construction

materials (e.g. stones)


1. The rehabilitation of gullies is key to protect

fields from soil erosion and improve water

harvesting.

2. SSDams are structures placed on large gully

networks to retain water and convert gullies

into productive fields (Annex D-1) – series of

SSdams raise water tables and enable shallow

wells to be constructed below structures.

Access feeder roads: . Earth road on mountainous terrain–stable soils . Gravelled road on flat and rolling terrain – sandy or weak soils

Community and

inter-community

1. Technical support and provision of

enhanced standards adapted to

withstand high intensity rains

1. Feeder road activity is integrated with

market development and the outputs from

the enhanced production enabled by WH



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. Gravelled road on mountainous terrain – weak soils . Feeder roads unstable soils . Typical pipe culvert using concrete rings . Standard drift . Bridge construction . Training on design and layout/construction

2. Provision of equipment for

compaction (low cost)

3. Transport of construction

materials (e.g. stones, etc)

4. Training of user groups

activities.

2. Feeder roads are in unstable terrains should

not be wide (max 4 mtrs)

3. Gully control and attention to side drainage

is key

4. Training at community (all villages) and

inter-community (e.g. if feeder road crosses

two or more wards) levels on how to establish

local road repair management groups.

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11 Capacity Development for FFA

11.1 General considerations

This section relates to capacity aspects during implementation of FFA, including the actual planning work at the field level. Two main clusters of capacity development efforts are therefore important for FFA: (1) The first one is about creating general awareness amongst stakeholders on FFA and build consensus on the rationale for FFA and about the role that WFP plays within a given context. (2) The second will focus on building the capacity of cooperating partners, local institutions and of communities on planning, technical design, follow up and monitoring & evaluation aspects. This is very important mainly to understand local biophysical and socio-economic/vulnerability context, initiate and foster participation, design interventions of quality, seek partnerships and establish a solid basis for M&E.

Plate 53 Example of strengthening local capacity of government institutions

WFP has a track record of efforts undertaken to support capacity building of local institutions and partners – including through a number of practical trainings – such as early warning and preparedness, nutrition, and HIV/AIDS. Training on food-for-assets is also common in some countries although not always directly undertaken by WFP. A number of partners such as GTZ, AAA, World Vision and other NGOs as well as local Ministries (Agriculture, Water, Infrastructure, etc) and UN agencies (e.g. ILO, FAO, etc) have developed training materials related to FFA. In most cases, these tools are country specific.

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11.2 Capacity Development for FFA: skills sets and main elements

The following includes a set of references that can be used by CO to strengthen their own as wells partner’s

capacity for FFA – for each main task, links to most sections of the FFA PGM are provided. Table 7 can also be

considered as an overall checklist for FFA:

Table 7 Capacity building elements for FFA

Capacity Task 1 Rationale for FFA in relation to the Strategic Plan, Policy (WFP and of Gvt), and Programme Categories

Main sub-tasks Knowledge and skills Links/references

1.1 Understand WFP policies, strategic objectives, programme categories and frameworks related to FFA.

a. FFA and Strategic Objectives (SO) b. FFA and Programme Categories (FFA as a programme response in emergencies, recovery and longer term enabling development) c. FFA role in overall disaster prevention, post disaster recovery and longer term food security efforts d. Relevance of food security in Gvt Poverty Reduction Strategies, Productive Safety Nets and Resilience Building programmes (if any) e. Role of FFA in sustainable land management f. Synergies between FFA and other WFP activities

a: Module A b: Module A - b: EB-2010 c: Module B d: Pillar 5 – ODXP programme guidance How To e: Annex B-3 f: Module A

1.2 Identify and develop consultative processes to support policy and strategies that include resilience building in vulnerable, food insecure, shock prone and degraded contexts.

a. Consultative processes for coalitions for food security and policy/strategy support b. Consultative processes for productive safety net development c. Role of FFA in resilience building

a-b: Pillar 5 – ODXP Programme Guidance c: Module A

1.3 Provide programme support on FFA in relation to resilience building, disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change

a. FFA in overall programme response and design cycle b. Linkages FFA, Resilience building, DRR and Adaptation (explanatory note)

a-b: Module A

Capacity Task 2 Analyze local contexts, vulnerability and risks in relation to FFA Main elements Knowledge and skills Links/references

2.1 Identify main causes of vulnerability and role of FFA to address these causes

a. Nexus fragile ecosystems, land degradation and livelihoods b. Watershed logic c. FFA and land degradation

a: Annex B-3 b: Annex C-3 c: Annex B-2

2.2 Description of the type and trends of shocks and implications for selection of FFA

a. Typologies of shocks and implications for FFA b. Shock trend analysis and building the case for resilience building c. Broad responses for FFA in relation to type of shocks

a-b: Module B c: Module B (Section 1)

Capacity Task 3 Seasonal livelihood programming and relevance for FFA Main elements Knowledge and skills Links/references

3.1 Use of seasonal livelihood programming to inform context specific FFA interventions and complementary programme support

a. Programming FFA (agrarian systems) b. Programming FFA (pastoral and agropastoral) c. Programming FFA in urban and peri-urban settings d. Partnerships development using seasonal livelihood joint programming exercises

a-c: Module B

3.2 Inform strategies to develop context specific emergency response, early recovery and

a. Field level consultative processes b. Seasonal livelihood and response analysis in good, bad and typical years

a-d: Module B





















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resilience building programmes that include FFA and joint efforts.

c. Mapping out stakeholders’ role, comparative advantage and complementarities d. Priority interventions for FFA

Capacity Task 4 Type of FFA in relation to capacity, programme categories and shocks Main elements Knowledge and skills Links/references

4.1 Identify FFA response options based on local capacity and type of shock

a. Low-tech/low-risk FFA in low capacity contexts b. High tech/higher risk FFA in contexts with adequate or high capacity c. FFA in post disaster situations (slow and rapid onset) d. FFA in early and extended recovery settings e. FFA in longer term enabling development f. FFA in complex emergencies

a-f: Module C

4.2 Relevance of food and/or cash transfers for FFA

a. Food rations/cash wages b. Alpha value – links to cash programming c. Combinations food/cash d. Gender aspects

a-d: Module D

Capacity Task 5 Context specific FFA interventions Main elements Knowledge and skills Links/references 5.1 Selecting and designing FFA interventions in different ecological and livelihood settings

a. FFA in arid and semi-arid contexts (agrarian and pastoralists) b. FFA in tropical and subtropical contexts c. FFA in flood prone areas d. FFA for market and social infrastructure e. Other complementary FFA

a-e: Module D

5.2 Defining work norms and technical standards

a. Work standards b. Work norm elements c. Info-techs

a-b: Module D c: Module D & Annex D-1

5.3 Incorporating gender aspects and FFA

a. Environmental hardships reduction b. Group formation for management of natural resources and assets c. Linkages to income generation activities

a-c: Module D

5.4 Budgeting Non-Food-Items and the role of complementary assistance

a. Layout and design material b. Tools and equipment – impact on quality

a-b: Module D

5.5 Use and selection of participatory planning approaches for FFA

a. Participatory planning – social and biophysical require. b. Participatory planning in low capacity contexts c. Community based participatory watershed planning d. Linkages to district and national level planning e. Planning approaches in pastoral and urban settings

a: Module C b: Annex C-2 c-d: Annex C-3 e: Annex C-1

5.6 How to capture and network best practices

a. Approaches and templates b. Advocacy and networking tools c. Examples

a-b: Module E c: Annex E-2

Capacity Task 6 M&E requirements

Main elements Knowledge and skills Links/references 6.1 Selecting outcome and output indicators

a. Community and Household Assets Scores b. Other indicators c. Measuring resilience

a-c: Module E

6.2 How to measure M&E indicators

a. Systems development b. Linkages to overall Strategic Results Framework c. Tools and risks

a-c: Module E

6.3 Evaluations of FFA components

a. Key aspects for FFA evaluation b. Linkages to research c. Land use and degradation change dynamics

a-c: Module E


















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11.3 Awareness creation on FFA at CO and partners’ level

WFP programme staff at CO and SO level responsible for the design of programmes that include FFA have to ensure that other staff and field monitors involved in FFA are equipped with the required knowledge on FFA. This information can be presented in the form of power point presentations and discussions related to the main components of the PGM for agrarian systems. Three presentations are examples of what can be used by CO to support awareness on the relevance of FFA and it includes: 1. A Generic Presentation on FFA that can be used and changed to suit a particular context (and enriched

with specific photos and visuals and required).

2. A detail FFA presentation related to Ethiopia and linked to the context, the scope of the FFA project, its

main drives and impacts.

3. A FFA presentation on the Rationale for Programme Design in Haiti and Role of FFA including specific

interventions suitable in extremely degraded areas.

11.4 Training on FFA planning, design and implementation

The following modules have been developed in Ethiopia for training counterparts and field staff in

participatory watershed development through FFA.

These modules are available through the following links and offer a wide spectrum of modules and technical

as well as photographic material that can be used for similar training exercises elsewhere. These, of course,

need to be adapted and simplified within contexts that demand much simpler set of investments and type of

FFA.

Table 8: File names/links to training modules on Participatory Watershed Management Training for the Productive Safety Net Programme in Ethiopia (adopted from the MERET Project)

ToT: Agenda - Contents and Schedule Topic 14: Contents

Training Content - guide Topic 14.2.2: Identification and priorities change 2 -part 1

Topic 1: Public-Community Works and Watershed Management

Topic 14.2: Technological options in biological measures

Topic 2: Planning an effective training Field exercise selection of interventions

Topic 3: Participatory Planning Methods and Tools Topic 14.2.2a: Example 1

Topic 4: Concept and Principles of Watershed Development

Topic 14.2.2b: Example 2

Topic 5: Participatory Planning - Step 1 Topic 14.2.2c: Example 3

Topic 5: Participatory Planning - Step 2 Topic: 14.2.1: Lecture (Biological Conservation]

Topic 6: Getting started at Woreda Level Topic: 14.1.3 - Flood Control

Topic 7: Getting started at Community Level Topic 14. Agroforestry

Topic 8.0: Socio-economic Surveys - Procedures to follow Topic 15: Notes on Water Harvesting (slides)

Topic 8.1: Getting to know your area - Trend Analysis - Topic 15: Water Harvesting for Cultivated lands (PPT)

http://docustore.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/manual_guide_proced/wfp238006.pptx





























109

Exercise 1

Topic 8.2: Village Mapping - Exercise 2 Topic 15.1: Water Harvesting - Part 1

Topic 8.3: Transect walk - Exercise 3 Topic 15.1: Water Harvesting - Part 2

Topic 8.4: Institutional Analysis - Exercise 4 Topic 15.1: Water Harvesting - Part 3

Topic 8.5: Vision of change - Exercise 5 Topic 15.1: Water Harvesting - Part 4

Topic 8.6: Problem Identification - Exercise 6 Topic 15.1: Water Harvesting - Part 5

Topic 8.7: Socio-economic Survey Questionnaires - Exercise 7

Topic 15.1: Water Harvesting - Part 6

Topic 8.8: Checklist for bio-physical Assessment Topic 16: Options for Social Services

Topic 8.9: Socio-economic Survey - Guide for field work Topic 17: Ethiopia PSNP PW Training Module Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) 18

Topic 9: Gender ToT (PPT) Environmental Assessment - format sheet

Topic 10: HIV and PSNP (Report) Environmental Assessment - EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment)

Topic 10: HIV and PSNP (PPT) Environmental Assessment - training fieldwork

Topic 11: Biophysical Assessment Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) - PSNP & PW - training field work

Topic 12: Mapping exercise and simple surveying techniques

Topic 18: Ethiopia PSNP PW Training Module Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) 19

Topic 13.1: Identification and Prioritization - general Topic 19: Getting the options approved - Step 5

Topic 13.2: Identification and prioritization of interventions that bring change

Topic 20: Procedures - Step 6

Topic 14.1.1: Technological options in physical SWC Topic 21: Strategies for implementation

Topic 14.1.2: Gully control Topic 23: RBP M&E - TOT August 2005

11.5 Experience sharing on FFA: lessons from the field

Farmer to farmer learning and experience sharing can be one of the best ways to expose and/or train

farmers in a number of new approaches, innovative techniques and management efforts. A number of

experience sharing efforts can be suggested:

1. Farmer groups’ visits:

Visit of 10-50 farmers to visit a district or a region within a given country that has specific successful

projects. The visits should allow farmers to interact with others and provision made for host

communities to receive and possibly lodge guests for a day or two, depending from the range of

activities to visit. Short hit and run visit please travellers but rarely have an impact regarding replication.

These visits should be also planned with the condition that each trainee needs to test at least one

technique observed once back to his/her their community. An extension worker or specialized field staff

from the government or partner should be accompanying the group and develop an action plan for

replication together with participants by the end of the visit.

2. Field days at community level:

These events celebrate achievements and can have the purpose of providing awards to best performing

households, show to neighbouring communities achievements worth sharing and create awareness

amongst stakeholders not directly involved in implementation of FFA (administrators, etc) but also to

invite specific institutions that may be interested to complement a given set of achievements with













































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inputs. For example, series of well developed micro-ponds and shallow wells resulting from stabilized

hillsides and water harvesting may induce a partner to support local farmers with treadle pumps or

other irrigation equipment, improved seeds and other fertility management techniques enabled by the

FFA interventions.

3. Innovative farmers or technicians deployed to assist specific communities:

There are very creative individuals that can be provided incentives to stay in specific communities for a

few days or week (s) and demonstrate specific interventions on-the-spot and on-the-job. This effort can

be very successful in terms of buy-in from community members as guidance is provided through very

practical work. This can have a domino effect as new champions can burgeon in other communities and

used as para-professionals on a number of interventions elsewhere.

11.6 Capacity development for institutional building

Support to capacity building of national institutions and counterparts in ministries of agriculture,

environment or others relevant institutions relevant to FFA occurs largely within a CP environment and, to

some extent, PRROs.

Most of the capacity efforts mentioned earlier are critical to enhance capacity of national and local

institutions. They usually include awareness sessions, joint field visits to project areas, Training of Trainers

(TOT) and on-the-job training as indicated above, and the provision of minimum support for supervision and

planning & design equipment.

There are also other capacity development incentives that whilst bolstering local level support enhance

institutional capacity. For example, by enabling access to higher education opportunities to best performing

national staff currently staying and working in hardship duty stations. In Ethiopia about 42 Ministry of

Agriculture district level officers were given the opportunity to attend 3 months summer courses for the

duration of 4 years and obtained their BSc (from diploma level) in a variety of technical fields such as soil

conservation, water engineering, and forestry. These field staff not only performed extremely well at field

level but managed to deeply engage with communities and develop a major sense of responsibility regarding

the FFA project. On the other hand the costs of such an effort from WFP side has been low (about 300-400

USD/field staff/year) a most cost-effective investment.

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A capacity development plan for FFA can be prepared in phases:

Phase 1: internal CO and SO team’s consultations to review current capacity levels for FFA and identify key

gaps prior to further consultation with other stakeholders.

Phase 2: consultations regarding capacity for FFA need to occur as part of broader consultations for the

programming of food assistance and the identification of major FFA interventions. This will include

discussions with government representatives but also NGOs and other UN agencies (UNDP, FAO, WB, etc),

and selected donors. Countries that start FFA without past experience will need to ensure that a number of

basic capacities will be in place before starting FFA. For example that cooperating partners and government

institutions involved have the necessary capacity for planning and implementing the type of FFA able to

resolve specific food security problems.

Capacity development plans in practice:

There are no standard approaches as every country requires its own specific capacity development plan.

However, the three key elements always to consider first are: (1) Capacity for planning, (2) Technical

capacity for FFA design and implementation, and (3) Capacity for supervision and M&E. The following

example is developed based on a real country scenario developed for a CO in ODJ (by ODXP, 2010) and

draws upon an overall capacity development strategy for FFA:

Table 8

Type of activity Modality Outputs

A) Stocktaking what works and experience sharing

1 Stocktaking of existing FFA projects (from gvt institutions, UN partners, NGOs, local efforts) by major FFA intervention and geographical area/coverage, performance, etc

Local consultants supported by CO/SO staff to undertake a stocktaking of major FFA interventions in the country or areas of interest – including planning, design, layout and construction phases of different FFA

. Identification of major partners suitable for FFA planning & implementation . Identification of gaps by FFA type and areas to cover . List of best practices

2 Visit to XXXXX country (By mid 2011): a. Observation of local level participatory planning for integrated and large scale watershed development b. Familiarization with a number of land rehabilitation and management of runoff water in moisture deficit and degraded lands FFA (XXXX CP activity and Safety Nets) c. Learning from synergies between FFA and School Feeding and with Action-Based Monitoring (ABM) tool used at field level

Selected CO/SO and Gvt staff travel to XXXXXX for 10 days

. Awareness on productive safety nets and environmental aspects enhanced . Gvt. support increased to joint efforts in social protection and resilience building . Synergies in CP strengthened . Quality monitoring aspects internalized

B) Technical Training

2 Training of trainers (TOT) to 30 WFP/IP/Gvt staff on FFA technical interventions (by end of 2011)

TOT for 15 days (by end 2011) . Capacity to implement better quality and integrated FFA increased in selected

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Type of activity Modality Outputs

communities

3 Preparation of technical kits for FFA (by mid 2011)

. Infotechs and work norms prepared for main FFA activities (consultant and through ODXP – by mid 2011)

. Improved capacity of implementing partners to support on-the-job training and field implementation . Higher quality standards achieved in FFA

C) Programme implementation and M&E

4 Consider the possible recruitment of 2 international UNVs with strong capacity in FFA and safety nets programme design and implementation. (by mid 2011)

. 1 UNV/Sub-office . Operational capacity in FFA strengthened . CO Capacity to inform programme discussion on cash/food splits, targeting aspects, seasonal livelihood analysis, type of response and partnerships improved

5 Consider the possible recruitment of 1 FAMs/Sub-office with technical skills on dry and sub-tropical land management, agroforestry and water harvesting, or related fields (by 1

st

quarter 2011)

. CO and RB to discuss with HR asap

. Contact CO XXXX with similar experience

. Operational and monitoring capacity improved . Best practices documented and shared with partners . Local level partnerships and community & household participation enhanced

D) Tools and non-food costs

6 Discuss with partners a plan to support capacity building and provision of non-food or non-wage costs for resilience building on a predictable basis (by mid 2011)

. Explore the possibility to create a pool fund dedicated to support non-wage costs for tools, equipment and essential items at district level . Alternatively, develop a coordinated plan for complementary assistance - include stocktaking on what each organization could provide to joint efforts, and advocate for complementary support.

. Minimum and timely supply of non food items supplied for the duration of the CP . Entry points for joint efforts agreed . Sufficient complementary support provided

E) Upgrading skills through educational incentives

7 Enabling dedicated and best performing national staff to access distant learning courses or country specific summer courses and skills upgrading mechanisms (by end of 2011 onwards)

Set aside 5% of ODOC budget to support best performing national counterparts located in hardship duty stations to access summer courses for the duration of X years

. Minimum stay of 3-5 years in a most difficult and food insecure location . Upgrading of staff skills in specific technical areas of relevance to FFA

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11.7 Linking successful projects to national research and academia

WFP FFA could benefit from linkages with research institutes and specific Universities that would like to

engage in studying and research food security aspects and the relevance of specific FFA projects, approaches

and techniques that have a positive effect on reducing hunger and building assets.

For example, specific universities in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Haiti, Senegal, Liberia,

Rwanda and Pakistan, to name a few, could explore the possibility to second students assigned to research

and support specific projects of interest. Students can collect useful information, compute impacts or simply

provide technical assistance on specific fields. WFP CO could envisage, together with Universities, to plan

specific studies already from planning stages or at any relevant phase of specific FFA projects. These

partnerships can be very cost effective and provide both practical experiences to students willing to engage

in food security aspects as well as a contribution to documentation of what works (or does not).

11.8 Learning from past unyielding efforts

There are many examples of FFW or CFW interventions that have not been planned, designed and implemented properly – and that show poor performance, sometimes even detrimental effects on assets and people. For example wrongly designed and constructed terraces that collapse and create concentration of runoff which in turn damages other fields located downstream. Rather common problems include poorly done feeder roads, from poor layout and design to weak construction. Such roads do not withstand rainfall showers and become impassable after a few weeks or months. Similar concerns apply for forestry and agroforestry with the wrong selection of tree species and poor planting techniques – quite common in drier areas. There is ample evidence through evaluation reports and case studies, and literature that many FFW of the past (and current) had some of these problems. This does not always mean that FFW activities were the wrong thing to do in a given context (as that could have been determined by many other factors, including the policy of the government) but that field staff needs always to learn from such failures and avoid that they could be repeated. There are also a number of situations where through the learning of these failures FFA improved and became examples to follow and replicate.

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Examples of poorly performing FFA and main reason for failure:

Soil conservation

Check dams

Plate 54 Poorly designed and constructed stone bunds – broken in many sections. The stone bunds are not properly spaced and have reduced dimensions (low height and strength) compared to the standard required for such slope gradients.

Plate 55 In this photo the soil bunds in the upper part of the catchment are poorly constructed and collapsed from water pressure – significant erosion rills can be noted in the portion of land with poor conservation works.

Plate 56 Stone checks constructed without spillway and drop/apron structure. Dash lines indicate the position of the spillway (up) and apron (down). Plate 57 The signs of piping & tunnelling are visible under the wall batter line – an indication of absence of foundation.

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Feeder roads

Water harvesting

Loose road fill – risk of slides

Cut too high and vertical, and road too wide (7 m instead of 4.5m)

Section of feeder road with steep slope

Steep slope without protection

Narrow side drains and no outlet

Excessive soil sediments – this denotes the absence of a silt trap at the inlet and active upstream erosion (poor catchment protection)

Plate 59 Lack of spillway generated breakages – the pond is also without stabilization and soil fill is accumulated too close to the basin

Plate 58 Poorly designed and constructed feeder road in degraded, steep and slide prone area

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