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H i g h er E d u ca t io n 27: 487-501, 19949 1994 Kluw er Academ ic Publ ishers . Pr in ted in the Netherlands .

G e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g s t y l e s : a n a r r a t i v e r e v i e w a n dq u a n t it a t iv e m e t a - a n a l y s isS A B I N E E . S E V E R I E N S & G E E R T T .M . T E N D A M lGradu ate School o f Teaching and Learn ing , U niversi ty o f Am sterdam, He rengrac ht 256 , 1016 B VA m s t er d a m , Th e N e t h er la n d s

Abstract. This article reviews research on gender and learning styles of students, 18 and older,conducted after 1980. C urr y's on ion mod el (1983) is used to classify definitions of learning styles and toreconstruct the theoretical frameworks used. The extent to which learning style is considered stable orvariable in different learning contexts determ ines its position in the m odel. Mo st studies used theoreticalframeworks that belonged in the middle or outer layers of the model. This location indicates the stronginfluence of learning context on women's and men's learning styles. While there were differencesbetween learning styles, research designs rarely included learning contexts.

In addition to the narrative review, we performed a quantitative meta-analysis on two instruments(Ko lb's Learning Style Inventory and E ntw istle 's Approaches to Studying Inventory) to determine thedirection and magnitude of gender differences in various samples. A search for these two instrumentsresulted in 26 studies for which the necessary statistics were available. On K olb 's instrume nt, the resultsshowed that men were more likely than women to prefer the abstract conceptualisation mode oflearning. On Entwistle 's A S Ia difference was found on the affective components of approaches tostudying.

I n t r o d u c t i o n

E x t e n s i v e e m p i r i c a l re s e a r ch h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n t he f i e ld o f e d u c a t i o n a n dg e n d e r s i n c e th e m i d 1 9 60 s . R e s e a r c h r e s u l t s s h o w t h a t w o m e n i n m o s t W e s t e r nc o u n t r i e s h a v e n o t b e e n a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e s p e c t to m e n i n t h e s e n s e o fl e a v i n g s c h o o l w i t h l es s e d u c a t i o n s i n c e a b o u t 1 9 8 0 ( A c k e r e t a l . 1 9 8 4 , D r o n k e r s1 9 8 0 , W i l s o n 1 9 9 1 ). H o w e v e r , t h e y s t il l l e a v e s c h o o l w i t h f e w e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s fo rc o n t i n u i n g t h e ir e d u c a t i o n a n d p o o r e r p r o s p e c ts o n t h e l a b o u r m a r k e t . E s p e c i a l lyt h e u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w o m e n i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e a n d i n t e c h n i c a lc o u r s e s r e m a i n s a n i n t r a c t a b le p r o b l e m ( E c c l es e t a l . 1 9 86 , R e n n i e e t a l . 1 9 9 1 ) .

E m p i r i c a l r e s e a rc h o n g e n d e r a n d e d u c a t i o n i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e f o c u s e sm a i n l y o n s c h o o l - i n t e r n a l f a c t o rs , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e ro l e o f te a c h e r s , t e a c h i n gm e t h o d s a n d th e s c o pe o f e d u c a t i o n ( B u r t o n 1 9 90 , C h i p m a n e t a l . 1 9 8 5 , F e n n e m aa n d L e d e r 1 9 9 0, V o l m a n e t a l . 1 9 93 ) . T h e e m p h a s i s o n t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s a s av a r i a b l e th a t m a y a f fe c t b o th t h e c h o i c e s a n d t h e s u c c e s s o f w o m e n s t u d y i n gm a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e is c l o s e l y r e l a te d t o l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s . C o n c e p t s r e f e r r i n gt o t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e l e a r n i n g s t y l e s, c o g n i t i v e s t y le s , a p p r o a c h e s t o s t u d y i n go r l e a r n i n g s t ra t e g ie s . 2 S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s u s e t h e s e c o n c e p t s t o e x p l a i ng e n d e r d i f fe r e n c e s i n s t u d y c h o i c e s ( B a r - H a 'f m a n d W i l k e s 1 9 8 9, D i p p e l h o f e r -S t i e m 1 9 8 9 ) o r p e r f o r m a n c e ( M a t t h e w s 1 9 91 , T h o m p s o n a n d O ' B r i e n 1 9 91 ).

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48 8G e n d e r i n e q u a l i t y i n e d u c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s a n d c a r e e r s a p p e a r s t o b e p a r t i a l l y d u e t othe way s tuden t s l ea rn .

T h i s a r t ic l e p r e s e n t s th e f i n d i n g s o f a r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e r a n d l e a r n i n gs ty l e s o f s tuden t s , 18 and o lde r , a f t e r 1980 . T he m a in r e sea rc h ques t i on i s whe th e rm e n a n d w o m e n u s e d i f f e r e n t le a r n i n g s t y l es . I f t h e y d o , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t h e i rl e a r n i n g s t y l e s d i f f e r a n d w h a t d o t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o l v e ? A s e c o n d q u e s t i o nc o n c e r n s t h e w a y g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s a r e c o n c e p t u a l i s e d a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r ei n t er p r e te d . W e a r e e s p e c i a l l y i n te r e s te d i n a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f e d u c a t io n .F o l l o w i n g a b r i e f d e s c r i p t io n o f t h e m e t h o d s , t h is a r t ic l e b e g i n s b y e x a m i n i n g t h et h e o r e ti c a l f r a m e w o r k s o f t h e s t u d ie s o u r s e a r c h r e tr i e v e d . W e s u b s e q u e n t l y f o c u so n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s b y p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e s u l ts o f a q u a n t it a t iv em e t a - a n a l y s i s . W e p e r f o r m a m e t a - a n a l y s i s o n t w o o f th e l e a r n i n g s t y l e i n s t ru m e n t sd i scusse d i n t he na r r a t i v e r ev i ew . In t he l a s t pa r t o f t h is a r t i c l e , we r e l a t e t he r e su l t so f t h e n a r r a t iv e r e v i e w a n d t h e m e t a - a n a l y s i s to q u e s t io n s c o n c e r n i n g g e n d e rinequa l i t y i n educa t i on .

T h r o u g h o u t t h i s a r t i c l e , g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t e r m s o f d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n t h e m e a n s c o r es o f tw o g r o u p s. T h e s e s t e re o t y p e s ar e b y n o m e a n si n t e n d e d t o a p p l y t o i n d i v i d u a l s . W h i l e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s a r e p o s s i b l e , i n d i v i d u a ld i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e s e g r o u p s m a y a c t u a l l y e x c e e d t h o s e b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s( H a l p e r n 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s s i t u a t i o n c a n r e s u l t i n a p r o b l e m . A s s o c i a t i n g m e n a n dw o m e n w i th m o d e s o f le a r n in g i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m ( e d u ca t io n a l) c o n t e x t s m i g h t b ei n t e r p r e t e d b y t e a c h e r s a s a p p l y i n g t o a l l m e n a n d w o m e n , t h u s s e t t i n g a s e l f -f u l fi ll i n g p r o p h e c y i n m o t i o n .

M e t h o d s 3

W e c o n d u c t e d a s e a r c h f o r r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g s t y l e s a f t e r1 9 8 0 t h r o u g h s e l e c t d a t a b a s e s , u s i n g a w i d e v a r i e t y o f s e a r c h t e r m s . S t u d i e s w e r ei n c l u d e d i n t h e r e v i e w w h e n t h e s a m p l e i n c l u d e d b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n , w h e n t h em e a n a g e w a s 1 8 o r o l d e r a n d a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g e n d e r a n d l e a r n i n gs t y l e s w a s c o n s i d e r e d . B e s i d e s , ' s i n g l e ' s t u d i e s u s i n g t e r m s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c hn o o t h e r s tu d i e s a r e u s in g , w e r e n o t d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n a r r a t iv e r e v i e w . T h e a v a i l a b l es t u d i e s w e r e r e a d a c c o r d i n g t o a r e a d i n g l i s t t h a t r e f l e c t e d t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s .T h e n a r r a t i v e r e v i e w s e r v e d t o h i g h l i g h t c u r r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s o n g e n d e rd i f f e r ences i n l ea rn ing .

A s e c o n d s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d t o p e r f o r m a q u a n t i t a t i v e r e v i e w u s i n g m e t a -a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e s ( L i g h t a n d P i l l e m e r 1 9 8 4 ) . U s i n g t h e s c o r e s o f m e n a n d w o m e no n t h e s a m e i n s t ru m e n t i n d i f f e re n t s t u d ie s s e e m e d t h e m o s t r e l ia b l e m e t h o d o fp e r f o r m i n g a m e t a - a n a l y s i s . I n th e n a r r a t i v e r e v i e w t h r ee i n s t r u m e n t s a r e u s e d m o r et h a n o n c e . T h e s e a r e K o l b ' s L e a r n i n g S t y l e I n v e n t o r y ( L S I ) , ( 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 8 4 ) ,E n t w i s t l e ' s A p p r o a c h e s t o S t u d y i n g I n v e n t o r y ( A S I ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d W i t k i n ' s G r o u pE m b e d d e d F i g u r e s T e s t ( 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e f i r s t t w o i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h em e t a - a n a l y s i s . T h e t e s t o f f i e l d ( i n ) d e p e n d e n c e w a s o m i t t e d b e c a u s e f i e l d( i n ) d e p e n d e n c e c o n c e r n s p e r f o r m a n c e r a t h e r t h a n p r e f e r e n c e ( C a p l a n 1 9 8 4 ) ,

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4 8 9there fo re the tes t is no t va l id (P rosse r Ge lw ick 1985).

T h e s e c o n d s e a r c h re s u l t ed i n 6 0 a u th o rs u s in g K o lb ' s L e a r n in g S ty l e I n v e n to r ya n d 2 2 a u th o r s u s in g E n tw i s t l e ' s A p p r o a c h e s t o S tu d y in g I n v e n to r y . Be c a u s e m o s to f these au tho r s d id no t pub l i sh s ta ti s ti c s r egard ing g ende r d i ff e r ences , we wro te tothem to r eques t the necessa ry s ta t i s t i c s . Unfo r tuna te ly , a number o f the au tho r s nolonge r had access to the da ta o r d id no t code the da ta by sex . N ine tee n s tud ies u s ingthe LSI and seven s tud ies u s ing the ASI were su i tab le fo r the meta -ana lys i s . D-s c o r es o f g e n d e r o n t h e L S I a n d A S I s c a l e s a r e c a lc u l a t e d a n d h o m o g e n e i t y i scons idered . The e f f ec t o f backg rou nd var iab les ( age and d isc ip l ine ), whe nava i lab le , is t e s ted in r eg ress ion ana ly ses . T h is t echn iqu e i s on ly u sed on the da ta o fK o lb ' s L S I , a s n o t e n o u g h s tu d i es u s e d E n tw i s t l e 's A S I .

O n e o f t he p r o b l e m s i n a r e v i e w c o n c e r n s t h e p o s s ib l e i n c lu s io n o ffundamen ta l ly f lawed s tud ies (L igh t and P i l lemer 1984) . The s tud ies in th i s r ev ieww e r e c lo s e ly r e a d a n d a p p e a r e d t o b e o f g o o d q u a l i t y . Be s id e s , a s i t c o n c e r n e da lm os t on ly ma te r ia l pub l i shed in sc ien t i f ic jou rna ls , pe er r ev iew has taken p lace .W e assu me d th i s to be a su f f ic ien t qua l i ty con t ro l .

Conceptualis ing gen der differencesT h i s s e c t io n f o c u s e s o n t h e d im e n s io n s w h e r e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s a p p e a r e d i n t h es tud ies re t r ieved by ou r fi r s t sea rch . Cur ry ' s on ion mo de l (1983) se rves as a veh ic leto p roduce a desc r ip t ive r econs t ruc t ion o f the ( f r equen t ly imp l ic i t ) theo re t ica las sumpt ions in the s tud ies . The on io n mod e l con ta in s th ree layer s o f theo r ies andconcep ts concern ing lea rn ing s ty les . The ex ten t to wh ich a theo ry as sumes ex te rna l( educa t iona l ) f ac to r s in f luence the lea rn ing s ty les de te rmines i t s pos i t ion in theon ion . In the inner layer a g iven lea rn ing s ty le i s v iewed as a f a i r ly f ixedper sona l i ty t r a i t ; i t i s no t cons idered sens i t ive to va r iab les w i th in the educa t iona lsys tem. In the ou te r l ayer though , theo r ies as sume ex te rna l f ac to r s in f luencelea rn ing s ty les . The on ion ' s midd le layer con ta in s lea rn ing s ty le concep ts tha t a r econs idered more s tab le than those in the ou te r l ayer , bu t never the less sub jec t tomod i f ica t ion acco rd ing to the lea rn ing con tex t . I n the r e t r ieved s tud ies , cho ices o fi n s t r u m e n t o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e c o n c e p t s m a d e a s s u m p t io n s a b o u t g e n d e r a n dlea rn ing s ty les exp l ic it . These ind ica to r s de te rm ined the app rop r ia te layer o f theon ion fo r d i scuss ing the s tudy .

F i r s t ly , we d iscuss the mos t impor tan t theo ry be long ing in the inner layer .W itk in ' s t h e o r y o n f i e l d ( i n ) d e p e n d e n c e i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e rand lea rn ing . Wi tk in de f ined f ie ld indep enden ce as u s ing ones e l f a s the p r imaryr e f e r e n t f o r p r o c e s s in g i n f o r m a t io n a n d f i e l d d e p e n d e n c e a s r e ly in g o n o u t s i d er e f e r e n ts ( 1 9 7 9) . T h e f i e ld ( i n ) d e p e n d e n t m o d e o f p r o c e s s in g i n f o r m a t io n is v i e w e das a s tab le charac te r i s t ic , p lac ing th is the o ry in the inner layer o f the on ion mod e l .Wi tk in ' s r esearch r esu l t s (1979) showed s ta t i s t i ca l ly s ign i f ican t gender d i f f e r enceso n t h e d im e n s io n o f f i e l d ( i n ) d e p e n d e n c e a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e G r o u p E m b e d d e dFigu res Tes t (GEFT) . The s tud ies ( f rom af te r 1980 ) ob ta ined th rough the sea rchu s in g th e G E F T , h o w e v e r , s h o w e d w o m e n to b e o n ly s li g h tl y m o r e f ie l d d e p e n d e n t

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4 9 0than men . None o f the s tud ies r epo r ted a s ta t i s t i ca l ly s ign i f ican t d i f f e r ence(Cha t te r jea and Pau l 1982 , M ye r and Higg ins 1984 , Pe t r ak is 1981) . Lo tw ick e t a l .( 1 9 8 1 ) u s e d t h e r o d - a n d - f r a m e t e s t o f f i e l d ( i n ) d e p e n d e n c e . T h e y f o u n d f i e l dd e p e n d e n c e t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r a m o n g f e m a le p o ly t e c h n i c s t u d e n t s t h a namong the i r male coun te rpar t s .

Th eo r ies in the inner layer o f the on ion m ode l as sume lea rn ing s ty les to be s tab leacross t ime and con tex ts . The log ica l imp l ica t ion wou ld be fo r the educa t iona ls y s t e m to a c c o m m o d a te t he s e s t a b le l e a r n in g s t y l es o f m e n a n d w o m e n . Be c a u s eon ly one s tudy found a s ta t i s t i ca l s ign i f ican t gender d i f f e r ence on the f ie ld( i n ) d e p e n d e n c e d im e n s io n , a c c o m m o d a t in g e d u c a t i o n t o f i e l d ( i n ) d e p e n d e n tind iv idua ls i s un l ike ly to have much impac t on gender inequa l i ty in educa t iona lca ree r s .

In t h e m i d d l e l a y e r , K olb ' s theo ry on exper ien t ia l lea rn ing f igu res p rom inen t ly inthe f ie ld o f gender and lea rn ing . Exper ience p lays a key ro le in lea rn ing andind iv idua ls d i f f e r in the ways they app roach var ious tasks and u se exper ience .Some p re fe r l ea rn ing th rough exper imen ta t ion , o ther s p re fe r to s ta r t w i thobserva t ion . Ko lb def ines lea rn ing s ty le as a s tuden t ' s f a i r ly cons is ten t r esponse toand use o f s t imu l i in the con te x t o f l ea rn ing (Ha yde n and Brow n 1985). Th isd e f in i ti o n p la c e s h i s t h e o r y i n t h e m id d l e l a y e r o f th e o n io n m o d e l , c o n s e q u e n t l y a l ls tud ies u s ing the theo ry ( and the in s t rumen t ) as we l l . The s tud ies in ou r sea rchr e p o r t e d v a r io u s r e s u l t s o n K o lb ' s L S I . K o lb ( 1 9 8 4 ) f o u n d t h a t w o m e n t e n d e d t op re fe r concre te lea rn ing s ty les , whereas men were more l ike ly to op t fo r abs t r ac tc o n c e p tu a l is a t i o n m o d e s o f l e a rn in g. B a x t e r M a g o ld a ( 1 9 87 ) r e p o r t e d a s im i la rr esu l t, bu t he r f ind ings w ere no t s ta t is t i ca lly s ign i fican t . Vern on -G er s ten fe ld (1989)found tha t wo m en w ere s l igh t ly m ore r e f lec t ive in the i r l ea rn ing s ty le than me n , bu taga in , the d i f f e r ences we re no t s ta t i s t ica l ly s ign i fican t . She ob served an in te r ac t ione f f e c t w i th t h e L S I . H e r s a m p le r e l a t e d a d o p t io n o f c o m p u te r s t o w o m e n ' s ( r a th e rth a n m e n ' s ) l e a r n ing s ty l es . S h e a r g u e d t h a t b e c a u s e m o r e w o m e n th a n m e n i n h e rs a m p le h a d s t u d i e d s c i e n ce s , th e w o m e n t e n d e d t o b e m o r e a b s t r ac t i n t h e ir m o d eo f t h in k in g a n d t h u s q u i c k e r t o a d o p t c o m p u te rs . H a y d e n a n d Br o w n ( 1 9 85 )observed no gender d i f f e r ences a t a l l . Never the less , in P rosse r Ge lwick ' s r ev iew( 1 9 8 5 ) , m o r e w o m e n a p p e a r e d o n t h e c o n c r e t e e n d a n d m o r e m e n o n t h e a b s t r a c tend . She asc r ibed th i s f ind ing to the e f f ec t s o f ch i ld - r ea r ing p rac t ices on cogn i t ived e v e lo p m e n t . Ba x t e r Ma g o ld a ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e m a r k e d t h a t e d u c a to r s ' l e a r n in gp r e f e r e n c e s o f te n im p ly a p r e f e r e n c e f o r c e r t a in t e a c h in g m e th o d s , w h ic h b e n e f i tssome s tuden ts wh i le p lac ing o ther s a t a d i sadvan tage . A more des i r ab le lea rn inge n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e l i k e l ih o o d o f d iv e r s it y w i thin a c l as s w o u ld e n h a n c e a n d v a lu eequa l ly a l l mod es o f lea rn ing .

A n o th e r s t u d y w i th a s s u m p t io n s b e lo n g in g i n th e m id d l e l a y e r w a s c o n d u c t e d b yDippe lho fe r -S t iem (1989) . We d iscuss th i s s tudy because i t i s one o f the r a r es tud ies on gender d i f f e r ences and the deve lopmen t o f l ea rn ing s ty les in va r iousc o n t e x t s . D ip p e lh o f e r - S t i e m p e r f o r m e d a l o n g i t u d in a l s t u d y i n f i v e E u r o p e a nc o u n t ri e s ( A u s tr ia , G e r m a n y , t h e N e th e r l a n d s , f o r m e r Y u g o s l a v i a a n d P o l a n d ) o nresearch o r ien ted lea rn ing s ty les . She def ined the r e la t ive ly cons is ten t r esearcho r ien ted lea rn ing s ty les as invo lv ing c r i t i ca l th ink ing , au tonomy , exp lo ra t ion , a

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4 91deep approach , r e la t ing ideas and in t r ins ic mot iva t ion . I n the f i r s t s emes te r , mena n d w o m e n s h o w e d h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e su l ts o n t h is s t y le , m e a n i n g g e n d e r d i ff e r e n c e sd i f f e r i n m a g n i t u d e a n d d i r e c t i o n in e a c h s u b j e c t a n d c o u n t r y . T o w a r d s t h e e n d o fthe i r s tud ies , however , in a l l count r i e s and d i sc ip l ines , ma le r e spondents d i sp layeda m o r e d e v e l o p e d r e s e a r c h o r i e n t e d l e a r n in g s ty l e . In a n e f f o r t t o e x p l a in o b s e r v e dg e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s , D i p p e l h o f e r - S t i e m n o t e d t h a t w o m e n ' s v a l u e s y s t e m s d i f f e rf r o m t h o s e o f m e n i n t h a t t h e y a r e m o r e s o c i a l l y o r i e n t e d a n d s e l e c t t h e i r c o u r s e saccord ing ly . She as sum es th i s t end enc y r esu l t s f r om t r ad i t ion . S t i l l, th is a s sum pt iond o e s n o t e x p l a i n w h y t h e r e su l t s o f t h e f i rs t s e m e s t e r w e r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s , w h i l e t h eg e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e n i n th s e m e s t e r w e r e h o m o g e n e o u s . B e c a u s e m e n s c o r e dhigher than women on th i s l ea rn ing s ty le in the n in th semes te r , i t m igh t beconc luded tha t , desp i te a l l the con tex tua l d i f f e r ences , in genera l , l ea rn inge n v i r o n m e n t s a r e m o r e s t im u l a t i n g t o m e n i n t e r m s o f d e v e l o p i n g t h i s re s e a r c ho r i e n t e d l ea r n i n g s t y le . W h i c h a s p e c t s o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o u l d h a v e i m p e d e dw o m e n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o f th i s l e a rn i n g s t y le , r e m a i n s u n k n o w n .

I n a d d i t i o n t o c o - o r d i n a t i n g t e a c h i n g a n d l e a rn i n g s t y le s , c h a l le n g i n g b o t h f e m a l eand m ale s tuden ts to use o the r mod es o f l ea rn ing is a poss ib le imp l ica t ion fo re d u c a t i o n o f t h e s t u d ie s i n t h e m i d d l e l a y e r. I n t e r ac t i o n e f f e c ts w e r e f o u n d , b u t t h emiddle l aye r d id no t con ta in sys temat ic empi r ica l inves t iga t ions o f f ac to r s a f f ec t ingt h e g e n d e r - r e l a te d e l e m e n t s o f l e ar n i n g .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m i d d l e a n d o u t e r l a y e r s o f t h e o n i o n m o d e l i s n o ta l w a y s c l e a r . A l t h o u g h n o n e o f t h e s t u d ie s a s s u m e t h a t l e a r n in g p r o c e s s e s r e s u l te x c l u s i v e l y f r o m t h e l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e o r i e s i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r t end toe m p h a s i s e l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t m o r e t h a n t h o s e i n t h e m i d d l e l a y e r . I n s t r u m e n t ss u c h a s t h e I n v e n t o r y o f L e a r n i n g P r o c e s s e s ( I L P ) ( S c h m e c k 1 9 8 3 ), t h e S t u d yB e h a v i o u r a n d t h e S t u d y P r o c e s s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( S B Q a n d S P Q ) ( B i g g s 1 9 8 7 ) a n dt h e A p p r o a c h e s t o S t u d y i n g I n v e n t o r y ( A S I ) ( E n t w i s t l e 1 9 8 1 ) m e a s u r e l e a r n i n gs tra tegies .

Be caus e l ea rn ing s ty les ( s t r a teg ies o r p rocesses ) in mo s t s tud ies in the ou te r l aye rc o n s i s t e d o f s e v e ra l d i m e n s i o n s , T a b l e 1 s u m m a r i se s o b s e r v e d g e n d e r d i ff e r e n c e s.A f e w t r e n d s a p p e a r e d . M e n s c o r e d h i g h e r o n s c a le s m e a s u r i n g e x t r i n s icm o t i v a t i o n . T h e y a r e m o r e o f t e n g r a d e o r i e n t e d a n d c o m p e t i t i v e . M e n a l s o s c o r e dh i g h e r o n n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o s t u d y i n g a n d o n t h e n e u r o t i c i s m a n d d e p e n d e n c es c a le s o f t h e S B Q . A l t h o u g h n o t a l l s t u d ie s s h o w e d d i f f e re n c e s o n t h e i n t r in s i cm o t i v a t i o n s c a l e s , i n c a s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s w o m e n s c o r e d h i g h e r . O n t h e d e e pa p p r o a c h e s t o l e a r n i n g a n d a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n : i n c a s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s m e ns c o r e d h i g h e r o n t h e s e s c a l e s . W o m e n s e e m e d t o s c o r e h i g h e r t h a n m e n o n t h es u r fa c e a p p r o a c h , a l t h o u g h m e n s c o r e d h i g h e r o n t h e re p r o d u c i n g s c a l e o f th e S B Q .

Some in te r ac t ion e f f ec t s appeared in the s tud ies f i t t ing in the ou te r l aye r .W a t k i n s a n d H a t t i e ( 1 9 8 1 ) f o u n d a s i g n i fi c a n t in t e r a c ti o n e f f e c t o f g e n d e r a n dd e p a r tm e n t o n t h e I n v e n t o r y o f L e a rn i n g P r o c e ss e s. A p p a r e n tl y , m e n a n d w o m e nw i t h i n a g i v e n d e p a r t m e n t u s e d d i f f e r e n t s t u d y a p p r o a c h e s o r l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s .M i l l e r e t a l . ( 1 9 9 0 ) d i s c u s s e d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t o f g e n d e r a n d a p p r o a c h t ol e a r n i n g o n g r a d e s . W o m e n ' s g r a d e s w e r e p a r t l y d e t e r m i n e d b y n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e sw h e r e a s m e n ' s g r a d e s w e r e n o t . S p e t h a n d B r o w n ( 1 9 9 0 ) o b s e r v e d i n t e r a c t i o n s

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492Table 1. R e s e a r c h r e s u l ts o n s u b s c a l e s o f v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r ( th e o b s e r v e dd i f fe r enc es a re s ta t i s t i ca l ly s ign i f ica n t (p ~< .05 ))S u b s c a le B r i e f d e s c r ip t i on w o m e n m e n n o

h i g h e r h i g h e r d i f f .D e e p a p p r o a c h ( A S I )D e e p p r o c e s s i n g ( ILP )U s e o f e v i d e n c e ( A S I )In te r - re la t ing ideas (ASI)Me a n i n g f u l le a r n i n g ( S B Q )V e r s a t i l e s t y l e ( s h o r t - A S I )

S t u d y s u c c e s s ( s h o r t - A S I )E l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g ( I LP )I n t r in s i c m o t i v a t i o n ( A S I )I n t r in s i c m o t i v a t i o n ( S B Q )I n t e m a l i s i n g m o t i v a t i o n ( S P Q )I n t e r n a l is i n g s t r a t e g y ( S P Q )In te rna l i ty (SBQ)O p e n n e s s ( S P Q )P a t h o l o g i c a l s t y l e ( s h o r t - A S I )S u r f a c e a p p r o a c h ( A S I )S u r f a c e l e v e l p r o c e s s i n gF a c t r e t e n t i o n ( I LP )R o t e l e a r n i n g ( S B Q )U t i l i si n g s t r a t e g y ( S P Q )R e p r o d u c i n g s c a l e ( S B Q )M e t h o d i c a l s t u d y (I LP )S t u d y s k i l ls ( S B Q )O r g a n i s a t i o n s t r a t e g y ( S P Q )I n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n in g s t y l e sS y l l a b u s b o u n d n e s s ( A S I )F e a r o f f a i l u re ( A S I )Te s t a n x i e t y ( S B Q )N e u r o t ic i s m ( S B Q )D e p e n d e n c e ( S B Q )Ex t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n

A c t i v e q u e s t i o n i n g i n l e a r n i n g 3 2M e a n i n g f u l a s o p p o s e d t o s u p e r f ic i a li n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g 3 6R e l a t i n g e v i d e n c e t o c o n c l u s i o n s 3 2R e l a t i n g t o o t h e r a r e a s o f k n o w l e d g e 3 2R e a d w i d e l y , i n t e r - re l a t e w i t h p r e v i o u sr e l e v an t k n o w l e d g e 6A c o m b i n a t i on o f m e a n i n g ,c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d d e t a i l e d l e a r n i n g 1A c o m b i n a t i o n o f v e r sa t i le s t y l e a n dw e l l - o r g a n i s e d s t u d y h a b i t s 1Th e a b i l it y t o r e la t e n e w a n d o l di n f o r m a t i o n u s i n g a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s 3 , 6I n t e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g f o r l e a m i n g ' s s a k e 3 2U n i v e r s i t y s t u d y a s a n e n d i n i t s e l f 6 3In t r in s ic in te res t , in teg ra t ing var iouss u b j e c t s 6R e a d w i d e ly , w i t h m a x i m a lu n d e r s t a n d i n g 6 3U s e s i n t e rn a l , s e l f - d e t e r m i n e d s ta n d a r d so f t ru th no t ex te rna l au tho r i ty 6S t u d e n t s e e s u n i v e r s i t y a s a p l a c e w h e r ev a l u e s a r e q u e s t i o n e d 6A c o m b i n a t i o n o f p o o r s t u d y a p p r o a c h e s 1P r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h r o t e l e a r n i n g 3 2R e p r o d u c t i v e , m e m o r i s i n g t e x t 5The ab i l i ty to re ta in de ta i l ed fac tua li n f o r m a t i o n 3 , 6C e n t r e s o n f a c t s a n d d e t a i ls a n d r o t el e a r n s t h e m 6To a v o i d f a i lu r e a n d t o f o c u s o n m i n i m a lc o n t e n t 6 3M e m o r i s in g f a c ts 6Rep et i t ive , d r i l l and p rac t ice hab i t s 6W o r k s c o n s i s t e n t ly , r e v i e w s r e g u l a r ly 6G o o d p l a n n i n g , e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t i m e 3P r e f e r e n c e f o r w o r k i n g a l o n e , n o t a s k i n gf o r h e l p 4R e l y i n g o n s t a f f t o d e f i n e l e a r n i n g t a s k s 2 , 3A n x i e t y a b o u t p o s s i b l e a c a d e m i c f a i lu r e 3 2W o r r i e s a b o u t t e s t s , e x a m s , f e a r o f f a i l u re 6O v e r w h e l m e d a n d c o n f u s e d by a c a d e m i cw o r k 6N e e d s c l a s s s t ru c t u r e , r a re l y q u e s t i o n slec tu res 6I n t e r e s t i n c o u r s e s f o r t h e q u a l i f ic a t i o n st h e y o f f e r 2

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4 9 3Table 1. ContinuedSubscale Brief description wo m en men nohigher higher diff.Instrumental motivation (S P Q ) Studying to pass courses, earn a degreePragmatism (SBQ)Achievement motivation (ASI)Achievement motivation (SPQ)Achievement strategy (SPQ )Strategic approach (A SI)Nega tive attitudes to study ing (ASI)Disorganised study m ethods (ASI)Globetrotting (ASI)Comprehension learning (ASI)Operation learning (ASI)Improvidence (ASI)

and get a job 3,6Grade oriented 6Com petitive and confident 3 2Com petitive approach 3 6Close orientation to course outlines 6Awareness of implications of academicdemands made by staff 3 2Lack of interest and application 2,3Unab le to work regularly and effectively 2,3Over ready to jump to conclusions 2,3Readiness to m ap out subject area andthink divergently 3 2Em phasis on facts and logical analysis 2 3Over cautious reliance on details 3 2

Note: 1. Duckwai1 (1990, 2. Gledhill and Van der M erwe (198 9), 3. M iller et al. (1990), 4. Scho nberger(1981), 5. Van Rossum and Sc henk (1984), 6. Watkins and Hattie (1981). ASI: Approaches to Study ingInventory (Entwistle 1 981), short-ASI: Short Approac hes to Studying Inventory (Entwistle 1981), SBQ :Study Beha viour Questionnaire (Biggs 1987), SPQ : Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs 1987), ILP:Inventory of Learning Processes (Schmeck 1983).

b e t w e e n t y p e o f a s se s s m e n t , a p p r o a c h e s t o s t u d y i n g , s t u d y p r e p a r a t i o n s t ra t e g i e sa n d g e n d e r . T h e y n o t e d d i f f i c u l t y in e s t a b l i s h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o nb e c a u s e g o a l s m i g h t v a r y . I f , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e g o a l i s t o a c h i e v e g e n d e r e q u a l i t y ,i n s t r u c to r s s h o u l d c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r a n e m p h a s i s o n o b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t m e t h o d si n n a t u r a l s ci e n c e s m i g h t a f f ec t w o m e n ' s a n d m e n ' s s t u d y p r e f e r e n c e s a n d c h o i c e s .M u r p h y ( 1 9 8 2) o b s e r v e d t h a t m e n p e r f o r m b e t t e r i n r e l a t i o n t o w o m e n o n o b j e c t i v e( m u l t i p l e c h o i c e ) t es t s c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r fo r m s o f a s s e s sm e n t .

M o s t s t u d i e s w e s i t u a te d in t h e o u t e r l a y e r r e c o m m e n d e d i n s t r u c ti o n a l p r o c e s s e s ,a i m e d a t d e v e l o p i n g t h e d e s i r e d a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n i n g ( s u c h a s a d e e p a p p r o a c h ,i n t r in s i c m o t i v a t i o n a n d u s e o f e v i d e n c e ) . I n t e r a c t i o n e f f ec t s w i t h d e p a r t m e n t a n dt y p e o f a s s e s s m e n t w e r e f o u n d , b u t t h e s t u d ie s w e r e v i e w e d d i d n o t i n d i c a t e w h i c hi n s t r u c t io n a l v a r i a b l e s m a t t e r e d m o s t .

T h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e r e s u l t o f t h is q u a l i t a ti v e r e v i e w c o n c e r n s t h e l a c k o f d a t ao n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o n t e x t v a r i a b l e s o n g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s . I n th e m i d d l e l a y e r , b u ta l s o i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r , t he s t u d i e s p a i d v i r t u a l l y n o a t t e n t i o n t o, f o r e x a m p l e ,t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s o r l e a r n i n g ta s k s . R e s e a r c h i n t h e f i e l d o f g e n d e r a n d l e a r n i n gs t y l es a p p e a r s t o c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y o f d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d ie s . E x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h ef i n d i n g s , w h e t h e r e m p i r i c a l l y b a s e d o r t h e o r e t i c a l l y e l a b o r a t e d , w e r e n o t p r o v i d e d .W e w i l l n o w d i s c u s s th e q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t a - a n a l y s i s . I n t e r m s o f e m p i r i c a l r e s u lt s ,t h e n a r r a t iv e r e v i e w r e s u l t e d i n a f ew c o n s i s t e n t fi n d i n g s . N o t o n l y d i d t h e s ef i n d i n g s d i f f e r o n s e v e r a l d i m e n s i o n s , b u t a t t im e s t h e y w e r e a c t u a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y( s e e T a b l e 1 ). P e r f o r m i n g a m e t a - a n a l y s i s o n a n i n s t r u m e n t b e l o n g i n g t o th e m i d d l e

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4 9 4l a y e r ( K o l b ' s L S I ) a n d o n o n e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e o u t e r l a y e r (E n t w i s t l e 's A S I ) m i g h tp r o d u c e a m o r e c o h e r e n t p i c tu r e o f g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a rn i n g s t y l e s.

Meta-analysisM e t a - a n a l y s i s s e r v e s t o in t e g r a t e r e s e a rc h f i n d i n g s o f m u l t ip l e s t u d i e s o n t h e s a m esub j ec t . I n t eg ra t i ng s t ud i e s f rom va r i ous d i s c i p l i nes and se t t i ngs cou l d i nd i ca t ew h e n a n d w h e r e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s a p p e a r . B o t h K o l b ' s L S I a n d E n t w i s t l e ' s A S Ic o n s i s t o f v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f l e a r n i n g s t y l e s . Am e t a - a n a l y s i s o n e a c h o f th e s e s c a l es w i l l s h o w t h e e x t e n t a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i rgen de r s e ns i t i v i t y in t he s t ud i e s r ev i e w ed fo r t h i s a r ti c l e .

I n th i s m e t a - a n a l y s i s w e u s e d t h e u n b i a s e d e f f e c t si z e d ( H e d g e s a n d O l k i n 1 9 8 5,p . 8 1 ) , w h i c h i s th e c o m m o n e s t i m a t o r ( g ) c o r r e c t e d f o r a s m a l l s a m p l e b i a s. A ne f f e c t s i z e i s t h e s t a n d a r d i s e d d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t w o g r o u p s ( w o m e n a n d m e n i nt h i s ca se ) .

g = ( M , ~ - M e ~ ) / S D( S D i s t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f t h e w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e o f t h e t w o v a r i a n c e s ) .W e u s e d H e d g e s a n d O l k i n ' s r a n d o m e f f e c ts m o d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) t o e s t im a t e t h e e ff e c ts c o r e s . I n t h i s m o d e l , t h e e f f e c t s c o r e s a r e a s s u m e d t o h a v e m o r e t h a n o n eu n d e r l y i n g p o p u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r . T h i s s i t u a t io n c o u l d a p p l y t o o u r s a m p l e o f e ff e c ts i ze s be cau se s t udy ch a rac t e r i s t i c s ( such a s d i s c i p l i ne ) m i gh t a f f ec t t he d i s t r ibu t i ono f d - sc o r e s . A h o m o g e n e i t y t e s t o f t h e d - s c o r e s in d i c a t e s w h e t h e r m o r e t h a n o n ep o p u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r a f f e c t s t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s c o r e s . I n t h e e v e n t o fh e t e r o g e n e i t y , t h e o b s e r v e d v a r i a n c e i s n o t f u l l y e x p l a i n e d b y s a m p l i n g v a r i a n c e .A r t e f a c t s c a n e x p l a i n s o m e o f t h e o b s e r v e d v a r i a n c e , a n d m o d e r a t o r v a r i a b l e s( o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s ) e x p l a i n t h e r e s t . O n e o f t h e a r t e f a c t s m a y b em e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r . I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e s c a l e s i s a v a i l a b l e ,c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e e f f e c t s c o r e s a r e c o r r e c t e d f o r a t t e n u a t i o n . H e d g e s a n d O l k i n( 1 9 8 5 ) d e s c r i b e a s t a t is t ic a l t e s t o f h o m o g e n e i t y , I f a c h i - s q u a r e t e s t p r o d u c e s as t a t i s t i ca l l y s i gn i f i can t coe f f i c i en t Q , t he d i s t r i bu t i on o f d - sco res i s he t e rogeneous .S c h w a r z e r ' s s t at is t ic a l p a c k a g e ( 1 9 8 9 ) w a s u s e d t o a n a l y s e th e d a t a.

Kolb's Learning Style Inventory: resultsF i g u r e 1 s h o w s t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o d e l o f e x p e r i e n t i a l le a r n in g . T h e L S I i s a n i n e -i t e m s e l f d e s c r i p t io n q u e s t i o n n a i r e . E a c h i t e m c o n s i s ts o f f o u r w o r d s . T h e s e w o r d sc o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o u r l e a r n i n g m o d e s ( K o l b 1 9 8 4 ) . R e s p o n d e n t s d e s c r i b et h e m s e l v e s b y r a n k i n g t h e s e f o u r w o r d s . T h e i r c h o i c e s r e s u l t i n f o u r s c o r e s o n t h es c a l e s a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.

N i n e t e e n s t u d i e s w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s m e t a - a n a l y s i s . O n l y o n e a u t h o r ( K a t z1988) r epor t ed a r e l i ab i l i t y s co re . The o t he r au t hor s a l l cons i de r ed t he s a t i s f ac t o ry

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activeexper imentat ion

concreteexperience

Fig. ] .abstractconceptual izat ion

Kolb's mod el of experiential learning.

4 9 5

reflectiveobservation

r e l i a b il i ty o f t h e s c a l e s re f e r r i n g t o K o l b ' s p u b l i c a t i o n o f r e li a b il it ie s . O u r d a t am a t r i x u s e d r e l i a b i l i t i e s a s m e n t i o n e d i n K o l b ' s Learning S ty le Inventory :T e c hn ic a l M anua l ( 1 9 7 6 ) i n c a s e o f t h e o r ig i n a l i n v e n t o r y . P i n t o a n d G e i g e r ( 1 9 9 1 )a n d V e r e s et al. ( 1 9 9 1 ) p r o v i d e r e l i a b i l i t y s c o r e s ( i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y ) b a s e d o nK o l b ' s r e v i s e d v e r s i o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) . O u r d a t a m a t r i x u s e d th e s e r e l ia b i l it y s c o r e sw h e n e v e r t h e r e v i s e d v e r s i o n w a s u s e d . 4

T h e m e t a - a n a ly s i s r e v e a ls s l ig h t ly l o w e r s c o re s f o r w o m e n o n t h e A b s t r a c tC o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s c a l e . M e n a r e m o r e l i k e l y t h a n w o m e n t o s t a r t t h e l e a r n i n gp r o c e s s w i t h a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s . W h i l e a d - s c o r e o r - 0 . 1 6 i s l o w ( C o h e n 1 9 7 7 ) , t h ec o n f i d e n c e i n t e rv a l a n d t h e h o m o g e n e i t y o f th e v a r i a n c e o f th e d - s c o r e s i n d i ca t e ar e l i a b l e r e s u l t . T h e d - s c o r e s o n t h e r e m a i n i n g s c a l e s m a y b e i g n o r e d ( s e e T a b l e 2 ) .T h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f th e d i s t ri b u ti o n o f d - sc o r e s o n t h e C o n c r e t e E x p e r i e n c e a n d t h eR e f l e c t i v e O b s e r v a t i o n s c a l e s s u g g e s t t h e p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e o f m o d e r a t o r v a r ia b l e s .

T h e n e x t s t e p i n v o l v e d a s e a r ch f o r v a ri a b l e s a f f e c t i n g g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c es .R e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s w a s p e r f o r m e d o n t h e d - s c o r e a s a d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e a n d af e w b a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b le s a s i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ? A g e w a s t h e o n l y v a ri a b l ew i t h a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e d - s c o r e o n t h e A b s t r a c tC o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n ( r = - . 5 9 , p < .0 5 ). O l d e r w o m e n t e n d e d t o b e le s s a b s tr a c tt h a n o l d e r m e n , w h i l e y o u n g e r w o m e n i n t h e c o l l e g e e n v i r o n m e n t w e r e m o r ea b s t r a c t t h a n y o u n g e r m e n . C l u s t e r a n a l y s is o n t h e h e t e r o g e n e o u s s c a le s d i d n o tp r o d u c e m e a n i n g f u l r es u lt s.

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4 9 6Table 2. Effect sizes and hom ogeneity in the 'random effects mo del' after correction for unreliabilityon the LSI.

d -s co re ( s . d ) 9 5 % - c o n f i d e n c enterval for d QCE .01(.10) -0 .1 9 to 0.21 50.50*RO .01(.08) -0 .1 5 to 0.1 7 49.83*AC - . 16(.06) - 0.28 to - 0.05 25.75AE .02(.07) -0 .1 2 to 0.1 5 28.47Note: *significant nonho mo geneity at p ~< .05 according to a chi-square test. CE = ConcreteExperience, RO = Reflective Observation, AC = Abstract Conceptualization,AE = ActiveExperimentation.

T h e c o n c l u s i o n o n K o l b ' s L S I i s t h a t o n e s c a l e o f t he i n s t r u m e n t i s t o a s m a l le x t e n t g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e : m e n s c o r e h i g h e r o n t h e A b s t r a c t C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s c a le .I t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h i c h c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s i n f lu e n c e t h e s c o r e s o n t h eh e t e r o g e n e o u s s c a l e s .

E n t w i s t l e ' s A p p r o a c h e s t o S t u d y i n g I n v e n t o r y : r e s u l tsT h e A S I i s a 6 4 - i te m s e l f r e p o r t q u e s t io n n a i r e . T h e i t e m s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d in t o f o u rl e a r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s , c o n s i s t i n g o f 1 6 s c a l e s ( s e e T a b l e 1 ). T h e m e a n i n g a n dr e p r o d u c i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s r e fl e c t t h e d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n d e e p a n d s u r f a c ea p p r o a c h e s ( M a r t o n a n d S ~ilj6 1 9 7 6a , 1 9 7 6b ) . T h e o t h e r s c a l es o f t h e A S I m e a s u r ea c h i e v i n g o r i e n t a t i o n a s w e l l a s s t y l e s a n d p a t h o l o g i e s . T h e i t e m s a r e s c o r e d o n as c a l e f r o m ' d e f i n i t e l y a g r e e ' t o ' d e f i n i t e l y d i s a g r e e ' . M o s t a u t h o r s r e p o r t e dr e l i a b i li t i e s ( C r o n b a c h ' s a ) . T h e i n t e rn a l c o n s i s t e n c y v a r i e s a g r e a t d e a l as t h e s a m es c a l e s in d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s c a n r a n g e f r o m . 2 9 t o . 82 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o n r e l i a b i l i t y( i n t e r n a l a n d t e s t - re t e s t ) , s e e R i c h a r d s o n ( 1 9 9 0 ) .

T a b l e 3 s h o w s d - s c o r e s , c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h eh o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e s t u d i es i n t h e m e t a - a n a l y s i s o n th e A S I . O n f o u r o f t h e 1 6s c a l e s o f th e A S I ( S u r f a c e A p p r o a c h , E x t r i n s i c M o t i v a t i o n , D i s o r g a n i s e d S t u d yM e t h o d s a n d G l o b e t r o t t i n g ) h o m o g e n e o u s r e s u lt s w e r e f o u n d , t w o o f t h e s e s c a l ess h o w a d - s c o r e o f s o m e s u b s t a n c e . O n t h e E x t r i n s i c M o t i v a t i o n s c a l e , a d - s c o r e o f- . 3 5 a p p e a r e d , m e n a r e m o r e e x t r i n s ic a l l y m o t i v a t e d c o m p a r e d t o w o m e n . O n t h eS u r f a c e A p p r o a c h s c a l e , w o m e n s c o r e s li g h t l y h i g h e r o n t h e s u r fa c e a p p r o a c hc o m p a r e d to m e n . O t h e r s m a l l to m e d i u m d - s c o r e s ( C o h e n 1 9 7 7, l a r g e r t h a n a p p e a r e d o n t h e I n t r i n s ic M o t i v a t i o n , t h e F e a r o f F a i l u r e a n d t h eA c h i e v e m e n t M o t i v a t i o n s c al es . T h e s e d - s c o r es w e r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s l y d i s tr i b u te d ,i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t o n a l l t h r e e o c c a s i o n s a f f e c t i v e c o n c e p t s a r e i n v o l v e d ( s e eT a b l e 4 ) . W o m e n , i n th i s s a m p l e o f s t u d ie s , a p p a r e n t l y te n d t o e x p e r i e n c e m o r ea n x i e t y a n d to b e m o r e p e s s i m i s t i c t h a n m e n a b o u t a c a d e m i c s u c c e s s . T h e r e s u l t so n t h e m o t i v a t i o n s c a l e s s h o w t h a t w o m e n i n t h i s d i v e r s e s a m p l e s e e m t o b e m o r ei n t ri n s ic a l ly m o t i v a t e d a n d m e n t o b e m o r e e x t r i n si c a l ly a nd a c h i e v e m e n tm o t i v a t e d .

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4 9 7Table 3. Effec t s izes and hom ogene i ty in the ' r andom ef fects mod el ' a f te r cor rec tion for unre l iabil i tyon t he A S I

d-score s (s .d) 95% -confide nce interval for d QDeep approac h (DA) .04(.13) - . 21 to .30 36.5*Use of evidence (UE) - .07 ( .12 ) - .3 1 to .17 36.5*Re lating ideas (RI) .18(. 12) - .06 to .42 25.2*Intr insic mo tivation (IM) .29(.20) - . 10 to .69 33.1 *Sur face approach (SA) .13( .09) - . 0 4 to .30 7 .2Syl labus bourldness (SB) - .13 ( .09 ) - .3 1 to .05 16.9 'Fe ar of failure (FF) .30(.08) :13 to .46 11.3*E x t ri ns ic mot i va t ion ( E M) - . 35 ( .05 ) - . 4 5 t o - . 2 6 5 .0A c h i e ve me n t mot i va t ion ( A M) - . 21 ( .10 ) - . 41 t o - . 0 1 13 .4"Disorganised s tudy methods (DS) .03( .06) - . 0 9 to .14 3 .1Strategic approac h (StA) .17(.13) - . 0 9 to .43 11.8"Nega tive at ti tudes to studying (NS) .00( .18) - . 3 5 to .35 24.2*Globe t rot t ing (GL) - .04 ( .09 ) - . 22 to .14 5 .4Com prehens ion lea rning (CL) - .10 ( .09 ) - . 28 to .08 19.9"Ope ration learning (OL) .01(.15) - . 2 9 to .32 14.4"Improvidence ( Imp) .17( .12) - . 06 to .40 15.3"Note: *Signi f icant nonh omo gene i ty a tp ~< .05 according to a chi - square tes t.

Table 4. Effect sizes on the scales of the Approac hes to Studying Inven toryNo. Studyby DA* UE RI IM SA SB FF EM AM DS StA NS GL CL OL Imp1 Mil le r

etal. -.1 7 -.31 .21 .13 .19 -.0 0 .30 -.2 6 -.4 3 .00 .34 -.1 6 .01 -.2 7 .00 ,212 Gledhill

etal. .17 .05 .36 .10 -.13 -.25 .13 -,52 .00 -.17 .09 -.41 -.17 -.12 -.37 -,3 03 Clarke -.I 1 .00 -.13 .03 .19 -.07 .38 -.55 -.39 .05 -.2 2 .10 .21 .11 -.03 .274 Coles ,125 W atkins .47 .29 .46 .77 .05 -.3 5 .39 -.4 9 -.1 0 .16 .24 .34 -.1 4 .18 .28 .2627 Richa rdson -.1 7 .37 .01 .35 .13 .38 .35 .00 -.0 328 Richardson- .06 - .35 - .10 .04 .0 5- .02 - .42Note: *M eaning of abbrevia t ions see Table 3 .

A r t e f a c t s a n d m o d e r a t o r v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e r es u l ts . O n e a r t e fa c tc o n c e r n e d t h e u s e o f i n s t r u m e n t s . M o s t s t u d i e s u s e d a n a d a p t e d v e r s i o n o f th e A S I .A f e w u s e d m i n o r a d a p t a t i o n s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o th e i r p a r t i c u l a r s a m p l e ( e . g . ,G l e d h i l l 1 9 89 ) . R i c h a r d s o n ( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d C o l e s ( 1 9 8 5 ) u s e d s h o r t e n e d v e r s i o n s .C o n s e q u e n t l y , n o t e v e r y s t u d y r e p o r t e d s t a t i s t ic s o n a ll s c a le s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h ev a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e d - s c o r e s w a s p r o b a b l y e n l a r g e d b y t h e d i f f e r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l a n dr e g i o n a l s e t t i n g s in w h i c h t h e s t u d i es w e r e c o n d u c t e d . W e d i d n o t p e r f o r m ar e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e o f an i n s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r o f s tu d i e s .

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4 9 8S u m ma r y an d d i sc u ssionT h i s a r t ic l e r e v i e w e d t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l fi n d i n g s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e r -r e l a t e d le a r n i n g s t y le s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t i n t h e i n n e r l a y e r o f t h e o n i o nm o d e l w a s t h e f ie l d ( in ) d e p e n d e n c e d i m e n s i o n o f W i t k in . A p a r t f r o m o n e s tu d y ,n o n e o f t h e r e v i e w e d s t u d i e s s h o w e d s t a t i st i c a l ly s i g n i f i c a n t g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s . I nm o s t s t u d i e s i n t h e m i d d l e l a y e r , K o l b ' s t h e o r y o n e x p e r i e n t i a l l e a r n i n g w a s u s e d .I n t h e n a r r a ti v e r e v i e w h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e s u lt s w e r e f o u n d . M e t a - a n a l y s i n g t h i si n s t r u m e n t r e s u l t e d in a s m a l l c o n s i s t e n t g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e : m e n s h o w e d a g r e a te rp r e f e r e n c e t h a n w o m e n f o r t h e a b s t ra c t c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n m o d e o f l e a rn i n g . I n t h eo u t e r l a y e r a g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e a p p e a r e d o n t h e s c a l e s f o r e x t r in s i c m o t i v a t i o n . T h i sd i f f e r e n c e a l s o a p p e a r e d i n t h e m e t a - a n a l y s i s . I n a l l t h e s e d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s , m e nw e r e m o r e o f t e n i n t e r e s te d i n t h e c o u r s e s f o r t he q u a l i f i c a t i o n s t h e y o f f e r . W o m e no n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e m o r e o f t e n i n t e r e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g f o r l e a r n i n g ' s s a k e . I n t h en a r r a t iv e r e v i e w t h e d e e p a n d s u r f a c e d i m e n s i o n t u r n e d o u t t o b e s l i g h t l y g e n d e rs e n s i ti v e . I n s e v e r a l st u d ie s , m e n s h o w e d m o r e o f t e n a d e e p a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n i n g ,w o m e n m o r e o f t e n a s u r f a c e o r r e p r o d u c i n g a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n in g . T h e m e t a -a n a l y s i s d id n o t s h o w a s u b s t a n t ia l d - s c o r e o n t h e d e e p a p p r o a c h s c a le . O n t h es u r f a c e a p p r o a c h - s c a l e o n l y a s m a l l d - s c o r e a p p e a r e d .

T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s w h e t h e r r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e r a n d l e a r n i n g c a n c o n t r i b u t e t ot h e d i s c u s s i o n o n g e n d e r i n e q u a l i t y in e d u c a t i o n . W e t h i n k i t c a n . S o m e s t u d ie sm e n t i o n a l i n k b e t w e e n t h e w a y s t u d e n ts l e a r n a n d g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t u d yc h o i c e s a n d s u c c e ss . B u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s v i r t u a l l y n e v e re l a b o r a t e d o n , t h e o r e t i c a l l y n o r e m p i r i c a l l y . I n th i s r e v i e w w e h a v e s h o w n t h e l a c ko f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t he r o l e o f e d u c a t i o n i n c r e a t in g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n gs t y l e s . D o c e r t a i n l e a r n i n g s t y l e s l e a d to m o r e s t u d y s u c c e s s , o r i s t h i s o n l y t h e c a s ei n a c o n v e r g i n g c o n t e x t ? C o n s i d e r i n g t h e u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w o m e n i nm a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e : D o s t u d e n t s c h o o s e t h e i r s u b j e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i rl e a r n i n g s t y l e o r d o t h e l e a r n i n g s t y le s c h a n g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u b j e c t s t h e yc h o o s e ? I n o r d e r to b e a b l e to d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n a n dt h e c a u s e s o f g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a rn i n g , i t s e e m s i m p o r t a n t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h eg e n d e r s e n s i ti v e d i m e n s i o n s m o r e t h o r o u g h l y . T h e s e d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d n o t o n l y b ei n t e r p re t e d , b u t a l s o e m p i r i c a l l y i n v e s t i g a te d , a s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n t e r a c ti o n b e t w e e nf a c t o rs o u t s i d e a n d i n s i d e th e s c h o o l e n v i r o n m e n t .

Not e s1. W e w ould like to thank Joo p Hox, G onny Sch ellings, Jan V ermu nt and the referees for their valuablecomm ents on earlier drafts of this article.2. In this article we gen erally use the term learning styles, because it is w idely used in discussions on

gender and learning. W hen a particular theory or author is discussed, we use the terminolog y of thatparticular theory or author.3. Mo re detailed inform ation can be o btained from the authors.4. The LS I (Kolb 1976) and its revised version (Kolb 1984) we re criticised by Ve res et al. (1991). Thepsychom etric properties are not satisfactory, but ac cording to the stud y by Veres et al. this is related

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499t o t h e f o r m a t . T h e y c o n c l u d e t h e r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f t h e L e a r n i n g S t y l e I n v e n t o r y ' m a y h a v ec o n s i d e r a b l e u t i l i t y ' ( p . 1 4 9 ) .

5 . D e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n y e a r o f p u b l ic a t i o n , m e a n a g e o f t h e s a m p l e , w h e t h e r i t c o n c e r n e d a p a p e r o ra n a r t i c le a n d t h e m a j o r ( s ) o f t h e s a m p l e c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e a u t h o r s .

Ref erence s

A c k e r , S . , M e g a r r y , J . , N e s b i t , S . , a n d H o y l e , E . ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Wo r l d Yea r b o o k o f E d u ca t io n : W o menan d Education. L o n d o n : K o g a n P a u l.

B a r - H a ' f m , G . , a n d W i l k e s , J . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . ' A c o g n i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m a r g i n a l i t y a n d u n d e r -r e p r e s e n ta t i o n o f w o m e n i n s c i e n c e ', Jo u r n a l o f H i g h er E d u ca t i o n 6 , 3 7 1 - 3 8 7 .

B a x t e r M a g o l d a , M . B . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Gender Di f f erences in Cogni t i ve Development . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h eA n n u a l M e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n E d u c a t io n a l R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t io n , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . ( E R I C N o .E D 2 8 4 9 0 8) .B a x t e r M a g o l d a , M . B . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . ' G e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t : A n a n a l y s i s o f c o g n i t i v ec o m p l e x i t y a n d l e a r n i n g s t y l e s ' , Jo u r n a l o f C o l leg e S t u d en t Deve l o p men t 3 0 ( 3 ) , 2 1 3 - 2 2 0 .

B i g g s , J . B . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Studen t approac hes to learn ing and s tudying . Research M onograph. A u s t r a l i a nC o u n c i l f o r E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h L t d . ( E R I C N o . E D 3 0 8 2 0 1 ).

* B o k o r o s , M . A . , G o l d s t e i n , M . B . , a n d S w e e n e y , M . M . et a l . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . Common Cogni t i ve Persona l i t yFactors in Non-cl in ica l Measures . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e A n n u a l C o n v e n t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a nP s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , B o s t o n , M A . ( E R I C N o . E D 3 2 8 8 1 9 ) .

B u r t o n , L . ( e d . ) ( 1 9 9 0 ) . Gen der an d Ma themat ics . An In ternat ional Perspect ive . S t r a n d : C a s s e l l .C a p l a n , B . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . ' S e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o g n i t i v e s t r a te g i c p r e f e r e n c e a m o n g m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s ' ,

P er cep t u a l a n d M o t o r S k i l ls 5 8 ( 1 ) , 2 7 9 - 2 8 5 .C h a t t e r j e a , R . G . , a n d P a u l , B . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . ' C o g n i t i v e s t y l e , s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t , s e x a n d r e c o g n i t i o n

c a p a c i t y ' , P s ych o -L i n g u a 1 2 ( 1 ) , 3 7 - 4 5 .C h i p m a n , S . F . , B r u s h , L . , a n d W i l s o n , D . M . ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 85 ) . Wo men a n d Ma t h ema t i c s : B a l a n c i n g t h e

Equation. H i l l s d a l e , N J : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m .* C h o i , J .M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . ' L e a r n i n g s t y l e s o f a c a d e m i c l i b r a r i a n s ' , Col lege and Research Librar ies 5 0 ( 6 ) ,

6 9 1 - 6 9 9 .* C l a r k e , R . M . ( 1 9 8 6 ). ' S t u d e n t s ' a p p r o a c h e s t o l e a r n i n g i n a n i n n o v a t i v e m e d i c a l s c h o o l : a c r o s s-

s e c t i o n a l s t u d y ' , B r i ti s h Jo u r n a l o f E d u ca t io n a l P s ych o l o g y 5 6 , 3 0 9 - 3 2 1 .C o h e n , J . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Sta t i s t ica l Pow er Analys i s fo r the Behav iora l Sciences (R evi sed Edit ion) . N e w Y o r k :

A c a d e m i c P r es s .* C o l e s , C . R . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . ' D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d p r o b l e m - b a s e d c u r r i c u l a i n t h e i r s t u d e n t s '

a p p r o a c h e s t o s t u d y i n g ' , Med i ca l E d u ca t io n 1 9, 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 .* C o r d e l l , B . J . (1 9 9 1 ) . ' A s t u d y o f le a r n i n g s t y l e s a n d c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d i n s t r u c t i o n ' , C o mp u t er s a n d

Educat ion 1 6 ( 2 ), 1 7 5 - 1 8 3 .* C o r n w e l l , J .M . , M a n f r e d o , P . A . , a n d D u n l a p , W . P . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . ' F a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e 1 9 8 5 r e v i s i o n o f

K o l b ' s L e a r n i n g S t y le I n v e n t o r y ' , E d u ca t i o n a l a n d P s ych o l o g i ca l Mea s u r emen t 5 1 , 4 5 5 - 4 6 2 .C u r r y , L . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . An Organiza t ion o f Learning S ty les Th eory and Cons truct s. P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e

A n n u a l M e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a ti o n , M o n t r e a l, C a n a d a . ( E R I C N o .E D 2 3 5 1 8 5 ) .

D i p p e l h o f e r - S t i e m , B . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . ' T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e s e a r c h - o r i e n t e d l e a r n i n g i n f i v e E u r o p e a nc o u n t r i e s ' , E u r o p ea n Jo u r n a l o f P s ych o l o g y o f E d u ca t io n 4 , 4 8 9 - 5 0 3 .

* D o r s e y , O . L . , a n d P i e r s o n , M . J . ( 1 9 8 4 ). ' A d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d y o f a d u l t le a r n i n g s t y l e s i n a n o n -t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m ' , Li fe long Learning , 8 -11 .

D r o n k e r s , J . ( 1 9 9 0 ). De O pbrengs t van SchooUoopbaanonderzoek; een Terugbl ik op een Dece nnium eneen Vo orschouw op het Volgende, Wo rking Pape rs 42 . [ T h e R e s u l t s o f R e s e a r c h o n S c h o o l c a r e e r s , aR e t r o s p e c t r i v e V i e w o n a D e c a d e a n d a P r o s p e c t i v e V i e w o n t h e N e x t ] . T i l b u r g : V a k g r o e pS o c i o l o g i e , K a t h o l i e k e U n i v e r s i t e i t B r a b a n t .

D u c k w e l l , J . M . , A r n o l d , L . , a n d H a y e s , J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . Ap proa che s to Lea rning by Undergraduate Students:

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500A Longi tud inal S tudy. P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e A n n u a l F o r u m o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r I n s t i t u t i o n a lR e s e a r c h , L o u i s v i l l e K Y ( E R I C N o . E D 3 2 2 6 7 7 ) .

E c c l e s , J . , M a c l v e r , D . , a n d L a n g e , L . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . Classroom Pract ices and Mot iva t ion to S tudyMathematics. S a n F r a n c i s c o: C o n t r ib u t i o n t o t h e A E R A - C o n f e r e n c e .

E n t w i s t l e , N . J . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . Styles o f Learning and Teaching. N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i l e y & S o n s .F e n n e m a , E . , a n d L e d e r , G . ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 9 0 ) . Mathemat ics and Gender . N e w Y o r k a n d L o n d o n : T e a c h e r sC o l l e g e P r e s s .

* G l e d h i l l , R . F . , a n d V a n d e r M e r w e , C . A . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . ' G e n d e r a s a f a c t o r i n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g : p r e l i m i n a r yf i n d i n g s ' , Med i ca l E d u ca t io n 2 3 , 2 0 1 - 2 0 4 .

H a l p e r n , D . F . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . Sex Di f ferences in Cogni t i ve Abi l i t i es ( 2 n d e d . ) . H i l l s d a l e : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u mA s s o c i a t e s , I n c .

* H a y d e n , R . R . , a n d B r o w n , M . S . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . ' L e a r n i n g s t y l e s a n d c o r r e l a t e s ' , P s ych o l o g i ca l R ep o r t s 5 6 ,2 4 3 - 2 4 6 .

H e d g e s , L . V . , a n d O l k i n , I . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Sta t i s t ica l M ethods fo r Meta-analys is . O r l a n d o , F L : A c a d e m i c P r e s s.* H i n e s , S . J . , a n d S e i d m a n , S . A . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . The E f fect s o f Selected CA I D es ign S t ra teg ies on Achievement ,

and a n Explora t ion o f o ther Rela ted Factors . P r o c e e d i n g s o f s e l e c t e d r e s e a r c h p a p e r s p r e s e n t e d a t t h eA n n u a l M e e t i n g o f t h e A s s o c i a ti o n f o r E d u c a ti o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d T e c h n o l o g y, N e w O r l e a ns ,L A . ( E R I C N o . E D 2 9 5 6 4 6 ) .

* H u d a k , M . A . , a n d A n d e r s o n , D . E . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . ' F o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d l e a r n i n g s t y l e p r e d i c t s u c c e s s i ns t a ti s ti c s a n d c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e c o u r s e s ' , Teaching o f Psychology 1 7 ( 4) , 2 3 1 - 2 3 4 .

* K a t z , N . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . ' I n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g s ty l e : I s r a e li n o r m s a n d c r o s s - c u l tu r a l e q u i v a l e n c e o f K o l b ' s L S I ' ,Journ al o f Cross -Cul tura l Psycho logy 1 9 ( 3) , 3 6 1 - 3 7 9 .

K o l b , D . A . ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Learning S ty le Inventory: Technica l Manual . B o s t o n : M c B e r a n d C o m p a n y , r e v i s e d1 9 7 8 .

K o l b , D . A . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Exper ien t ia l Learning , Experience as a So urce o f Learning and Development.E n g l e w o o d C l i f fs N J : P r e n t ic e - H a l l .

L o t w i c k , G . H . , S i m o n , A . , W a r d , L . O . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . ' F i e l d d e p e n d e n c e / i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d i ts r e la t i o n t o s e x o fp o l y t e c h n i c s t u d e n t s ' , P er cep t u a l a n d M o t o r S k i l ls 5 3 , 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 .L i g h t , R . J . , a n d P i l l e m e r , D . B . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Summing up; the Science o f Rev iewin g Research. C a m b r i d g e

M A : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i ty P r es s .* L o g a n , E . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . ' C o g n i t i v e s t y l e s a n d o n l i n e b e h a v i o r o f n o v i c e s e a r c h e r s ' , In format ion Process ing

a n d M a n a g e m e n t 2 6 ( 4 ) , 5 0 3 - 5 1 0 .M a r t o n , F . , a n d S a l j 6 , R . ( 1 9 7 6 a ) . ' O n q u a l i t a t iv e d i f f e re n c e s i n l e a r n in g , 1 - o u t c o m e a n d p r o c e s s ' ,

Bri t i sh Journ al o f Educat ional Psychology 4 6 , 4 - 1 1 .M a r t o n , F . , a n d S ~ il j6 , R . ( 1 9 7 6 b ) . ' O n q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n i n g , 2 - o u t c o m e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f

t h e l e a r n e r s c o n c e p t i o n o f th e t a s k ' , Bri t i sh Journ al o f Educat ional Psychology 4 6 , 1 1 5 - 1 2 7 .M a t t h e w s , D . B . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . ' T h e e f f e c t s o f l e a r n i n g s ty l e o n g r a d e s o f fi r s t y e a r c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ' , Research

in Hig her Education 3 2 , 2 5 3 - 2 6 8 .* M i l l e r , C . D . , F i n l e y , J ., a n d M c K i n l e y , D . L . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . ' L e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s a n d m o t i v e s : m a l e a n d

f e m a l e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r l e a r n i n g a s s i s t a n c e p r o g r a m s ' , Jo u r n a l o f C o l l eg e S t u d en tDeve l o p men t 3 1 ( 2 ) , 1 4 7 - 1 5 4 .

M y e r , K . A . , a n d H i g g i n s , H . J . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . ' C o g n i t i v e s t y le , g e n d e r a n d s e l f - r e p o r t o f p r i n c i p l e a s p r e d i c t o r so f a d u lt p e r f or m a n c e o n P i a g e t ' s W a t e r L e v e l T a s k ' , Jo u r n a l o f Gen e t ic P s ych o l o g y 1 4 4 ( 2 ) , 1 7 9 - 1 8 3 .

M u r p h y , R . J . L . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . ' S e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n o b j e c t i v e te s t p e r f o r m a n c e ' , B r i ti s h Jo u r n a l o f E d u ca t io n a lP s ych o l o g y 5 2 , 2 1 3 - 2 1 9 .

* N e w l a n d , J ., R . , a n d W o e l f l , N . N . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . ' L e a r n i n g s t y l e a n d a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h i n a g r o u p o fs o p h o m o r e m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s ' , A ca d em i c Med i c i n e 6 7 ( 5 ) , 3 4 9 .

P e t r a k i s , E . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . ' C o g n i t i v e s t y l e s o f p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n m a j o r s ' , P er cep t u a l a n d M o t o r S k i l ls 5 3 ( 2 ) ,5 7 4 .

P i n t o , J . K . , a n d G e i g e r , M . A . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . ' C h a n g e s i n l e a r n i n g - s t y le p r e f e r e n c e s : a p r e f a t o ry r e p o r t o fl o n g i t u d i n a l f i n d i n g s ' , Psycholog ica l Repor t s 6 8 , 1 9 5 - 2 0 1 .

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