Figure's of Film - Metaphor, Metonymy, And Repetition (Image & Narratove, 2014)

102Vol. 15, No. 1 (2014)IMAGE [&] NARRATIVE

Figures of FilmMetaphor, Metonymy, and Repetition1

Eduardo Urios-Aparisi

Abstract

This article is a comparative analysis of Sofia Coppolas films Lost in Translation (2003) and Isabel Coixets Map of the Sounds of Tokyo (2009). I argue that repetition is an important resource to metaphorical mappings as a result of the cinematic style of both directors. The repeated presence of food items and activities and also of Tokyo as a city are transformed from metonymic elements of the films background

to personifications or sources mapped on the concept of Self (Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy) or of national identity. In these films Coppola and Coixet attempt to break away from the Hollywood cinema

style by using all the resources to represent and communicate emotional states onto their audiences.

Rsum

Le prsent article est une analyse comparative des films Lost in Translation (Sofia Coppola, 2003) et Map of the Sounds of Tokyo (Isabel Coixet, 2009). Lauteur prtend que la rptition est une source importante de mtaphores lie au style cinmatographique des deux cinastes. La prsence rpte

de nourriture, dactivits et de Tokyo en tant que ville est transforme dlments mtonymiques de

larrire-plan du film en personnifications ou sources mtaphoriques pour le concept de Soi (Lakoff et

Johnson Philosophy) ou didentit nationale. Dans ces films Coppola et Coixet essaient de rompre avec le style hollywoodien en utilisant toutes les ressources pour reprsenter et communiquer des motions.

Keywords

Metaphor, metonymy, repetition, film, Tokyo, food, Self, Sofia Coppola, Isabel Coixet

Sofia Coppolas Lost in Translation (hereafter Lost 2003) and Isabel Coixets Map of the Sounds of Tokyo (hereafter Map 2009) are two films that share formal and thematic similarities. This article is a comparative analysis of both films with the purpose to identify the motivations underlying the aesthetic

choices of both directors. I concentrate on three figures: metaphor, metonymy and repetition and how

they are meaning creation devices that interact. In recent years, applications of Conceptual Metaphor

Theory (Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors; Philosophy) have contributed to the explanation of how the discursive instantiations of these conceptual processes are dynamic and negotiable (see Forceville and Urios-Aparisi). Film metaphor involves the presence and integration of multiple modes and their conventions and resources. For this reason, a comparative approach is in order since figurative meanings

1. I would like to thank the comments and suggestions by Maarten Cognarts, Peter Kravanja and an anonymous reader. All remaining errors are my own.


surface in a synthesis of modes and intertextual references.

Lost deals with the relationship between a famous Hollywood actor, Bob Harris (Bill Murray) and a young woman who has recently finished college, Charlotte (Scarlett Johansson). Both are in Tokyo

for different reasons, but, as they spend more time together, they start being more comfortable with each

other, and eventually they fall in love. Nevertheless, the relationship never goes beyond friendship.

Throughout the film, we learn that Bob is going through family and financial problems. Charlottes

relationship with her husband John (Giovanni Ribisi) is not good either.

Maps protagonist is Ryu (Rikko Kikuchi). She works in Tokyos fish market at night and is a contract killer during the day. David (Sergi Lpez) is a Catalan man who owns a wine shop in Tokyo.

Nagara-san (Takeo Nakahara), the CEO of a company, and Ishida-san (Hideo Sakaki), Nagara-sans

assistant, want Ryu to kill David in order to avenge Nagara-Sans daughter and Davids girlfriends

Midori. Nagara-san views him as the main reason for his daughters suicide. Instead, Ryu and David

start a passionate relationship.

Both Sofia Coppola and Isabel Coixet are auteurs and are more interested in representing

emotional states and existential questions according to King (Indiewood and Lost) and Cerrato. They try to distance themselves from Hollywood style cinema and King (Indiewood) identifies Coppola as part of what he calls indiewood, a new independent cinema associated to branches of larger production

companies, and alternative ways of funding and promoting their work.

They also use alternative filming techniques like the hand-held camera or ways to break down

linear narratives as well as lengthening some scenes beyond the average (see King Lost 105). Coppola and Coixet establish the storyline and dialogue in relation with the space and search for alternative ways

to express emotional states rather than a single narrative structure that surrounds an event or an action.

Research on metaphor in film has focused on the classification of metaphor types. Identifying

the presence or absence of the domains that interact is a complex matter due to the overarching role of

narrative in cinema but several classifications have been made regarding the kinds of metaphors found in

cinema and how they are signaled (see Whittock; Forceville Pictorial Metaphor, Identification; Rohdin).

Integrating those classifications with Gradys primary metaphors, Ortiz has shown how complex the

classification of metaphor is bearing in mind multimodal or monomodal data. Nonetheless, the features

of film metaphors are clearly different from metaphors in other multimodal texts like printed advertising.

Fiction films have considerably more freedom to use different techniques to cue metaphorical mappings

between items in the film, and the mappings between the domains can be increased as long as it does not

affect the plausibility of the storyline (Forceville Course).

Image schemas have been shown to determine narrative structures (Forceville Journey; Varda; Forceville and Jeulink) or film scenes by using basic structures of body-mind interaction to map abstract

meanings based on our own bodies while the audience can mentally replicate the actions shown on

the screen via the activation of mirror neurons (Cognarts and Kravanja Embodied Visual Meaning). Kappelhoff and Mller insist on the importance of the felt experience that triggers the emergence of

metaphorical meanings. Such a felt experience is based on the bodily movement through the texture


quality of space and even [i]n cases when we do not move our bodies, we feel our emotions as if

something within us has moved as Gibbs (246) suggests.

Metaphor scenarios have been identified as complex cognitive structures of terror films

(Eggertsson and Forceville) or of reconceptualizations of the body (Urios-Aparisi). This corresponds

with the importance of movement and narrative in cinema (see, e.g., Deleuze; Whittock 23). Cinematic

movement can transfer any item in the multimodal text of the film to being part of the narrative structure

and its characters, the generic tradition and the artistic intention of the director and his or her team.

Repetition bridges the dynamic dimensions of film and how images, words, music, sounds,

characters and other elements of the mise-en-scne interact with the narrative dimension. It has been

studied in different perspectives such as discourse analysis (Tannen) and literature (Toolan) and its roles in evaluating and creating cohesion. Clifton proposed that repetition in film should be called rhetorical

or significant repetition (55) and should classify repetitions in various types according to the number

of repetitions, the variation between the instances of repetition or the functions of the repetition. He

highlights the importance of the context, the slight changes in the image that can alter the appearance

of the repeated item. Repetition can have several functions such as humour, creation of patterns of

experience or a narrative element of structure. Clifton explains this with a series of examples (66-67).

Repetition in cinema can be neither identical nor tautological. The image on the screen can be

characterized by two features: its concreteness and also its specificity. As Forceville (Framework) has shown, metaphors in visual data can produce the metaphor concrete a is concrete b. Such a metaphor contradicts the general assumption that metaphors are generally formed by a mapping between a concrete

and an abstract domain although Cognarts and Kravanja (Keaton) suggest that in Buster Keatons film this kind of metaphor precedes the revelation of the type abstract is concrete (143). The feature specificity is related to the metonymy generic for specific (Radden and Kvecses).2 So when we see a character or an object with its most concrete particular features, it represents the whole genre of objects

or characters within that species. In cinema, this metonymy motivates the choice of objects in the mise-

en-scne, casting, actions, and locations, among others.

A comparative analysis of the films by Coppola and Coixet shows how repetition occurs in

different layers of the multimodal text: items of the mise-en-scne, activities, landscapes and cityscapes.

Those elements of the mise-en-scne are part of the film scenario as well as the action and the source

domain in metaphorical mappings (see Forceville Metaphor colin). The repetition contributes to the establishment of metonymical and metaphorical mappings, integrating the narrative and emotive sides

of film rhetoric as a dynamic reality. In this case, I focus on how both films share a common topic that

is conceptualized in different ways: the concept of self or identity. According to Lakoff and Johnson

(Philosophy 297), the metaphoric conceptualizations of inner life can be either a person, an object, or a location (298). They distinguish a five level hierarchical structure.

At the highest level, there is the general Subject-Self metaphor, which conceptualizes a person as

2. generic is specific was first considered a metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors) or a blend (Sullivan and Sweetser).


bifurcated. The exact nature of this bifurcation is specified more precisely one level down, where there are five specific instances of the metaphor. These five special cases of the basic Subject-Self metaphor are grounded in four types of everyday experience: (1) manipulating objects, (2) being located in space, (3) entering into social relations, and (4) empathic projection conceptually projecting yourself onto someone else, as when a child imitates a parent. The fifth special case comes from the Folk Theory of Essences: Each person is more than one Self, but only one of those Selves is compatible with that Essence. This is called the real or true Self. (Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy 269)

The choices of source domain are determined by the storylines, but subtle changes in the particular

features of those source domains create different conceptualizations of the self. The films dramatize the

interaction between those conceptualizations as I show in the following sections.

1. Food and eating activities

The repetition of simple elements throughout a film can help identify a feature, a role, the social or

cultural status of the character. Those objects can be deemed eloquent similarly as Pearson calls some

gestures of silent cinema eloquent because theater in early cinema influenced in the performance of

highly conventionalized gestures. These objects are generally embedded in the activities in which they

are used. Food and activities connected to food are found both in Lost and in Map.

In Lost, Bob is shown having breakfast in one of the first scenes after his arrival in Tokyo (0:18:54). Charlotte and Bob eat at a Sushi restaurant (0:58:42). In this case, Charlotte shows Bob that

her toe is swollen and he jokes about something that would be served in the sushi restaurant. Finally, Bob

and Charlotte meet in the restaurant with Japanese barbecue (1:24:24) just after Charlotte learns Bob has

had an affair with the jazz singer (Catherine Lambert) in the hotel bar. In these cases, the food item is

chosen according to the humoristic intention, the state of confusion or disappointment of the characters.

But besides this narrative purpose, food appears as a major topic in the dialogues. Kelly (Anne Harris),

an obviously anorexic actress, denies to Charlottes husband, John (Giovanni Ribisi), that she is anorexic

because I eat so much junk food, you wouldnt believe it. Id have a heart attack. Then, she goes on to

tell the story about her father being anorexic.

Eating well is metonymically associated with the general wellbeing and having a good life by

Bob in the phone conversation with his wife Lydia (Nancy Steiner) as is transcribed on Imdb (http://

www.imdb.com/character/ch0003806/):

Lydia Harris: [over the phone] Is this a bad time? Bob: [pauses] No, its always a good time. Lydia Harris: The burgundy carpet is out of stock: its going to take twelve weeks. Did you like any of the other colors? Bob: Whatever you like - Im just completely lost. Lydia Harris: Its just carpet. Bob: Thats not what Im talking about. Lydia Harris: What are you talking about? Bob: I dont know. I just want to... get healthy. I would like to start taking better care of myself.


Id like to start eating healthier - I dont want all that pasta. I would like to start eating like Japanese food. Lydia Harris: [icily] Well, why dont you just stay there and you can have it every day? Bob: [biting his tongue] How are the kids doing?

Eating well and physical wellbeing are metonymically related, but in the folk view of the body, eating

well is mostly associated with psychological wellbeing. The humour of this dialogue is partly due to

the conflict between both. Obviously Bob is talking about being psychologically well while Lydia,

sarcastic and overwhelmed by her role as a homemaker, understands the metonymical meaning and

recommends that he should stay in Japan if he wants to eat well (and feel well).

In Map food appears repeatedly in the preparation of fish in the Tokyo market, but also when the characters appear eating sushi, Ramen noodle soup, gyoza, and strawberry mochi (a kind of Japanese

sweet). At the beginning of the film, a slow camera moves from the head down over the body of a naked

woman on a table strategically covered with sushi while business men eat off her body. The traditionally

minded Nagara-san shows his disgust towards this rather obscure custom called Nyotaimore while his

practical assistant Ishida-san sees it as a practical way of doing business with Westerners. When Nagara-

san learns his daughter has just died he starts a sushi-fight which the other participants happily join.

Fish appears again in the fish market of Tokyo where Ryu works at night. She is shown carrying big

pieces of tuna, cutting the frozen tuna with a machine into small pieces, but eating sushi does not appear

anymore.

Having noodle soup appears repeatedly throughout, as many interactions are done around eating

especially at the Museum of Noodle, an eatery with all kinds of noodle restaurants (see about it Tamotsu

226-227). At the same time, it is also connected to the cultural acceptance of slurping the noodles. The

narrator explains how he fell for Ryu when he heard her slurping noodles and how it reminded him of

how his mother did it. David and Ryu meet in one of those restaurants and he points out how he cannot

get used to eating the noodles the Japanese way: slurping and without getting the soup all over his shirt.

Davids learning how to slurp noodles is parallel to Ryus learning to appreciate wine. While slurping

becomes a symptomatic element of the changes David experiences / undergoes due to his life in Tokyo

and his relationships to Midori and Ryu.

Food is highlighted as part of eating habits and of physical and psychological wellbeing.

Although there is a metonymic relation with wellbeing, foods connection to socio-cultural identity is

metaphorical. The metaphor self as food is related to the conventional views of the Self, as described by Lakoff and Jonhson (Philosophy) above. Self is experienced through the food items (manipulating objects), places (being located in space) and habits (entering into social relations).

self as food is also related to geo-political and historical features which are stereotypically presented with the Essence or the true Self (Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy 298). On the one hand, food and eating represent the basic human activities, especially connected to the world of the senses in

contrast with and in opposition to the world of the mind and intellect. On the other hand, food also has

a contradictory meaning. In the context of Japan and Japanese culture, the presence of this topic in both

films can be linked to Western preconceptions of the East. At the same time, research (Ohnuki-Tierney;


Goldstein-Gidoni; Hiroko) has shown how food is part identity and self in modern Japan. Popular dishes

and Japanese food habits have also been parodied in Tampopo (1985) (see further Ashkenazi). Therefore, self as food is connected to the national identity as the foreign characters struggle to understand the local Japanese culture.

2. The city: Labyrinth and Self

In both films we see several scenes of the female protagonists looking outside the window of their rooms.

The cityscape reflects the emotional state of the characters. In Lost Tokyo vistas from the hotel room are found as either the backdrop of the characters while doing something like showering (00:07:19), having

breakfast (0:07:00) or bathing (00: 30:40) or as the cityscape the characters watch from their room. In the

first vista of Tokyo, Charlotte is in the position she appears later on: sitting on the windowsill looking at

the lights of the city below when she cannot sleep because of the jetlag. In the second one, the following

morning the curtain opens up and the city illuminated by the morning light wakes Charlotte up. Third,

after her husband leaves in a hurry, she sits in the same place and contemplates the city holding her

legs. The bright morning light is now grey and cloudy. The fourth is another view from the same room

towards some buildings illuminated by the afternoon sun. This is an emotional scene in which Charlotte

is talking to her sister expressing her anguish and the sister is unable to reciprocate. The shots focus on

the verticality of the buildings and the narrow streets. A little later, the city is grey and dark and the sun

lights up the clouds. This transition sequence connects with Bobs arrival at the hotel after the first day

of recordings. Finally, the last view from the hotel room of the city is very similar to the first morning

light that wakes up Charlotte above, but in this case it is Bob who is watching the skyline with a similar

golden light. The end of the film is a series of POV shots of the city as it gets dark from a taxi. Bob is

leaving towards the airport. The film starts with Bobs arrival and finishes when he leaves.

The relationship between space and the viewers emotional state would suggest that we need to

invoke our knowledge of the plot and of the characters in order to understand the motivation of these

scenes. Therefore, when Charlotte looks at the city in the first and second instance described above, she

shows a mixture of awe and curiosity. The third time she is observing and exploring the space shrouded

in a grey light. The fourth time she is watching the verticality and the sense of vertigo. The view of the

city in the last scene shows Bob in profile standing and looking away. As we know that he is leaving

soon; the city, the profile shot and the standing position suggest a mixture of contemplation and sadness.

As both Bob and Charlotte are transformed by their experience together in the city, the city is

also a locus of their emotional union and therefore the circularity in the scenes. Tokyo is also the locus of what can be called the honey-moon experience. In the modern wedding ritual, the honeymoon is a

rite of passage by which the newlyweds leave the place of origin in order to create a new family unit by

associating themselves to a new space. Following the metaphor self is location mentioned above (see Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy 274), modern society seems to have ritualized the creation of a new self from single to married status, to a new family unit by travelling to a new location for a short period of

time. Charlotte expresses it clearly in 1:08:53 in the following dialogue:


Charlotte: Why do they switch the rs and the ls here?Bob: Uh, for yuks. You know? Just to mix it up. They have to amuse themselves, cause were not making them laugh.Charlotte: Lets never come here again because it will never be as much fun.Bob: Whatever you say. Youre the boss.

Coixets choices of vistas of Tokyo are markedly different. She purposefully chooses nonstandard views

of the city. For instance, the film starts by showing the city from a boat down the Sumida River. The city

from the boats perspective does not appear again. Only towards the end an image shows a boat sailing

in the middle of the Tokyo Bay. Although there is no obvious link, the time of day and the kind of tour

boat could be related to the one in the first scene of the film.

This scene is perhaps one of the most compelling of the film. We see a general shot of Ryu

standing facing Tokyos skyline on a windy night. As the camera moves closer she is crying holding the

gun she was supposed to kill David with. By a quick series of cuts, the camera shows the dark waters and

the single boat just mentioned. Together with the aerial night views of the city shown in two transition

shots, this view from the other side of the bay with water in the foreground completes the views of the

city from all perspectives.

Other repetitions of city views are meant to define Ryus life as one of monotony and emptiness.

Her loneliness is contrasted against the other lonely train passengers or the couple holding each other

after the first encounter in the love hotel with David. At the same time, the film shows unusual and

original urban performances like the man-plant in the subway hall or the flash mob performance after

exiting the station in a park surrounded by elevated highway as she walks towards her apartment. When

she goes into her house, she looks at the driving lesson area. These parking classes are short stories of

frustration and anger, a mechanic repetition by those who are learning how to drive as Ryu is learning

how to love.

These repeated changing views of the city suggest the metaphor city as animate character. it conveys the metonymical relation of the human being with her environment while at the same time it transfers human emotions onto inanimate beings and becomes the lasting representation of their emotional experience. Tokyo as a person therefore is a dynamic mapping that is transformed by the

cinematographers viewpoints and artistic intentions. Both directors use the metaphor city as a person and stress the continuous movement of people and cars through the crowded streets, avenues, or in the

subway. At the same time, Coppola and Coixet redefine the metaphor of self as location.

In Lost the city is a place of transition and continuous movement walled by skyscrapers. The sequences from the hotel room contribute to the metaphorical meaning of the city as a labyrinth observed

from above and the sense of awe and curiosity. The views of the city follow the characters point of

views: from the hotel, through the city streets, and particularly one night of bar hopping, singing karaoke

at a party. Therefore, we can see the city from a variety of takes and perspectives, but the main path is

circular. Bob and Charlotte leave the hotel room and return to the same room or to the hotel bar at some

point of the night. In this circular movement, the city is a self-contained space.

The repetition in Map distinguishes several spaces in the city: the narrow streets, low buildings


where the narrator lives, Ryus modern apartment building and Davids shop, the kitschy love hotel and

karaoke bar and the restaurants like the Ramen Museum or small eateries, and finally the skyscrapers

and luxurious apartments and offices of Nagara-san, Midori and Ishida-san. This dichotomy follows the

two generic traditions of Japanese cinema that are conflated in this film: the Yakuza films (e.g., Akira

Kurosawas Drunken Angel (1948) or Takeshi Kitanos Sonatine (1993)) and Yoshihiro Ozus Tokyo Story (1953). The former genre depicts a male-centered society of violence and power. This traditional Japan is opposed by the cinema of Ozu, whose protagonists are old people or children or women. Tokyo

in Map is a person with memories divided between contrasting worlds, and in which the characters struggle to deal with loneliness and pain. The duality between traditional and modern Japan is related to

the spatial division and the opposition between these characters. Repetition via contrast and opposition is

therefore central in plot development, characterization and especially contrasting ideological positions.

3. Conclusions

In Table 1 I summarize how the items repeatedly presented throughout both films are transformed

to construe them as metonymical and metaphorical rather than just literal items participating in the

storyline. As I have shown, both meanings coexist in the film because of the nature of the image. The

objects integrate a triple dimension: literal realities of the mise-en-scne, source for metaphorical

mappings onto more abstract realities, and also they can be the target of other realities more specific

within the metonymy generic for specific mentioned above. This metaphor motivates the interpretation of a specific for the prototypical category element.

Item L i t e r a l meanings

Metonymies Metaphorical meanings in Lost and Map

Metaphors associated

Food Food items Eating habits

Eating places

Physical wellbeing

Psychological wellbeing

Wellness is eating Well

Person Location Self self as food

National Identity (national) identity as food City Streets

Spaces for living

Story backdrop Characters emotions

Labyrinth

self as location

city as labyrinth

Characters emotions and Person

city as person

Characters Participants in the story

Protagonists Self-Subject metaphor self as location

self as social relations

self as empathic projection

Table 1: Repetitions and metaphorical and metonymic mappings.


In the first case, food is literally the product consumed, but from the beginning in both films food is

related to the cuisine and the eating habits of the Japanese culture the characters are involved with. This

symbolic feature is connected through the relationship between location and self, but together with this

metaphorical meaning, food is associated to psychological wellbeing and also to the person as a whole.

Especially in the culture in the United States in Lost, features such as social attractiveness and success

are associated to psychological and physical wellbeing.

The city is a spatial distribution of buildings, streets and people that serves mostly as a backdrop

to the action. As both films dramatize the encounter of foreigners with Tokyo, the figurative meanings

associated to this reality are a combination of the characters experience when interacting with this

space and also of their own emotions. Tokyo is conceptualized as a labyrinth as the characters appear

to wander in its streets in a series of scenes in which the only goal is going back to where they started.

The city is a closed container of streets and skyscrapers. It can be a frightening and confusing place of wandering, a model of order and of chaos, depending on the observers knowledge and perspective.

Otherwise, as the characters relationships unravel and the space changes to be a honeymoon experience

associated to their situation of bliss and harmony, even if temporary. The motivating feature in both is its

exotic character connected to the cultural and spatial distance to the place of origin where the subject is

located.

The city is endowed with memories, with a multidimensional reality as it feels and reacts to the

characters emotions and at the same time tells its own stories. This is particularly important in the case of

Map. The view from Ryus window adds a silent story to the storyline of the film. Every time Ryu looks out a story occurs that echoes what happens in her life. Both Lost and Map are in some way indebted to the Japanese cinema of Ozu, which coincides with the stereotype of a peaceful and meditative world

view of the Japanese religion and individual (see King Lost 135).

Besides animating the city, repetition contributes to the exploration of the emotional development

of the characters, the changes in the self as the characters relate to a foreign reality. The ultimate view

of these films is that real interaction needs to surpass the metaphor self as location by focusing on the social self and finally they realize that they can interact and are able to understand the world that is beyond their own comfort zone because of the metaphor self as empathic projection.

Among these characters, Ryu is the only one who does not need to figure it out (the expression

used by Bob when Charlotte told him about her writing anxieties and her professional future). This

rational view of the world determines the actions of at least David, Bob and Charlotte. Their search

for a real self is thwarted by the sense of loss because they may be looking in the wrong places. For

instance, Bobs need for translation and clarity while doing the photo shot contrasts with the moment of

laughing together with the Japanese person in the waiting room of the hospital. David is unable to see

how much the experience in Japan has changed him until he moves back to Barcelona and opens a shop

of Japanese products.

Repetition can work as a form of character motivation and attach new meanings to prototypical

representations of the culture and society that are part of the semantic script of the spectator. Consequently,

the items that inhabit that world acquire new life and are active in creating the emotional state of the film.


Also, they are a poetic device that affords compelling storytelling and nuances in characterization and

creativity in cinema.

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Eduardo Urios-Aparisi is Associate Professor in the Literatures, Cultures and Languages Department at

the University of Connecticut. He specializes in applications of cognitive linguistics to film, advertising

and art, and humor studies. His main publications are Prosody and Humor (co-edited with S. Attardo and M. Wagner, 2013), Puro Teatro: Metfora y espacio en el cine de Pedro Almodvar (2010), Multimodal Metaphor (co-edited with Ch. Forceville, 2009), and articles in cinema and humor in the Foreign Language Classroom and in Television.

E-mail: [email protected]

Figure's of Film - Metaphor, Metonymy, And Repetition (Image & Narratove, 2014)

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