Fiber Optic Lighting: A Guide for Specifiers, 2nd Edition

title: FiberOpticLighting:AGuideforSpecifiers

author: DeVeau,RussellL.publisher: TheFairmontPress

isbn10|asin: 0881733253printisbn13: 9780881733259ebookisbn13: 9780585317663

language: English

subject Lighting,Fiberoptics,Lighting,Architecturalanddecorative.

publicationdate: 2000lcc: TH7725.D482000ebddc: 621.32

subject: Lighting,Fiberoptics,Lighting,Architecturalanddecorative.

Pageiii

FiberOpticLightingAGuideforSpecifiers

SecondEdition

ByRussellL.DeVeau

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

DeVeau,RussellL.Fiberopticlighting:aguideforspecifiers/byRussellL.DeVeau.2nd.ed.

p.cmIncludesbibliographicalreferences.ISBN0-88173-325-31.Lighting.2.Fiberoptics.3.Lighting,architecturalanddecorative.I.Title.

TH7725.D482000621.32dc2100-033854

Fiberopticlighting:aguideforspecifiers/byRussellL.DeVeau2nded.©2001byTheFairmontPress.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

PublishedbyTheFairmontPress,Inc.700IndianTrailLilburn,GA30047

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

10987654321

ISBN0-88173-325-3FP

ISBN0-13-032121-4PH

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DistributedbyPrenticeHallPTRPrentice-Hall,Inc.ASimon&SchusterCompanyUpperSaddleRiver,NJ07458

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Pagev

Thisbookisdedicatedtothelightingprofessionalwhowantstoexpandhisorherbaseoftechnicalknowledgeinordertocreateboldandcreativenewlightingdesigns.

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Contents

Preface xi

Introduction xiii

Chapter1.FundamentalsOfFiberOpticLighting 1

IntroductionandHistory 1

TheoryofOperation 3

DesignandConstruction 7

Components 7

ApplicationsandCharacteristics 9

Chapter2.TheIlluminatorAndFibers 17

TheIlluminator 17

TheLightSource 21

Low-VoltageHalogenLamps 24

Higher-WattageQuartzHalogenLamps 24

MetalHalideLamps 24

XenonMetalHalideLamps 26

SelectingtheRightLamp 26

TheLampOperatingintheSystem 26

TheFiber 29

GlassorPlastic? 29

CoreandCladding 29

DiameterandLightOutput 30

MeasurementofFibersinABundle(Glass) 30

TailsAllowedPerIlluminator(GlassandPlastic) 32

LightDistribution(End-orSide-Emitting) 34

PhotometricDataandLightLevels 43

Chapter3.PrinciplesOfOperation 47

PrinciplesofLightTransmissionandDistributioninaFiberOpticLightingSystem

47

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Chapter4.LightLoss 59

Introduction 59

LightLossesattheIlluminatorandComponents 60

LightLossatRelatedComponents 61

LightLossesattheFiber 61

LightLossesattheInputandOutputEnds 61

LightLossesBasedOnCross-SectionalArea 64

LossesDuetoDirtandDust 66

TransmissionLossesBasedOnDistance 66

LossesDuetoFiltration 68

LossesDuetoFiberImperfections 69

LossesDuetoSevereBending 69

Chapter5.GlassorPlastic? 73

GlassVersusPlastic 73

ColorShift 73

AbilitytoWithstandHeatFromtheLamp 75

UltravioletLight 77

Harnesses 78

CuttingtheFibers 84

VariationsInLightColorandIntensity 84

BendingtheFiber 86

Price 88

HowLongWillItLast? 88

MixingGlassandPlastic 88

Chapter6.Accessories 89

AccessorizingtheFiberOpticSystem 89

Fixtures 92

FixturesForDownlighting 92

DecorativeFixturesForDownlighting 94

EyeballFixtures 94

LandscapeLightingFixtures 94

ExteriorLightingFixtures 95

ShowcaseandDisplayFixtures 95

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SwimmingPool,FountainandUnderwaterFixtures 96

DecorativeLightingElements 97

CustomFixturesBasedOntheApplication 97

SpecialEffectsAccessories 98

ColorWheels 98

Gobos 100

Synchronization 100

DimmingAccessories 101

AdditionalAccessories 101

Cost 101

MountingtheFiberOpticSystem 102

Illuminators 102

Fibers 102

Fixtures 103

Chapter7.ApplicationPresentations 105

Chapter8.TheStar-LikeDisplayPuttingItAllTogether 131

ApplicationDetails 131

TheStar-likeDisplay 131

TheStar-likeDisplay,SelectingFiberType 132

OptimumIlluminatorPlacement 137

TheLargerApplicationSomeAdditionalFactorsto 137

Consider

TheSizeoftheDisplay 137

TheSizeoftheCommonEndandtheSizeoftheFibersDeterminesHowManyFibersWillAttachtotheIlluminator

139

TheNumberofPorts 139

LayingOuttheApplication 139

CreatingtheStar-LikeDisplay,theFormula 142

HowManyFibersWilltheStar-likeDisplayRequire?

142

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HowManyIlluminatorsWillBeNeededtoCompletetheDisplay?

142

WhatistheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheDisplay?

143

InstallingtheStar-likeDisplay 144

TheIlluminator 144

Ventilation 144

Chapter9.PerspectivesOnthePresentandFutureofFiberOpticIllumination

151

WheretofromHere? 151

MoreApplications 151

IndustryGrowth 151

AttenuationImprovements 152

OpticalControl 152

LightSourceDevelopment 153

TheNeedForMoreEducation 153

LookingattheBenefitsObjectively 154

"FiberOpticLightingCanSaveEnergy" 155

"FiberOpticLightingCanReduceMaintenanceCosts"

155

PhotometricData 156

Fiberspeak 156

TheRoleOfTheSalesRep 157

GettingtheBestResults 158

Mock-ups 158

GettingInformationFromtheInternet 159

HowDidItWork? 159

MoreInformationIsNeeded 160

AppendixI.BibliographyofSources 161

AppendixII.ASelectionofManufacturersandRepresentatives

169

AppendixIII.HowtheResearchWasDone 173

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PrefaceFiberOpticLighting:AGuideforSpecifiers,SecondEdition,iswrittenforprofessionalsandstudentsinterestedintheartandscienceoflightingdesignspecificationand/ormanagement.Theseprofessionalincludelightingdesigners,architects,engineers,interiordesignersandfacilitiesmanagers.

FiberOpticLightning'sintentistointroducethereadertofiberopticilluminationsystems.Thecontentsofthebookaredesignedtomakeselectionandspecificationoffiberopticlightingsystemsmoreunderstandable.Itfocusesonperformancecharacteristics,drawingonbothphysicsandpracticalissuesrelatedtodesign.Asfiberopticlightingcontinuestoemergeasa\dynamictechnologyinthefieldoflightingdesign,itisessentialtounderstandthefullspectrumofissuesfromanon-biasedsource,thenrelatetheseissuestomanufacturer'sandsupplier'sliterature,forbestresults.

Sincethefirsteditionwasprintedinearly1998,theindustryhasgonethroughmanychanges,mainlyintheformofcorporatemergersandpartnerships.Theserelationshipshavebeenformed,forthemostpart,toallowcorporationstosharetechnologiesandresearch.Specifiershavebenefitedfromthesepartnershipsbybeingabletotakeadvantageofmorediverseandcompleteproductofferingsfromsinglesources.

Includedinthissecondeditionisachapterthatintroducesthedesignertothestar-likedisplayapplicationdevelopmentprocess.Thestar-likeapplicationisoneofthemostpopularfiberopticapplications,butisoftenextremelydifficultforthedesignertospecify.Thischapterwalksthedesignerthroughsomeofthemajorstepsinvolvedindevelopingtheapplicationandoffersinsightintothe

installationprocesssothatprojectlayoutandspecificationismoreunderstandable

AfterreadingFiberOpticLighting,youshouldbeabletounderstandthetechnologytotheextentthatyoucanappreciateitscapabilitiesandlimitations,createbetterspecifications,viewmanufacturer'ssalesclaimswithamoreeducatedeye,andasktherightquestions.

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IntroductionResearchforthisprojectincludednumerousconversationsaboutfiberopticlightingwithstudentsandprofessionalsworkinginthefieldofinteriorandlightingdesign.Someoftheseconversationswereformalinterviews,otherswereinformaldiscussions.Theoverallresultoftheseconversationshasunequivocallyproventhatthereisaconcretemysterywithinthedesigncommunitysurroundingfiberoptictechnology.Fromtheclassroomtoprofessionalseminars,remarkssuchas"Idon'tunderstandit"or"It'stootechnicalforme"havenotbeenuncommon.Therearetwomainreasonsfortheconfusionsurroundingthistechnology.

First,thecommunicationsindustryhasdoneaspectacularjobatmaking"fiberoptics"intohouseholdwords.Often,thedesignerwhoisunfamiliarwithfiberopticilluminationsystemsassociatesthelightingtechnologywiththewidelypublicizedinternationalcommunicationssystems.Becausethetechnologyrelatedtofiberopticcommunicationsisnotgenerallyunderstoodbythedesigner(asmostdesignershavehadnoneedoropportunitytobecomeexposedtothetopic),itfollowsthatperceptionsrelatedtofiberopticilluminationsystemsarecenteredaroundacommunicationstechnologythatisgenerallyperceivedasbeinghighlytechnicalanddifficulttounderstand.

Second,thepublicationsrelatedtofiberopticlightingdonotoftenreduceoreliminatetheperceptionscreatedbythecommunicationsindustry.Agreatdealofthepublishedinformationrelatedtofiberopticlightinginevitablyincludesastatementabouthowthetechnologygrewfromthecommunicationsindustry.Thesestatementsonlyservetoreinforcetheperceptionsthatfiberopticilluminationistechnology-orientedandnoteasytounderstand.Promotionalliterature

producedbythefiberopticindustryoftendoesnothelptoreducetheseperceptions.

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Mostcompaniesinvolvedinthemanufacturingoffiberopticproductshaveapromotionalcatalogavailablethatincludesproductdescriptionsandacertainamountoftechnicalinformation.Often,thistechnicalinformationwillincludetermsthatareborrowedfromthecommunicationsindustrywithoutprovidinganadequateexplanationastowhatthosetermsmeanandhowtheyrelatetolighting.Andbecausethefiberopticilluminationindustryhasalwaysbeeninastateofgrowth,themajorityofthepromotionalliteraturesurroundingthistechnologyisconstantlychanging.Readinginformationaboutnewandupdatedproductsisoftenoflittlevalueifthebasicconceptsrelatedtothetechnologyarenotunderstood.

Somecompaniesofferphotographsanddescriptivetextrelatedtocurrentandpotentiallightingdesignpossibilitiesintheirmarketingliterature.Photographsarehelpfulinactuallyseeinghowacompletedinstallationlooksandtextassistsinintroducingtheapplication,butthistypeofmarketinginformationtendstolackspecificclarityastohowthesystemworksandwhyafiberopticsystemshouldbeconsideredforaparticularapplication.

Booksdevotedtolightingarealsonotalwayshelpfulineducatingthereaderonthissubject.Manybookstendtoofferlittleonthetopicoffiberopticsanddonotofferthereaderconcreteassistanceinrelatingwhatinformationispresentedtocurrentlightingdesignpossibilities.Somebookswillalsointroducetechnicaltermsrelatedtofiberopticswithoutdefiningtheminthecontextoflightingdesign.Themostupdatedlightinghandbooksoftenprovideanexplanationrelatedtototalinternalreflection(thetermusedtodescribehowlightistransmittedalongthelengthofafiber),butlittleelseonthesubjectoffiberoptics.

Variousmagazineswillfrequentlypublisharticlesrelatedtolightingdesignprojectswherefiberopticilluminationsystemshavebeen

utilized.Manyofthesearticlesalsofeaturephotographsofalightingprojectandoffertextexplainingwherefiberopticlightingwasusedintheapplication.Similar

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tothepromotionalliteraturementionedabove,thesearticlesaresatisfactoryinintroducingfiberopticsasatoolforillumination,butoftentheydonotassistineducatingthereaderastohowthislightingtechnologyworks,whereitmayworkbest,whyitwasselectedfortheproject(asopposedtoamoretraditionallightingsystem)and,perhapsmostimportantly,howtheparticularinstallationmayberelatedtootherlightingdesignprojects.

Thisbookwaswrittentoassistineliminatingtheconfusionandmysteryassociatedwithfiberopticilluminationsystems.Itwillexplainhowthetechnologyworksandtherefore,whyitmaybetheappropriatechoiceforaparticularlightingapplication.Inaddition,becausetherearecurrentlynumerousfiberopticcomponentsandsystemsavailable,thisbookwillalsoprovideinformationthatmayassistthedesignerinaskingmanufacturersandrepresentativestheappropriatequestionsabouttheirproductsandhowtheycanrelatetocurrentorpotentiallightingdesignapplications.

InMarchof1996,IreceivedaletterfromMs.PamelaVandeVeldeofPinpointFiberOpticsLtd.inBeverlyHills,CA.ThisletterarrivedatatimewhenIwasreceivinginformationfromnumerousfiberopticcompaniesandrepresentativesfromaroundtheworld.Sortingthroughthesematerialsbecamedifficultbecauseofthemanystatementsdevelopedspecificallyformarketingpurposesratherthaneducationalandcomparisonpurposes.Ms.VandeVeldeclosedherletterwithaparagraphthatIhavereferredtonumeroustimesthroughoutmyresearchforthisproject.Irecommenditasapointofdepartureforanyoneinterestedinlearningmoreaboutfiberopticsbeforemoreformal(asopposedtopromotional)informationisavailable:

Beverycarefulinyourassessmentofmaterialsandexpertise.Theburgeoningfiberopticsindustryisfilledwithpartisanopinion.And

thereare''independentvoices"whichinreality,haveacommercialaffiliation.Thetruthisthatthereareadvantagesanddisadvantagestoeverytypeoflamp,toevery

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typeoffiberandtoeverytypeofsystem...

Althoughthisbookdoesnotprovidethereaderwithanenormousamountofdetailrelatedtothephysicsoffiberoptictechnology(whichinmostcasesisnotrelevanttolightingdesignneeds)anddoesnotrecommendparticularcompaniesorsystems,itdoesseektoprovideabridgebetweenthenumerouspublishedarticlesonfiberopticlightingandthetechnicalandpromotionalinformationproducedbythefiberopticlightingindustry.Thespecificgoalofthisbookistoallowthereadertogainabasicunderstandingofhowfiberopticlightingtechnologyworkssothatthisknowledgecanberelatedtocurrentorfuturelightingdesignprojects.

InChapter1,thereaderisintroducedtobasicfiberopticsystemstoimpartageneralunderstandingofhowfiberopticswork;itisintendedforthereadertorelatethisunderstandingtothefiberopticilluminationsystemsinusetoday.Abriefhistoryofexperimentsinvolvingtheconceptsoffiberopticlightingispresentedaswellaswhyfiberopticsarebecomingapopularchoiceinnumerouslightingapplications.

InChapter2,anintroductiontotheilluminatorandlightsourcesispresented.Thetwotypesoffiberthatareusedinfiberopticilluminationsystemsarediscussedaswellaspossibleconfigurationsforutilizingside-emittingfiberinlightingdesign.Anexampleoffoot-candlelevelsisalsopresented.

InChapter3,theconceptoftotalinternalreflectionandhowthisphenomenonrelatestofiberopticsisdiscussed.

InChapter4,welearnthatallfiberopticlightingsystemsexperiencelightloss.Thischapterintroducesexamplesofhowlightcanbelostbeforeitreachestheilluminatedenvironment.

InChapter5,somevaryingcharacteristicsrelatedtoglassandplastic

fiberarepresented.Informationincludedinthischapterprovidesthedesignerwithcertainissuesthatmayneedtobeaddressedwhenconsideringaparticularfiberopticsystem.

InChapter6,someoftheaccessoriesavailableforfiberopticlightingsystemsarepresented.Equipmentaddressedin

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thissectionshouldbeviewedasarepresentationofthenumerousaccessoriesandfixturesthatarecurrentlyavailabletothedesigner.Thischapterisincludedtoassistthelightingdesignerinunderstandinghowacompletefiberopticlightingsystemcanwork.

InChapter7,aselectionoffiberopticlightingprojectsispresentedsothatthereadercanrelatetheinformationdiscussedinpreviouschapterstoactuallightingdesignapplications.

InChapter8,wereviewadditionalissuestoconsiderifthedesigneristomoreeasilyrelatetheinformationpresentedinpreviouschapterstoactuallyworkingwithfiberoptics.Industrygrowthandissuesrelatedtocompanypromotionalliteraturearediscussed.Someadditionaleducationalresourcesareincluded.

InAppendixI,abibliographyofsourcesusedtogeneratethistextispresented.

InAppendixII,aselectionoffiberopticmanufacturersandsuppliersispresented.

InAppendixIII,thereaderisprovidedwiththemethodologyusedtoproducethisbook.

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AcknowledgmentsIamgratefultotheindividualswhohavereadvariousdraftsofthemanuscriptandofferedsuggestionsandcritique.Althoughtheseindividualsarenotresponsibleforthecontentsofthisguide,theirassistancewasinvaluable.

TheseindividualsareRobertM.Hughes,ProductManager,SchottCMLFiberopticsLLC;ScottR.Mangum,DirectorofApplicationEngineering&Development,RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.;MichaelMuehlemann,President,IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.;andPamelaVandeVelde,PinpointFibreoptics,Ltd.AdditionalthankstoRobertProuse,Director,MFALightingDesignProgram,ParsonsSchoolofDesign;andZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.AveryspecialthankstoAlisonDerrick,whoseeditingskillshelpedtokeepmeontrack,andtoMaryEllenBurns,whoeveryoneshouldbesoluckytoknow.

Chapter1FundamentalsofFiberOpticLightingMostdesignersdonotneedtoknowthedetailedtechnologyassociatedwiththeworkingsofafiberopticcommunicationsorimagetransfersystem.However,allfiberopticsystemssharebasicconcepts.Whenthebasicconceptsandhistoryoffiberopticsareunderstood,thetechnologybecomeslessmysteriousandthereforemoreusefultothedesigner.

IntroductionandHistory

TheWebster'sDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguagedefines"fiberoptics"asthestudyandtechniqueoflightandimagetransmissionviaflexibletransparentfibers(glass,plastic,etc.).Althoughthetechnologyrelatedtofiberopticsisrelativelynew,theconceptoftransmittinglightthroughatransparentmaterialhasbeenrecognizedthroughouthistory.Oneoftheearliestapplicationsinvolvingthisphenomenoncanbefoundintheuseofprisms.Variousformsofprismshavebeenusedforcenturiestodirectlightbymeansofatransparentmedium.

Experimentsthatdirectlycontributedtothedevelopmentoffiberoptictechnologywereperformedinthelate19thcenturybytheBritishphysicistJohnTyndall.Tyndallwasknownforhisworkrelatedtotheconductivityofheatbygases,ontheaudibilityofsoundandonthequalitiesofatmosphericlight.In

KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter

Bundle-Individualfibersthataregroupedtogethercalledbundles.

CoherentFibers-Individualfibersthatarepositionedwithinabundlesothateachfibermaintainsanexactrelationshiptoeveryotherfiberwithinthebundle.Coherentfibersareusedtotransmitimages.

Light-EmittingDiode-Allfiberopticsystemsrequireasourceoflighttomakethemworkwithintheguidelinesofaparticularapplication.Thelight-emittingdiodeisasemiconductorlightsourceusedinmanyfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystems.

Non-CoherentFibers-Individualfibersthathaverandomlocationswithinabundle.Non-coherentfibersareusedinthefieldoflightingdesign.

1870,TyndalldemonstratedtotheRoyalSociety(anindependentBritishbodyofscientificscholarsfoundedin1660)anexperimentutilizinganilluminatedcontainerofwater.WhenTyndallreleasedthewaterbymeansofasmallopening,heillustratedhowthewaterconductedlightasitflowedfromthecontainer.

Tenyearslater,in1880,AlexanderGrahamBelldevelopedthe

"Photophone,"whichutilizedlighttotransmitspeech,andWilliamWheelertookoutapatentonaninventionthatquiteliterally"piped"lightfromonesourcetoseveralindependentlocations.

Thefirstformalapplicationutilizingfiberopticswasdevelopedinthe1920s.Multipleglassrodspositionedsidebysideinacircularformationwereusedtocarrypicturesforuseintelevision.Althoughpatentswereissued,furtherdevelopmentsweregenerallynotexploredformanyyears.

Duringthe1950s,significantdevelopmentsrelatedtotheconstructionofglassfibersallowedforadditionalapplications

tobeimplementedinthemilitaryandmedicalfields.

Inthe1970s,fiberopticswereutilizedinnumerouscommunicationsystemsandsincethattime,applicationsmakinguseofthetechnologyhaveincreasedatanastoundingrate.

TheoryofOperation

Abasicunderstandingofhowfiberopticsystemsworkcanbeachievedbystudyingasimpleconduitsystem.Aconduitsystemcanbedescribedasaseriesofcomponentsthat,whenincorporated,willhavetheoverallgoaloftransportingaparticularmediumfromonelocationtoanother.Whenthemediumthatisbeingtransportedarrivesatthedesireddestination,itwillbeutilizedpertherequirementsoftheapplication.

Perhapsthemostfamiliarconduitsystemsarethosethatareusedintransportingwaterorelectricity.Abasicplumbingsysteminvolvestransportingwaterfromaparticularlocationbymeansofpipestoanotherlocation,whereitwillbeutilizedasnecessary.Abasicelectricalsystemconsistsofagenerator,whereelectricityisproduced,andaninsulatedwirethatcarriestheelectricitytovariousdevicesthatwillmakeuseofit.Theterm"conduit"canbedefinedasthecomponentwithinthesystemwherethemediumthatisbeingtransportedactuallytravels.Theconduitinaplumbingsystemisthepipeandtheconduitinanelectricalsystemisthewire.Figure1-1and1-2demonstratetheconceptofaconduitsystem.

Afiberopticsystemcanbecomparedtoanyotherconduitsystem.Themediumbeingtransportedinafiberopticsystemislightandtheconduitusedtotransmitthelightisafiber.Thefibersusedinthesystemtransportlightfromaparticularlightsourcetoafinaldestination,whereitcanbeutilizedforavarietyofspecificapplications.

Figure1-3demonstratesthebasicconceptofafiberopticsystemasrelatedtoaconduitsystem.

Inthefieldoflightingdesign,thelightcomingfromafiber

Figure1-1.Aconduitsystemtransportingwaterfromacentral

sourcetoareaswhereitwillbeutilized.

Figure1-2.Aconduitsystemtransportingelectricityfromacentralsourcetovariousequipment.

isusedtoilluminateanareaorobject,ortosimplycallattentiontoitself.Inthefieldofdentistry,thelightmaybeusedtoperformaparticulartask,suchashardeningnewdentalwork.Inthemedicalandindustrialfields,thelightoftencarriesanimage.Thecommunicationsindustryutilizesthelighttocarryasignal.

Aconventionalwire-basedcommunicationssystemreliesonelectricalsignals.Thesesystemsgenerallyconsistofatleastthreecomponentsatransmitter,metalwireandareceiver.Thetransmitterinabasic

telephonesystemisusedtoconvert

Figure1-3.Thebasicfiberopticlightingsystemaconduitsystem

utilizingfiberstotransportlightfromacentrallightsource.

soundintoelectricalsignals.Theseelectricalsignalsthentravelthelengthofaconductingwiretothereceiver.Inthereceiver,theelectricalsignalsareconvertedbackintosound.

Abasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystemalsopossessesatransmitterandareceiver.Electricalsignalsarenottransmitted,however.Wiresarenotrequired.Fiberstransmitsignalsbymeansoflight.

Thepurposeofthetransmitterinabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystemistocreatelight.Inmanyapplications,alight-emittingdiodeisutilized.Electricalsignalspowerthelight-emittingdiodeandlightneartheinfraredportionofthelightspectrumisproduced.Theseinvisiblelightsignalsenterandtravelthelengthofthefibersuntiltheyreachthereceiver.Thereceiverinafiberopticsystemcontainsalightdetectorandiswherethelightsignalsarechangedbackintoelectricalsignals.Thesenewlycreatedelectricalsignalsthentravelbywiretofamiliarequipment.Figure1-4ontheprecedingpagesillustratesthecomponentsandoperationofabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem.

Fiberopticshavebecomeinvaluabletothecommunicationsindustry

becauseoftheirabilitytotransmitsignalswithoutinterferencefromexternalelements.Fibersareconstructedtotransmitlight,notelectricity.Conventionalelectricalsystemsareofteninterrupted,by,amongotherthings,electricalsurgesandelectromagneticradiation.Lightbeingtransmitted

Figure1-4.Thecomponentsofabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem.

withinafiberisnotaffectedbytheseadversities.Fiberopticsystems,therefore,canbeinstalledinareaswhereconventionalelectricalsystemscouldprovetobetoodangerousorunreliabletooperate.

Giventheabilitytotransmitsignalswithoutinterruption,itisnotsurprisingthatitwasthecommunicationsindustrythatwasresponsibleforthemajorityofsignificantadvancementsrelatedtofiberoptictechnology.Inthe1970s,afiberonekilometerinlengthtransmittedonlyonepercentoftheoriginallightthatenteredit.Inthe1990s,fibersthatpossesslengthsexceedingfiftykilometerstransmit10percentoftheoriginallightthatentersthem.

Butbecausefiberopticsignaltransmissionsutilizefibersthatareconstructedtotransmitlightatinvisibleportionsofthelightspectrum(i.e.,infrared),thedistancesandamountsoflighttransmittedareoflittlevaluetothelightingdesigner.Itwas,however,becauseoftheimprovementsinglassfibersrealizedbythetelecommunicationsindustry,thatfiberoticsystemscouldbecomearealistictechnologyinthefieldoflightingdesign.

DesignandConstruction

Afiberisanindividualunit,buttheyarefrequentlygroupedwithotherfiberstoformabundle.Bundledfibersfallintotwocategories,coherentandnon-coherent.

Coherentbundlesoffibersareproducedbypositioningseveralfiberswithinabundlesothateachfibermaintainsanexactrelationshiptoeveryotherfiberinthebundle.Coherentbundlesareusedtotransmitimages.Whenapictureisprojectedontooneendofthebundle,itistransmittedbymeansoflighttotheoppositeendofthebundle,whereitisre-formedasthesamepicture.Coherentfibersarefrequentlyfoundintoolsutilizedinthemedicalfield.Thesetoolsincludetheendoscope,aninstrumentusedtoexaminetheinsideofthebody,andthegastroscope,aninstrumentusedspecificallytoexaminethestomach.Coherentfibersarealsousedinnumerousapplicationstoseetheinsideofanobjectwithoutactuallyhavingtoopenortaketheobjectapart.Figure1-5,onthenextpage,illustratestheconceptofcoherentfibers.

Unlikecoherentbundlesoffibers,non-coherentbundleshaverandomfiberlocationswithinabundleandareonlyusedfortransmittinglight.Therefore,whenbundledfibersareutilizedinthefieldoflightingdesign,theyarenon-coherent.

Components

Similartoathree-partfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem,atypicalfiberopticilluminationsystemalsoconsistsofthreecomponentsalightsource,fibersforthetransmissionofvisiblelightand,whenappropriatetothedesign,variousoutputdevicestocontrolanddirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.

Fiberopticlightingsystemsalsosharesomeofthebenefitsthatfiber

opticcommunicationssystemsenjoyabsolutelynoelectricityinthefibersandthereforenoelectromagneticinterferencefromexternalenvironments.

Figure1-6onafollowingpageillustratesabasicfiberopticilluminationsystem.Thelight-carryingfibersextendfromthe

Figure1-5.Coherentfibersareindividualfibersthataregroupedtogethertoformabundle.Eachfiberis

inexactrelationshiptotheotherfibersinthebundlefromthebeginningofthebundletotheend.AdaptedwithpermissionfromSchottFiberOptics.

lightsourceandaredirectedtovariousareaswherelightisdesired.NoticehowthisdrawingcomparestothethreepartfiberopticcommunicationsystemillustratedinFigure1-4.

Smalldiameterplasticfiberswereintroducedinthe1970sandplasticfiberswithlargerdiameterswereintroducedin1986.Today'sfiberopticilluminationsystemsutilizeeitherglassorplasticfiberstotransmitvisiblelight.

ApplicationsandCharacteristics

Originaldesignsmakinguseofglassfiberswerefoundininteriordecorativeenvironments.Manypointsoflightwereobtainedfromonelampbyilluminatingtheendsofnumerousfiberstocreatedesignsthatproducedastar-likeeffect.Earlyapplicationsutilizingplasticfiberswerefoundprimarilyintheilluminationofswimmingpools.Today,inadditiontodecorativeandswimmingpoolapplications,fiberopticilluminationsystemsareusedextensivelyinenvironmentsthatincludearchitectural,residentialandcommercialinteriorandexteriorspaces.

Ingeneral,fibercanbeconsidereddurableandflexible.Certainfiberscanwithstandsubstantialextremesintemperature.Theseattributes,combinedwiththefactthatthereisnoelectricityassociatedwiththelightbeingtransmittedinafiber,allowforsomefiberstobemountedalmostanywhere.Typicalapplicationsmakeuseoffibersbypositioningtheminarchitecturalcovesorbuildingfacades.Moreuniqueapplicationsplacefibersincement,grout,brick,glass,waterandavarietyofotherlocationswheretraditionallightingislimitedbecauseofelectricalandmaintenancerequirements,thesizeandweightofcomponents,andheat.

Alllightingsystemsgenerateacertainamountofheatcausedbytheoperationofelectricalcomponents.However,asdemonstratedin

Figure1-6onthepreviouspage,afiberopticsystemhastheuniqueabilitytolocatethesecomponentsina

Figure1-6.Thebasiccomponentsandoperationofafiberopticilluminationsystem.

Figure1-7.Fiberopticsystemusedtoilluminatesensitiveworksofart.

PhotographcourtesyofSchottFiberOptics.

locationawayfromtheilluminatedarea.Thismeansthatthedesignedenvironmentwillnotexperienceanyheatbuild-upassociatedwiththeoperationoftheelectricalsystem.

Thelampsthatarecurrentlyusedasthesourceoflightinmanyfiberopticilluminationsystemsareoftenthesameasthosethatareusedintraditionallightingapplications.Theselamps,likeeveryothersourceoflight,produceheat.Allfibersusedforilluminationpurposesareconstructedtotransmitwavelengthswithinthevisiblespectrumoflight,butcertainfibersarebetterthanothersattransmittinginfrared.Thisheatcanalsobepreventedfromreachingtheilluminatedenvironment.Bypositioningtheappropriatefilterbetweenthelightsourceandthefibers,infraredwavelengthscanbestoppedbeforetheyenterthefibersfortransmission.

Ultravioletwavelengthscanalsobepreventedfromenteringthefibersbyutilizingtheappropriatefilter.Becausefiltra-

tioncanremovethedamagingraysemittedbythelamp,onlythevisiblewavelengthsareallowedtoenterthefibers.Lightthatisfreeofultravioletandinfraredwavelengthshasofferedthedesignerincreasedflexibilityinilluminatingworksofart,chocolate,flowersandnumerousothersensitivematerials.

Inmanyapplications,afiberopticsystemeliminatestheneedtoutilizemultiplelampsbecauseindividualfibersorfiberbundlesextendfromonelamptoprovidelighttomanyindependentlocations.Thismaybebeneficialforthreereasons,allofwhicharerelatedtoeconomics.

First,dependingonthespecificapplication,itispossiblethatenergycostscanbereducedbecauseonlyonelampisutilized.

Second,theprocessofreplacingonelampthatislocatedinaneasilyaccessiblearearequireslesstimethanchangingmultiplelampslocatedinplacesthatmaybedifficulttoreach.Thetimerequiredtochangeindividuallampsisreduced.

Third,becauseonlyonelampisrequiredtodothejobofmany,fewerlampsneedtobepurchased.

Lighttransmittingdirectlyfromfiberscanbeusedwithoutfurthermodificationtoprovidegeneraldownlighting,wallwashingorhighlightingeffects.However,whenusingtheappropriateoutputdevices(whicharepresentedinChapter6),thereisanenormousamountofflexibilityinbeingabletodirectlightofvariousintensitiesandbeamspreadstoprecisepointsinthedesignedenvironment.Figure1-8demonstrateshowfibersextendingfromonelampprovidelighttoseveralindependentlocations.

Utilizingfiberopticstoilluminatedisplaycasesisbecomingincreasinglystandard.Theabilitytofilterpotentiallydamagingwavelengthsandpreventheatfromadverselyaffectingtheexhibitare

twoofthereasonsattributedtothisincrease.However,additionalbenefitsapply.Thelightemittingfibersaremountedwithinthecase,therebyreducingoreliminatingreflectionsthatcanbecausedbyanexternallightsource.Andbecausethelightsourceislocatedatanareaawayfromthe

Figure1-8.Individualfibersorfiberbundlesextendingfromonesourceoflighttoilluminateseveral

independentlocations.

Figure1-9.Fiberopticilluminationsystemsusedtoilluminatejewelrydisplaycases.

PhotographcourtesyofPinpointFibreOptics,Ltd.PhotographbyNormanMcGrath.

exhibit,thecontentsofthecaseandlightoutputdevicesareneverdisturbedwhenalampneedstobereplaced.Oncebeamspread,focus,andintensityofthelightarecreatedpertherequirementsofthelightingdesign,thereisnoneedtoreopenthecaseduringthelifeoftheexhibit.

Theinstallationofafiberopticsystemtendstobeeasierthaninstallingaconventionallightingsystem.Manyfiberopticlightingapplicationsdonotrequiretheservicesofanelectricalcontractorforsysteminstallationbecausethelightsourcessimplyplugintoastandardelectricaloutlet.Additionalwiringisnotnecessarybecauselighttransmittingfibersattachdirectlytoanyoutputdevicesthatmaybeutilized.Becauselesswiringisneeded,thepossibilityofelectricalshortcircuitsisreduced.

Theabilitytoreduceshortcircuitshasmadefiberopticilluminationsystemswell-suitedtolightinghazardousareas.Traditionallightingsystemscanbeunsafetooperateinenvironmentswherethepossibilityofsparkscouldleadtofireorexplosion.Fiberopticsystemscanbeutilizedinthesedangerousareaswithoutdirectconcernforissuesrelatedtoelectricalsafety.Becausethesourceoflightandallelectricalrequirementsarelocatedawayfromthehazardousarea,fiberopticilluminationsystemsareprovidinglighttoenvironmentswhereatraditionallightingsystemcouldneverbeinstalled.

Fiberopticilluminationsystemstendtoexcelovertraditionallightingmethodswhencomparingoptionsrelatedtocreativityandflexibility.Becausethebenefitsassociatedwithfiberopticlightingcanbesubstantialincertainenvironments,newandpotentialapplicationsareconstantlybeinginvestigated.Althoughthetechnologycurrentlypossessescertainlimitations,manyapplicationsarelimitedonlybytheimaginationofthedesigner.

Chapter2TheIlluminatorandFibersAtypicalfiberopticilluminationsystemconsistsofthreecomponentsalightsourcehousedwithinanilluminator,fibersforthetransmissionofvisiblelightand,whenappropriatetothedesign,variousoutputdevicestocontrolanddirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.Inthischapter,wewilldiscussthecharacteristicsoftheilluminator,fibersandtherangeoflightsourcesavailabletoproducelight.

TheIlluminator

Theilluminatorcontainsalamp(orlamps)thatprovideslighttothefibers.Thesizeoftheilluminatorwillgenerallybedeterminedbytheilluminationlevelsdesiredand,therefore,theneedtoutilizeaparticularlamp.Dependingonthelightingdesignspecifications,theilluminatorwillalsocontainreflectors,anyelectricalcomponentsthatthelampmayrequire,coolingdevicesandfilterstheparticularsystemmayutilize,andaccessoriesthatwillbeusedtoobtaintheoveralllightinggoal.

Illuminatorscanbemountedinavarietyoflocationsandhavebeenmanufacturedforbothwetanddryenvironments(thelightsourceandallelectricalcomponentsmustalwaysbekeptdry).Therearenumerousilluminatorsavailabletothelightingdesignerwithvaryingcharacteristicsrelatedtolightoutput.Whatiscommonofallilluminatorsisthattheycontainthelightsourcenecessarytomakethesystemwork.

KeyTermsUsedInThisChapterClosedLoopThetermusedtodescribeside-emittingfiberthatstartsandterminatesinthesomeilluminator.

CommonEndThecommonendisacomponentthatistypicallyusedtogrouptheinputendsoffibersorfiberbundlestogether.Thecommonendattachestotheilluminatorsothatthefibersreceivelight.Theexactmethodofattachingfiberstoanilluminatorwillvary.However,the,termcommonendcanbeappliedtomostsystems.Dependingonthemanufacturer,thecommonendmaybereferredtoas''fiberhead,"coupler"or"bushing."Whenglassfibersareutilized,thecommonendistypicallyreferredtoasthe"mainferrule."

DaisyChainingThetermusedtodescribeside-emittingfiberthatconnectstomultipleilluminators.

End-emittingFiberFiberthatisdesignedtoemitlightatitsend.

FerruleFerrulesaredeviceslocatedattheoutputendofbundled

fibers.Theyaregenerallyusedtokeepindividualfiberscorrectlypositionedwithinthebundle.

LightGuideTheterm"lightguide"usuallyreferstothetailsusedinthe,system.

HarnessTheharnessconsistsofacombinationofcomponents,the"commonend,""tails"(sometimesreferredtoas"arms"or"legs"),andthe"tailend"ofthefiberorfiberbundle.Notallsystemsutilizeaharness.

IlluminatorTheilluminatoristhecomponentofthefiberopticsystemthatcontainsthelightsource.Theilluminatormaybereferredtoasthe"source,""projector"or"lightbox"Theilluminatormayhouseanytransformersorballaststhatarerequiredbythelamp,reflectorsorlensestoassistindirectinglighttothefibers,coolingfans,filters,safetydevices,anddevicesforspecialeffectsandcolorchange.

InputEndTheendofthefiberorfiberbundlethatwillreceivelightfromthelamp.

MainFerruleThe"mainferrule"isusuallyassociatedwithsystemsthatutilizeglassfibers.Itisanothernameforthe"commonend."

OutputEndTheendofanend-emittingfiberwhereligtwillexit.Maybereferredtoas"tailend"or"terminatingend."

PortTheportistheaperture(openingintheilluminatorthatallowsforlighttobereleasedontothefiber'sinputends.Theportiswherethecommonendattachestotheilluminator.Illuminatorsmaycontainmorethanoneport.

Side-emittingFiberFiberthatisdesignedtoemitlightalongitsentirelength

TailJailsareindividuallight-carryingfibersorfiberbundlesthatextendfromtheilluminatortoareaswherelightisdesired.Alsoreferredtoas"lightguide.''

TailEndorTerminatingEndTheendofafiberorfiberbundle.Thetailendmayincludeaferrule.

AselectionofilluminatorsarepicturedinFigure2-1andFigure2-2.

Theharness,althoughonecomponentwithinafiberopticsystem,isgenerallyreferredtoinsections(seeFigure2-3).Thesesectionsincludethecommonend,thefibers(whichmaysometimesbereferredtoaslightguides)andtheterminatingendofthefibers(whichmayalsobereferredtoasthetailendsoroutputendsofthefibers),Noteveryfiberopticilluminationsystemwillutilizeaharness,butthetermsrelatedtotheharnessconceptcanbeappliedtomostsystems.

ThecommonendiswhereallofthefibersutilizedinthelightingSystemcometogethertoreceivelightfromtheillumi-

Figure2-1.Anilluminator.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.

Figure2-2.Illuminators.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.

nator.Althoughsomelightingdesignscallforonlyonelargediameterfibertobeattachedtotheilluminator,othersrequirenumerousfiberstoattachtothelightsource.Regardlessofhowmanyfibersareutilizedintheoveralldesign,theywillallreceivelightatthecommonendfromthelampwithintheilluminator.Insystemsthatutilizeglassfibers,thecommonendistypicallyreferredtoasthemainferrule.

Thecommonendoftheharnessfitsintotheapertureoftheilluminator.Thisapertureiscalledtheportanditistheareathatallowsforlighttoleavetheilluminatorandenterthefibers.Illuminatorstypicallycontainoneport,butmanyilluminatorswillhavemorethanone.

Light-carryingfibersthatextendfromthecommonendarecalledtailsandsometimesarmsorlegs.Tailsmakeupthesecondsectionoftheharnessandmaybeindividualfibersormanyfibersgroupedtogethertoformbundles.Thethirdsectionoftheharnessistermedthetailendorterminatingend.Thisisthepartoftheharnesswherethefibersliterallyendand,dependingonthefibersthatareutilized,lightwillexit.Somefibersmaypossessaferruleattheterminatingendofeachfiberorfiberbundle.Ferrulesaregenerallymadefromaluminum,stainlesssteelorbrassandareusedtokeepindividualfiberscorrectlypositionedwithinthebundle.Theferruleinsertsintoanyoutputdevicesthesystemmayemploytofurtherdirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.Figure2-3illustratestheconceptofaharness.

TheLightSource

Thegoalofanylampandopticalaccessoriesusedinafiberopticilluminationsystemistodirectthemaximumamountoflightontothefiber'sinputends.Dependingontheapplication,anylightcomingfromthelampthatdoesnotenterthefibersisconsideredlostinafiberopticsystem(thispointisfurtherdiscussedinChapter4).The

optimumsourceoflight

Figure2-3.Aharnessusedinmanyfiberopticsystems.Theharnessconsistsofthe"commonend"(whichmaybereferredtoasthe"mainferrule"insystemsthatutilizeglassfibers),"tails"(whicharebundledglass,orindividualorbundledplasticfibers),andtheterminatingendofthefibers(whichmaybereferredtoasthe"tailend''or"outputend"ofthefiberorfiberbundle.Theterminatingendmayincludeaferrule.Tailsareoftenreferredtoas"lightguides."Thecommonendoftheharnessattachestotheilluminator

bymeansoftheport.

isonethatoffersanextremelyhighlumenoutputwhileprovidingoutstandingcontrolofThelight.

Ingeneral,thefiberopticlightingindustryhasreliedonlightsourcesdevelopedforuseinconventionallightingapplicationstomakefiberopticsystemswork.Thesesourcesincludelow-voltagehalogenlampswithbuilt-indichroicreflectors,higher-wattagequartzhalogenlamps,andmetalhalidelampsthatareusedwithcustomizedreflectors.Recently,axenonmetalhalidelampandballastsystemwasdevelopedforusespecificallyinfiberopticsystems.Althoughthereisextensiveresearchcurrentlyunderwaytodevelopadditionallampsforusewithfiberoptics,itistheselamptypesthataremostcommonlyfoundinfiberopticilluminationsystemstoday.

Figure2-4.Ahalogenlampusedinfiberopticsystems.CourtesyofSuperVision

International,Inc.

Figure2-5.Ametalhalidelampusedinfiberopticsystems.CourtesyofSuperVision

International,Inc.

Low-VoltageHalogenLamps

Low-voltagehalogenlampsarecommonlyusedindisplay,accentandstar-likeceilingapplications.Theselampsaredimmable,availableinseveraldifferentwattages,andpossessoutstandingcolorrenderingcapabilities.Comparedtootherlamps,theyarerelativelylowincost.Thedesignofthelampmayincludeaprealigneddichroicreflectorthatisattachedtothelamp.Thelampispositionedwithintheilluminatorandthefocalpointofthelightbeamisaimedattheinputendofthefibers.

Figure2-6isanilluminatorplanillustrationrepresentingahalogenlampwithanattachedreflector.Thedrawingrepresentshowlightcomingfromthelampcanbefocusedontothefiber'sinputendsfortransmissionalongthelengthofthefiber.Thelinemarked"A"illustratesthelocationofheatorultravioletfiltersthatmaybeutilizedinthesystem.

Higher-WattageQuartzHalogenLamps

Higher-wattagequartzhalogenlampsaregenerallyutilizedwhenincreasedilluminationlevelsarerequired.Theselampscanalsobedimmedandofferoutstandingcolorrenderingcapabilities.Reflectorsareusedtoassistindirectinglighttothefiber'sinputends.Quartzhalogenlampscanbefoundinsystemsthatareusedtoilluminatelandscapes,poolsandfountains.Theyarealsousedextensivelyinsystemsdesignedtoprovidetaskandaccentlighting.

MetalHalideLamps

Metalhalidelampsaretypicallyusedinarchitecturalenvironments.Theselampsareusedinlightingsystemsthataredesignedtodefinebuildingandobjectperimetersaswellastoilluminatecovesandprovidedownlighting.Whenincorporatedintofiberopticsystems,metalhalidelampsaregenerallyavailableinwattagesofeither150or

400.Theselampsalsousereflectorstodirectlighttotheinputendsofthefibers.Aswithmetalhalidelampsusedintraditionallightingapplications,

Figure2-6.Alow-voltagehalogenlampmountedinanilluminatorandfocusinglightontotheinputendsofthefibers.AdaptedfromM.SikkensandJ.P.M.Ansems,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"

internationalLightingReview,March1993.

theselamps,whenutilizedinafiberopticsystem,requireaparticularamountoftimebeforetheyreachfulllumenoutput.

Figure2-7isanilluminatorplanillustrationrepresentingametalhalidelampusedwithcustomizedreflectors.Thedrawingrepresentshowlightcomingfromthelampcanbefocusedontothefiber'sinputendsfortransmissionalongthelengthofthefiber.Thelinemarked"A"illustratesthelocationofheatorultravioletfiltersthatmaybeutilizedinthesystem.

XenonMetalHalideLamps

GeneralElectricintroducedaxenonmetalhalidelampandballastsystemin1994.Becausethislampandballastsystemwasdevelopedspecificallyforusewithfiberoptics,itofferscertaincharacteristicsthatarcbeneficialtotheentiresystem.Accordingtocompanyliterature,this60Wlamp"providestwoto10timestheluminance[photometricbrightness]ofstandardmetalhalidesources,"whileemittingmuchlessultravioletlight.Thelampisprefocussedandscaled.Noadditionalreflectorsarerequiredintheilluminator.Inaddition,thisxenonlampandballastsystemallowsforhalfofthetotallightoutputtobeobtainedinunder20seconds.

SelectingtheRightLamp

Aswithanylightingapplication,theselectionofalampwilllargelydependonthecolorcharacteristicsandilluminationlevelsrequiredinthedesignedenvironment.Whenselectingalampforuseinafiberopticapplication,however,additionalfactorspertainingtotheperformanceoftheentiresystemmayalsoneedtobeconsidered.Manyoftheseconsiderationsarediscussedinthechaptersthatfollow.

TheLampOperatingintheSystem

ArepresentationofanilluminatorisillustratedinFigure2-8.As

mentionedabove,theexactcomponentswillbedeterminedbythelightingdesignrequirements.Dependingonthespecificapplication,theilluminatorwillcontainthelampand

Figure2-7.Ametalhalidelampusedinconjunctionwithreflectorswithintheilluminatortofocuslight

ontotheinputendsofthefibers.Manysystemsutilizingmetalhalidelampsusecustomreflectorstodirectthemaximumamountoflighttotheinputendsofthefibers.AdaptedfromM.Sikkens

andJ.P.M.Ansems,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"InternationalLightingReview,March1993.

Figure2-8.Elevationrepresentationofanilluminator.

anyaccessoriesthelampmayrequiresuchasaballastortransformer,reflectors,devicestoassistincooling,filters,dimmingcontrolsandanycomponentsrequiredtocreatecolororspecialeffects.

TheFiber

AsmentionedinChapter1,fiberopticilluminationsystemsutilizefibersthatcanbemadefromeitherplasticorglass.SmalldiameterplasticfibersareoftenreferredtoasPMMA(indicatingachemicalcompositionofpolymethylmethacrylate)orSmallPlasticFibers.LargediameterplasticfibersaremadeofapolymerandcanbereferredtoasLargeCorePlasticOpticalFibers(LCPOF)orLargePlasticFibers.Glassfibersareavailableinavarietyofdifferentgrades,withthehighestqualitybeingmadeofsilica.

GlassorPlastic?

Thedecisiontoutilizeafibermadefromglassorplasticwillgenerallybebasedupontheoverallgoalofthelightingdesign(includingfactorsrelatedtoeconomics)andtheparticularperformancecharacteristicsofthefiber.BothglassandplasticfiberspossesscertainqualitiesthatarcdiscussedfurtherinChapter5.Regardlessofwhatafiberismadeoforhowitispositionedwithinthesystem,however,allindividualfiberspossessatransparentcoresurroundedbyatransparentcladding.

CoreandCladding

Thecoreisthelighttransmittingsectionofthefiber.ThecladdingisThematerialthatcompletelysurroundsthecore.Whenlightstrikestheboundaryofthecoreandcladdingatacertainangle,itwilltransmitthelengthofthefiberbymeansofmultiplereflections.SeeFigure2-9.

Thisprocess,aswellasadditionaldiscussionrelatedtothecoreand

cladding,canbefoundinChapter3.

DiameterandLightOutput

Thediameterofindividualglassfiberstypicallyrangesfrom50to150um(um=onemillionofameter).Althoughothersizesareavailable,thesesizesaremostoftenusedinlightingdesignapplications.Individualsmallplasticfiberscanhavediametersfromapproximately100to3000um,whilelargecoreplasticfibersmayrangefromapproximately3to20mmindiameter.Theamountoflightthatistransmittedthroughanindividualfiberpossessingasmalldiameterisoflittlevaluetoalightingdesigner.Glassfibersarethereforealwaysbundledtogethertoformlargerdiametertails.Plasticfibersmayalsobebundledtogethertoformtails,butunlikeglassfibers,itisnotalwaysnecessary.ThenumberoftailsthatcanbeobtainedfromoneilluminatorutilizingglassorplasticfibersisbasedonthediameterofthecommonendandTheoveralldiameteroftheindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatmaybeutilized.Thediameterofthecommonandisgenerallydeterminedbyhoweffectivelytheopticalaccessoriesemployedinthesystemfocuslight.Figure2-10demonstrateshowlightisfocusedtodeterminethediameterofthecommonend.

MeasurementofFibersinaBundle(Glass)

Manufacturersofglassfibersdevelopabaseunitofmeasurementtoestablishtheamountoffibersinastandardbundle.Onemanufacturerofglassfibersoffersabundlethatcontains400individualfibers.Eachindividualfiberwithinthebundlemeasures50umindiameter.Thisbundleisreferredtoas"Size1"andisthisparticularmanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementforobtainingalladditionalbundlesizes.Giventhisexample,theamountoffibersinabundlewillincreaseinmultiplesof400toobtaindifferentbundlesizes(assuminganindividualfiberdiameterof50m).Therefore,"Size12"bundleswouldcontain4,800fibers(12x400)and"Size24''bundleswouldcontain

9,600fibers(24x400).

Thefollowingexamplewillmakeuseofacommonendthatis30mmindiameterinordertodemonstratehowtailsare

Figure2-9.Twopartsofthefiberthecoreandcladding.

Figure2-10.Determiningtheoptimumsizeofthecommonend.

createdutilizingbundlesofglassfibers.Themaximumnumberofindividual50umdiameterfibersthata30mmcommonendwillaccommodateis160,000.Todeterminethenumberof"Size1"bundlesthatcanextendfromthis30mmcommonend,thedesignerwilldividethe160,000totalfibersavailablebythe400fiberscontainedinthe"Size1"bundle.Bycompletingthemath,thedesignerwillrealizethat400tails,eachcontaining400individualfibers,canbeobtainedbyutilizinga30mmcommonendand"Size1"bundles.Since"Size12"bundlescontain4,800individualfibers,dividing160,000by4,800provides

aquotientof33.33.Thismeansthat33individualtails,eachcontaining4,800individualfibers,canbeobtainedbyusingthe30mmcommonendand"Size12"bundles.

Somelightingdesignswillrequiredifferentilluminationlevelsatvariousareaswithinthedesignedenvironment.Increasingthesizeofthebundleutilizedwillincreasetheamountoflightattheilluminatedarea.Therefore,creatingdifferentilluminationlevelsfromthesameilluminatorcanbeaccomplishedbyusingdifferentbundlesizesextendingfromthesamecommonend.Bundlesof"Size1,""Size12,""Size24,"andothersizesaswellcouldallextendfromthesameilluminator.

Anycombinationofbundlesizescanbeutilizedinthesamesystemprovidedthatthesizeofthebundleisobtainedbyusingthemanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementforastandardsizebundle.Theexampleaboveutilizedabaseunitof400fibersperbundle,butthisfigurewillvarydependingonthefibermanufacturer.Thetotalnumberofindividualfibersneededforallbundles,however,cannotexceedthemaximumnumberoffiberswithinthecommonend.Figure2-11demonstrateshowindividualglassfiberswithinthecommonendarebundledtocreatetails.

TailsAllowedPerIlluminator(GlassandPlastic)

Likeglassfibers,thenumberoftailsthatcanextendfromoneilluminatorutilizingplasticfibersisdeterminedbythediameterofthecommonendandthediameteroftheindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatareutilized.Verysmalldiameterplasticfibersarebundled.Smallplasticfiberswithlargercoresareusuallybundled,butdonotalwaysneedtobeinordertoprovidepracticalamountsoflight.Typically,theverylargecoreplasticfibersareneverbundled.Aswithsystemsthatutilizeglassfibers,differentdiametertailscanbeutilizedinthesamesystem.ThedrawingsinFigure2-12demonstratehowtailsconsisting

ofplasticfibersarecreated.Eachdrawingrepresentsacross-sectionofacommonend.

Figure2-11.Shownhereisthetotalof50umdiameterglassfibersthatwillfitintoa30mmdiametercommonend.

Theindividualfiberswithinthecommonendaredistributedtoeachtail.Differentsizetailscanextendfromthesamecommonendaslongasthetotalamountofindividualfibersutilizedinallofthetails

doesnotexceedthemaximumamountthatisavailableinthecommonend.Tailsixesaredeterminedbythemanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementpertainingtothenumberoffibersinastandard"Size1"

bundle.Fourhundredfibersina"Size1"bundlesacommonnumber,butthisfiguremayvarydependingonthemanufacturer.

Theamountoffibersavailablefordistributiontoindividualtailswillvarydependingonthenumberoffibersthatthecommonendcanaccommodate.Commonenddiametersforglassfibersvary.Typically,

thatrangefrom10to40mm.

LightDistribution(End-orSide-Emitting)

Fibersusedforilluminationfallintotwocategories.Thefirstcategoryistermedend-emittingandthesecondiscalledside-emitting.

End-EmittingFibers

End-emittingfiberstransmitlighttodevicesthatprovidethedesignerwiththeabilitytowallwash,downlightorutilizevariousdirectionalsystems.Figure2-13illustratesafiberopticsystemutilizingend-emittingfibers.

End-emittingfibersaremadefromglassorplasticandgenerallyneverexceed60feetinlength.Allfiberspossesscharacteristicsthatdiminishandalterlightasittravelsthroughthem.Therefore,theexactlengthofanend-emittingfiberwillbedeterminedbythedesiredilluminationlevelsandqualityoflightthatisrequiredattheilluminatedarea.Figure2-14illustratesalargecoreplasticend-emittingfiber.

Figure2-15illustratesanapplicationutilizingend-emittingfibers.

Side-EmittingFibers

Side-emittingfibersemitlightalongtheirentirelengthinamannerthatresemblesneon.Althoughtherearecertainglassfibersthataredesignedtoemitlightfromtheirsides,themajorityofside-emittingfibersaremadefromplastic.Plasticside-emittingfibersallowlighttoescapealongthefiber'slengthbecausetheyarespecificallydesignedwithimperfectionsattheboundaryofthecoreandcladding.Duringthemanufacturingprocess,thesurfaceofthecladdingsurroundingthecorecanberoughenedbyphysicalorchemicalmethods.Lightrefractsfromside-emittingfiberwheneveritencountersanareaofthecoreandcladdingthathasbeenaltered.Someside-emittingfibersare"braided"or"twisted"toallowlighttoescapealongtheirlength.

Figure2-16illustratesside-emittingfiberthatis"braided."

Side-emittingfibersaretypicallyasolidlargecoreplasticfiberoranumberofindividualsmallplasticfiberssurrounded

Figure2-12.Thesedrawingsdemonstratehowtailsconsistingofplasticfibersarecreated.Eachdrawingrepresents

acrosssectionofacommonend.

Figure2-13.Afiberopticlightingsystemutilizingend-emittingfibers.

Figure2-14.Anend-emittingfiber.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.

byaPVCjacket.Onemanufacturer'spatentedside-emittingfiberconsistsofmultiplestrandsofbraidedfibersurroundingareflective"centercore,"allofwhicharesurroundedbyaPVCtubing.Thecentercore,althoughnotafiber,providesareflectivesurfacethatassistsinmakingthebundleappearbrighter.

Inmanylightingapplications,side-emittingfiberisbeingspecifiedasanalternativetoneon.Whencomparedtoneon,side-emittingfiberspossessparticularadvantages.Becausetheyareflexible,theycanbebentatthejobsite.Fiberopticsystemsmayuselessenergythanneonand,ifnecessary,maybere-usable.Atypicalneontubeis4feetinlength,whileavisiblerunofside-emittingfibercanvarydependingonthedesignwithoutinterruptingthepathoflight.Noelectricityinthefibersmeanstheycanbemountedinareaswhereneoncouldneverbeused.Becausethefibersaregenerallymadefromplastic,thereisnoglasstobreak.Inmanyapplications,oncethefibersareinstalled,theyrequirenoadditionalmaintenance.

Figure2-15.Anapplicationutilizingend-emitting

fibers.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.

Perhapsthegreatestadvantageofside-emittingfiberoverneonisitsabilitytoeasilychangecolor.Byusingacolorwheellocatedbetweenthelampandtheinputendsofthefibers,thecoloroflightbeingtransmittedcanconstantlychange.Figure2-19illustratesacolorwheellocatedbetweenthesourceoflightandtheinputendsofthefibers.

Side-emittingfiberscanbeusedforaccent,coveandsteplightingaswellasfortheilluminationofsidewalksandbuilding

Figure2-16.Side-

emittingfiberthatis"braided."CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.

Figure2-17.Afiberopticsystemutilizingside-emittingfibers.

Figure2-18.Crosssectionsofside-emittingfibers.DrawingArepresentsalargecorefiberwhiledrawingBrepresentsseveralfiberssurroundingareflective"centercore"allofwhicharesurroundedbyPVCtubing.Thesedrawingsarenottoscale.ReferencestodrawingAcourtesyofLumenyteinternationalCorporation.ReferencestodrawingBcourtesyofSuperVisioninternational,Inc.

Figure2-19.Colorwheelscanbeaddedtothesystemtoproducedramaticcoloreffects.Thisdrawingillustratesthelocationofthecolorwheelwithintheilluminator.

Figure2-20,2-21.Lightingapplicationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.Photoscourtesyof

LumenyteInternationalCorporation.

perimeters.Underwaterorwetlocationapplicationsincludepools,spas,fountainsandaquariums.Numerouslightinginstallationshavemadeuseofside-emittingfiberstocreatespecialeffects.Theseapplicationsincludelightsculptures,signageandthedelineationofamusementparkrides.

Generally,fiberopticmanufacturersrecommendamaximumlengthof100feetforside-emittingfibers.Theexactlengthwillvarydependingonthemanufacturer.Utilizinglongerrunsdiminishestheintensityofthelight.Extendingtheusablelightruncanberealizedbyconnectingbothendsofthefiberstoanilluminator.Inapplicationsthatutilizerelativelyshortlengthsoffiber,orindesignswherefibersdonotneedtobeattachedtoanotherilluminator,anendcapisappliedattheterminatingendofthefiberorfiberbundle(seeFigure2-16).Theendcapservesasalightterminationdeviceandprovidesprotectiontothefiber.

ThedrawingsinFigure2-22representpossibleconfigurationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.DrawingsAandBillustratefibersystemsthataredaisychained.Whenadaisychainingconfigurationisutilized,fibersstartinoneilluminatorandendinanotherilluminator.Considerablelengthsoffibercanbeutilizedwhilemaintainingconsistentlevelsofbrightnesswhenseveralilluminatorsaredaisychainedtogether.Theseconfigurationsaretypicalinapplicationssuchastheilluminationofbuildingandbridgeperimeters.DrawingCrepresentsaclosedloopconfigurationwherefibersbeginandendinthesameilluminator.Thissystemdesignisgenerallyusedinsmallerareassuchasinsignage,aroundsmallroomsorinpatios.

Thebrightnesslevelsdesiredwilldeterminethetypeoflampandnumberofindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatwillbeutilized.Thenumberofside-emittingfibersthatcanextendfromoneilluminatoris

determinedbythesameproceduresthataredescribedearlierinthischapter.Thedesignershouldnotethatwhenmultipleilluminatorsareutilized,eachindividualilluminatormustbewiredtoreceivepower.

Certaindesignsmaycallforacombinationofside-and

end-emittingfiberstoattachtothesameilluminator.Utilizingbothfibertypeswillofferthedesignertheabilitytocreatemultiplelightingeffectsfromonelamp.Figure2-23illustratesafiberopticsystemwherebothside-andend-emittingfibersextendfromthesamecommonend.

Figure2-22.Possibleconfigurationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.Thedesignerisnotlimitedtotheseconfigurations.Almostanyconfigurationispossible.

Figure2-23.Asystemdesignedtoutilizebothsideandend-emittingfibers.

PhotometricDataandLightLevels

Currently,thereislittlephotometricdataavailableforside-emittingfibers.Someindividualshavesuggestedthatperceivedbrightnesslevelsofside-emittingfibersaredeterminedbytheamountofambientlightintheenvironmentwheretheyareused.Onemanufacturerstatesthatperceivedbrightnessisbaseduponvariablesthatincludetheintensityofthelightsource,backgroundcolorcontrast,theviewingangleofthefiberandthecoloroflightinthefiberrun.

Makingcomparisonsinfootcandlelevelsobtainedfromend-emittingfiberscanbedifficultbecausemanufacturersofferphotometricdatautilizingdifferentlampsanddifferentsizesoffiberpossessingvaryingopticalcharacteristics.Whenmakingcomparisonsofilluminationlevelsbasedontheinformationprovidedbymanufacturers,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountaccessoriesthatmightbeemployedinthesystemsaswellasdifferencesinlightsourcesandfibers.Illuminancevaluessuppliedbymanufacturersaregenerallytakenatparticulardistancesfromthefiber'soutputendafterthelighthastraveledthrough10feetoffiber.Thedesigner,however,does

havetheabilitytoinfluencefootcandlelevels.

Theamountoflightthatwilltransmitinafiberisdirectlyrelatedtothesizeofthecross-sectionalareaofthecore.Assumingthatthereisasufficient''spot"oflightfromthelampattheinputendofthefibers,doublingthecoreareaofthefiberwilldoublethelightoutput.Inapplicationsthatneedtocompensateforlightloss(seeChapter4)shorteningthelengthofthefiberfromtheilluminatortoTheterminatingendmayprovidegreaterlightlevelsattheareatobeilluminated.Higherbrightnesscanbeachievedbyutilizingalensontheoutputendofthefiberorfiberbundle,andinsystemsthatemploydirectionaltrackormultispotaccessories,aimingmorethanonebeamatthesameareawillachieveadditionalbrightness(seeChapter6).

Figures2-24and2-25offeranexampleoffootcandlelevelsthatcanbeobtainedutilizingend-emittingfibers.Bothexamplesmakeuseofa150Wmetalhalidelampandtheglassfibersof"Size12"and"Size24"thatwerediscussedearlierinthischapter.ThelengthofThefiberis10feetfromtheilluminatortotheterminatingends.Figure2-24utilizesafixedunlenseddownlightattheterminatingendofthebundle.Figure2-25makesuseofanAdjustableLensedspotlightatthebundle'sterminatingend.

Footcandlelevelsandbeamspreadscanbeadditionallymodifiedbyutilizingotherfixturesattheoutputendofthefiber.Andasmentionedabove,usingalargerfibersizeorreducingthefiberlengthfromtheilluminatortotheoutputendwillincreaseilluminationlevelsatthemeasuredsurface.Shouldfootcandlelevelsneedtoincreaseadditionally,utilizinganilluminatorwithahigher-wattagelampmaybetheappropriatesolution.

Figure2-24and2-25.Anexampleoffootcandlelevelsutilizingdifferentoutputdevices.Courtesyof

LightingServicesInc.

Chapter3PrinciplesofOperationWeknowthatinafiberopticlightingsystem,thelightoutputofthelampintheilluminatoristransmittedthroughthefiberstobedistributedfromeitherthesidesortheendofthefiberInthischapter,wewilldiscusstheprinciplesofhowlightistransmittedanddistributedthroughthefibers.

PrinciplesofLightTransmissionandDistributioninaFiberOpticLightingSystem

Therefractiveindexisatermusedtodescribethespeedatwhichlightwilltravelinaparticularmedium.Alllight-transmittingmediasuchasglass,ice,airorwaterpossessacertainrefractiveindex.

AsmentionedinChapter2,fibersconsistofatleasttwosections.Thesesectionsarereferredtoasthecoreandcladding.Thecoreisthesectionofthefiberwherelightistransmitted.Thecladdingcompletelysurroundsthecore.

Becausethecoreandcladdingaretransparent,theyeachpossessaparticularrefractiveindex.

Thefunctionofthecorehasbeencomparedtothefunctionofawireusedinatraditionalelectricalsystem.Wherethewireinanelectricalsystemprovidesthemediumtoconductelectricity,thecoreofthefiberprovidesthemediumtoconductlight.Therefractiveindexofthecorewillalwaysbehigherthantherefractiveindexofthecladding.


AcceptanceAngle-Lightmustenterthefiberwithinaparticularangleifitistotransmitthefiber'slength.Thisiscalledtheacceptanceangle.

Cladding-Thecladdingsurroundsthecoreofthefiber.Thecladdingpossessesalowerrefractiveindexthanthecore.Itisthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingthatallowsfortotalinternalreflectiontooccur.

Core-Thecentralsectionofthefiberwherelightistransmitted.Thecorepossessesarefractiveindexthatishigherthanthecladding.

CriticalAngle-Theexactanglerequiredforlighttoexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Lightmuststriketheboundaryoftwolight-transmittingmediathatpossessdifferentrefractiveindicesatananglegreaterthanthecriticalangleinorderforittoremainconfinedtotheoriginalmedium.

NumericalAperture-Thetermnumericalapertureisusedtoexpressafiber'sacceptanceangleandisobtainedbasedonamathematicalcalculationinvolvingthecoreandcladdingrefractiveindices.

Refraction-Lighttravelinginaparticularmediumchangesspeedanddirectionwhenitencountersamediumthatpossessesadifferentrefractiveindex.Thechangeindirectionisknownasrefraction.

RefractiveIndex-Lightwilltravelindifferentmediaatvaryingspeeds.Thespeedatwhichlightwilltravelinaparticularmediumisexpressedbythemedium'srefractiveindex.

TotalInternalReflection-Lightstrikestheboundaryattwomediapossessingdifferentrefractiveindicesatananglegreaterthanthecriticalangleandisreflectedbackintotheoriginalmedium.Inafiber,lightexperiencesmultipleinternalreflectionsinorderforittotransmitthefiber'slength.

Sheathing-Thesheathingisthesectionofthefiberthatcompletelysurroundsthecoreandcladding.Whenbundledfibersareutilized,thesheathingtypicallysurroundstheentirebundle.Thepurposeofthesheathingistoprotecttheindividualfiberorfiberbundlefromdamage.Thesheathingisoftenreferredtoasthe"jacket."Notallfiberspossessasheathing.

Figure3-1.Thetransparentcoreandcladdingofafiber.

Thecladdinghasbeencomparedtotheinsulationthatsurroundsametalwireinanelectricalsystem.Thepurposeoftheinsulationinanelectricalsystemistokeeptheelectricitywithinthewire.Thepurposeofthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingistokeepthelightwithinthecore.

Lightwilltravelinastraightlineuntilitencounterssomethingthatwillallowforitsdirectiontobechanged.Lighttravelingataparticularspeedinaparticularmediumwillchangedirectionandbegintravelingatanewspeedwhenitentersamediumthatpossessesadifferentrefractiveindex.Lightchangesdirectionbecauseitchangesspeed.Thechangeindirectionaslightentersanewmediumisknownasrefraction.

Arayoflightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediaisreferredtoastheincidentray.Therayoflightthathasenteredthenewmediumisreferredtoastherefractedray.Howmuchrefractiontakesplacewilldependontheangleoftheincidentrayandtherefractiveindexofeachmedium.Figure3-2demonstratesrefraction.

Whentheangleofanincidentrayallowsforarefractedraytoenterthenewmediumandbegintravelingat90degrees,therefractedraywilltravelattheboundaryofthetwomedia.

Figure3-2.Lightstrikestheboundaryoftwotransparentmediumsandisrefractedawayfromtheangleat

whichitwastraveling.

Theangleatwhichthisoccursestablishesthecriticalangle.Anylightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediaatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalanglecannotescapefromtheoriginalmediumbecauseitisreflectedbackinside.Figure3-3demonstrateshowthecriticalangleisestablished.

Whenlightisreflectedbackintotheoriginalmedium,totalinternalreflectionoccurs.Itistheprocessoftotalinternalreflectionthatallowsfiberopticstowork.

Lighttravelinginthecoreofthefiberstrikesthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingandreflectsbackintothecore.Inthisfashion,lightexperiencesmultipleinternalreflectionsandtransmitsthelengthofthefiber.Figure3-5illustratestheconceptoftotalinternalreflectionasitrelatestofiberoptics.

Forlighttotravelinafiberbeyondtherequiredcriticalangle,itmustfirstenterthefiberwithinaparticularangleofacceptance.Thisangleisreferredtoastheacceptanceangle.Lightthatentersthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewillexperiencetotalinternalreflection.

Acceptanceanglesvarydependingontheexactfiberutilized.Mostfibersusedinlightingdesignpossessacceptanceanglesthatrangefromapproximately60to80degrees.Manyfiberopticcatalogsandpromotionalmaterialssupplyinformationthatisrelatedtothefiber'sacceptancehalf-angle.

Figure3-3.Lighttravelingatdifferentincidentangleswillhavedifferentanglesofrefraction.Whentherefractedrayhasincreasedsothatittravelsattheboundaryofthetwo

media,thecriticalangleisestablished.

Figure3-4.Lightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediumsatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalangle

willreflectbackintotheoriginalmedium.

Figure3-5.Theconceptoftotalinternalreflectionasitrelatestofiberoptics.

Figures3-6and3-7demonstrateafiber'sacceptanceangleandacceptancehalf-angle.

CalculatingNumericalAperture

Numericalapertureisthetermthatisusedtoexpresstheacceptanceangleofafiberandisobtainedbycompletingamathematicalcalculationbasedonthecoreandcladding'svaryingrefractiveindices.Fibersthatpossesslargernumericalaperturesarecapableofacceptingmorelightfortransmissionthanfiberswithsmallernumericalapertures.NumericalapertureisoftenabbreviatedasNA.

Theformulausedtocalculateafiber'snumericalapertureis:

where...

n1=refractiveindexofthecore

n2=refractiveindexofthecladding

Therefractiveindicesofthecoreandcladdingareavailablefromthefibermanufacturer.Thefollowingexamplecompletestheformulautilizingacorerefractiveindexof1.492andacladdingrefractiveindexof1.406.

1.Squaretherefractiveindexofthecore(forthisexample,thisequals2.22606)

2.Squaretherefractiveindexofthecladding(forthisexample,thisequals1.97683)

3.Subtractthecladdingindexsquaredfromthecoreindexsquared(forthisexample,thisequals0.24923)

Figure3-6.Inorderforlighttoexperiencetotalinternalreflection,itmustfirst

enterthefiberwithintheacceptanceangle.

Figure3-7.Fibermanufacturersoftensupplyinformationrelatedtoafiber's

acceptancehalf-angle.

4.Obtainthesquarerootofthisanswer.Thisnumberequalsthenumericalaperture(forthisexample,thisequals0.499)

Thenumericalapertureofafiberisnotalwaysincludedinthepromotionalliteratureproducedbythefiberopticindustry.Someglassandlargecoreplasticfibersmayhavenumericalaperturesofapproximately0.65.ThenumericalapertureofcertainPMMAfiberscanbeapproximately0.55.

CalculatingtheAcceptanceHalf-Angle

Theacceptancehalf-angleiscalculatedbyobtainingthesine(SIN)ofthenumericalaperture.Fortheexampleabove,theacceptancehalf-angleequals30,forafullacceptanceangleof60.

Lightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewillnotexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Becausethislightentersthefiberatanglesthatarelargerthantheacceptanceangle,itentersthecoreandthenrefractsintothecladding.Lightcomingfromthelampatanglesmuchgreaterthantheacceptanceanglewillnotenterthefiber.Thislightbecomestrappedintheilluminatorwhereitwillbeconvertedtoheatandeventuallyradiatefromthesystem.Figure3-8illustrateslightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceangle.Figure3-9illustrateslightstrikingthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandexperiencingmultipleinternalreflections.

Lightthatisacceptedfortransmissioninside-emittingfibersmustalsoenterthroughthefiber'sacceptanceangle.However,lightrefractsoutofthefiberwheneveritencountersadeliberatesurfaceimperfectionattheboundaryofthecoreandcladding(seeChapter2).Itisinthismannerthatside-emittingfibersemitlightalongtheirentirelength.Figure3-10representshowlightrefractsfromside-emittingfibers.

Figure3-8.Whenlightdoesnotenterthefiberwithinthefiber'sacceptanceangle,itwillstriketheboundaryofthecoreandcladdingandeventuallyrefract

outofthefiber.

Figure3-9.Lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandexperiencing

totalinternalreflection.

Figure3-10.Lightentersaside-emittingfiberthroughtheacceptanceangleandthenrefractsoutofthefiberbecauseofdeliberateimperfectionsattheboundaryofthecore

andcladding.

Figure3-11.Thecore,claddingandsheathingofafiber.

Everyfiberpossessesacoreandcladding.Manyfibersalsocontainathirdsectioncalledthesheathingorjacket.

Thesheathingmaybetransparentoropaqueandcompletelysurroundsthecoreandcladding.Whenbundledfibersareutilized,thesheathingsurroundstheentirebundleofindividualfibers.Thesheathingaddsstrengthtothefiberorfiberbundlewhileprovidingprotectionfromexternalelementssuchasheatorwater.

Somecompanyliteratureandarticlesaddressingfiberopticsmaygivethereadertheimpressionthatthesheathingassistsintransmittinglight.Ashasbeenexplainedabove,totalinternalreflectionoccurswhenlighttravelinginthecorestrikesthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladding.Thelight-transmittingperformanceofafibercannotbeimprovedbyalteringthecompositionofthesheathing.

Chapter4LightLossFiberopticilluminationsystemsarecommonlyperceivedasbeingaveryefficientlightingtechnologygenerallyspeaking,thisistrue,particularlywhenefficiencyisviewedastheabilitytoputlightexactlywhereitisdesired.However,ifefficiencyisdefinedintermsthatarefamiliartolightingdesigners,specifically,''lumensin,lumensout,"thenthedesignerwouldbenefitinexaminingwhathappenstolightcomingfromthesourceasitrelatestotheentirefiberopticsystem.

Introduction

Agreatdealoftheresearchanddevelopmentthathasbeenoccurringinthefieldoffiberopticilluminationhasbeendevotedtoreducingtheamountoflightthatislostwithintheentirefiberopticsystem.Significantadvancementshavebeenmadeinareasrelatedtofocusingmorelightfromthelampontotheinputendsofthefibersandinthereductionofattenuation.

Evenwithbetteropticalcontrolandlowerattenuation,however,acertainpercentageofthelightcomingfromthelampisstilllostbeforeitreachesthefiber'sinputend.Asthedevelopmentofmorelampsdesignedspecificallyforuseinfiberopticsystemscontinues,designerscanexpecttorealizeincreasedsystemefficiencyand,therefore,morelumensattheilluminatedenvironment.


Absorption-Particularwavelengthsemittedfromthelightsourceareabsorbedbythefiberastheyattempttotransmitthefiber'slength.Whatwavelengthsareabsorbeddependsonwhatthefiberismadeofandhowlongtheparticularwavelengthstravelinthefiber.

Attenuation-Lightthatislostasittravelswithinafiberisreferredtoasattenuation.Attenuationincludeslossesduetoabsorption.BendRadius-Thebendradiusreferstothesmallestbendafibercanwithstandbeforealossoflightwilloccur.Anybendsmallerthantheminimumbendradiuswillcauselighttoescapethecore.

PackingFraction-Thesizeofthelighttransmittingareaswithinacrosssectionofafiberbundlecomparedtothebundle'stotalcrosssection.Instandardbundles,thisnumberisapproximately85percent.

LightLoss-Thetermthatreferstolightthatislostsomewhere

withinthefiberopticsystem.Lightlossincludeslossesduetoattenuation.

LightLossesattheIlluminatorandComponents

Currently,oneofthegreatestareasofresearchwithinthefiberopticilluminationindustrycentersonthedevelopmentoflampsthatwillfocusmorelightwithintheacceptanceangleoffibers.Ashasbeenpreviouslymentioned,manyfiberopticsystemsutilizelampsthathavebeendesignedforuseinnon-fiberopticapplications.Theselamps,evenwiththeuseofreflectors,donothavethecapabilityoffocusingalloftheir

availablelightontotheinputendsofthefibers.Actually,onlyacertainpercentageofthelightcomingfromthelampwillstrikethefibersatall.Anylightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberscanbeconsideredlostwithinafiberopticsystem.Thepercentageoflightthatislostbecauseitcannotbefocusedintothefiberswillgenerallybedeterminedbythelampandopticalaccessoriesutilizedwithinthesystem,thelocationofthelampinrelationtotheinputendsofthefibers,andthesizeofthecommonend.Figure4-1providesarepresentationofhowlightislostbeforeitreachesthefibers.

LightLossatRelatedComponents

Themajorityoffiberopticsystemsutilizeareflector,filter,colorwheelorconnectioncomponentsthatlightmustpassthroughinorderforitreachthefiber'sinputends.Infact,manysystemsemployseveralaccessoriestoassistinachievingthedesiredlightingdesign.Whenlightpassesthroughanycomponentutilizedinthesystem,acertainpercentageofthelightwillbeabsorbedbythecomponentthelightispassingthrough,andacertainpercentagewillbereflectedawayasitentersandleavesthecomponent.Approximatelyeightpercentofthelightattemptingtopassthrougheachcomponentorconnectionutilizedinthesystemwillbelost.

ThislossisillustratedinFigure4-2.

LightLossesattheFiber

Besideslightlossesattheilluminatorandrelatedcomponents,lightlossesoccuratthefiber.

LightLossesattheInputandOutputEnds

Inprinciple,anylightthatstrikesthefiberswithintheacceptanceangleshouldbetransmittedbymeansoftotalinternalreflection.However,notallofthelightstrikingwithintheacceptanceanglewill

successfullyenterthefiber.Acertain

Figure4-1.Representationofhowlightislostbeforeitreachesthefibers.

Figure4-2.Lightislosteachtimeitpassesthroughacomponentwithinthesystem.

percentageofthelightwillbereflectedaway.Theamountofreflectionthatwilloccurdependsonthefiberthatisutilized,but,aswithanycomponentlightmustpassthrough,alossofapproximately4percentatthefiber'sinputendandanother4percentattheoutputendcanbeconsideredtypical.Figure4-3illustrateslightfallingwithintheacceptanceangleandreflectingawayfromthefiber.

Toachieveoptimumlighttransmittingperformance,certainfibersneedtobepolishedattheirinputandoutputends.Dependingonthefiberutilized,thisprocesswilleithertakeplaceatthefactorywherethefiberismanufacturedorathejobsitewherethefiberwillbeutilized.Plasticfibersarecuttotheappropriatelengthinorderforthemtobesizedtothedesign.Anadditionallossoflightcanbeexpectedatthefiber'sinputandoutputendsifthefiberisnotcutorpolishedproperly.

LightLossesBasedOnCross-SectionalArea

Applicationsthatutilizebundledfiberssufferfromanotherformoflightloss.Becauseindividualfibersaregroupedtogethertoformabundle,onlyacertainpercentageofthetotalareaofthebundlewillactuallybeusedfortransmittinglight.

Non-lighttransmittingareasinthecrosssectionofthebundleincludespacesthataretakenupbythecladdingofeachindividualfiber,variousvoidsthatarecreatedduetothepositionofeachfiberwithinthebundleandbyadhesivesthatareusedtoholdcertainbundledfiberstogether.Thesizeofthelighttransmittingcoreareaswithinthecrosssectionofabundlecomparedtothebundle'stotalcrosssectionisreferredtoasthebundle'spackingfraction.Somebundlescanlooseasmuchas30%ofthebundle'scrosssectionduetopoorpackingandareastakenupbycladdingcrosssections.Figure4-5illustratesacrosssectionofabundle.

Figure4-3.Apercentageofthelightstrikingthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewill

bereflectedaway.

Figure4-4.Poorpolishingorunevencutswillcauseanadditionalamountoflighttobelost.

LossesDuetoDirtandDust

Lightcanalsobelostduetoabuildupofdustonthesurfacesofthecomponentswithintheilluminator.Dirtaccumulatingonthelamp,reflectors,filters,fiberendsandanyotheraccessoriesutilizedinthesystemwilldecreasetheirefficiencyandcauselighttobescattered.Inaddition,dustaccumulatingonanythermalprotectors(heatsafetydeviceslocatedwithinsomeilluminators)usedinthesystemwillabsorbheat.Thisheatabsorptionmayincreasetemperaturestoalevelthatcancausethermalprotectorstoshuttheentiresystemdown.Recentdevelopmentspertainingtothesealingofcertainsystemshasreducedsomedustrelatedconcerns,butmanufacturersofparticularcomponentsrecommendedthatmaintenancepersonnelbetrainedinthepropercleaningtechniquesoffiberopticsystems.Figure4-6illustratesareaswithinthesystemwhereefficiencycanbereducedduetoabuildupofdust.

TransmissionLossesBasedOnDistance

Lightlossdescribedinthepreviousparagraphshasgenerallyreferredtolightthatislostbeforeitentersthefibers.Additionallightislostasittravelsalongthefiber'slength.Thetermattenuationisusedtodescribelightthatislostwhileittravelswithinthefiber.Therearecertainarticlesorotherpiecesofpublishedinformationthatmayrefertoattenuationusingthetermlineloss.

Measurementsrelatedtoattenuationareobtainedbyusingamathematicalcalculationbasedonlightlevelstakenatparticularpointsalongafiber'slength.Therefore,afiber'sattenuationcanbeviewedasarelativeindicationofhowmuchlightthereisatthebeginningofthefibercomparedtohowmuchlightthereisattheendofthefiber.Manypromotionalpackagesandcataloguesproducedbythefiberopticindustrydonotincludeinformationrelatedtolightthatislostduetoattenuation.Thedesignermustrealize,however,that

theselossesmaybesomewhatsignificantasrelatedtothelength

Figure4-6.Componentswithintheilluminatorthatcanbeaffectedbydust.Dustcanhaveamajor

impactontheefficiencyofthesystem.

andtypeoffiberutilized.

Oneofthereasonsattenuationoccursisbecauseparticularwavelengthsemittedbythesourcewillbeabsorbedastheytravelthelengthofafiber.Becausecertainwavelengthsareabsorbed,theintensityoflightdiminishesandcolorisalteredaslighttravelsinafiber.Whichwavelengthsareabsorbedwilldependonthevariousmaterialsusedinthefabricationofthefiberandtheabilityofthosematerialstoabsorbspecificwavelengths.Theamountofabsorptiondependsonthedistancethewavelengthsmusttravelwithinafiber.Thismeansthatifafiberisconstructedofmaterialsthatabsorbwavelengthsat450nanometers,someamountofthebluelightat450nmwillbeabsorbedasittravelsthefiber'slength.

Sinceabsorptiononlyoccursoncethelightfromthelamphasenteredthefiber,itmustbenotedthatthespectraloutputofthelampandtheabsorptioncharacteristicsofthefiberareindependentofoneanother.Thespectraloutputofthelampwillbealteredaslighttravelsparticulardistanceswithinafiber.Publishedfiguresrelatedtoabsorptionaredependentontheexactfibersutilized.However,anexponentiallossof1-5percentperfootoffiberisconsiderednormal.

LossesDuetoFiltration

Absorptionshouldnotbeconfusedwithfiltration.Filtrationtakesplaceintheilluminatorwherelightpassesthroughafilterinordertoremovecertainwavelengthsbeforetheyenterthefibersfortransmission(seeFigures2-6and2-7).Asdescribedabove,absorptiontakesplacewhilelighttravelsinafiber.Filtrationremoveslightraysbymeansofeitherinterfacereflectionorabsorption.Therefore,anadditional8percentofthevisiblelightemittingfromthelampislostifaninfraredfilterisutilized.Morevisiblelightislostifthesystemrequiresadditionalfiltration.

LossesDuetoFiberImperfections

Attenuationmayalsooccurduetominorimperfectionsinthefiberthatcantakeplaceduringthemanufacturingorshippingandhandlingprocess.Theseimperfectionscouldbetheresultofdustparticlesorotherenvironmentalimpuritiesenteringthefiberduringfabricationandmayincludebubblesorsmallbends.Whenlighttravelinginthefiberencounterstheseimpurities,itwillbeabsorbedorreflectedinsuchawayastodeviatefromtheanglewhichitwastravelingandbecomelost.Figure4-7(above)demonstratesimperfectionswithinthefiber.

LossesDuetoSevereBending

Attenuationwillalsooccurifafiberisbenttooseverelywithintheapplication.Allfiberspossessspecificationsrelatedtohowfartheycanbebent.Thebendradiusofafiberreferstothesmallestbendafibercanwithstandbeforelightwillescapethecore.Fiberthatisbentsmallerthanthebendradiuscausesthecriticalanglerequiredforlighttransmissiontobeexceeded.

Figure4-7.Lightraysstrikingimpuritiesinthefiberanddeviatingfromthecriticalangle.

Therefore,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountbendradiuswhenplanningadesignthatrequiresfibertobebentaroundenvironmentalobstructions.

Thebendradiusisdeterminedbasedonthediameterofthefiberandreferstotheradiusofthesmallestcircleafibercanbebentaroundbeforelightislost.Insystemswherebundledfibersareutilized,thebendradiusappliestothediameterofeachfiberusedinthebundle.Completeinformationrelatedtobendradiusisnotoftenincludedinthegeneralpromotionalliteratureproducedbytheindustry.Somepublishedguidelinesrelatedtobendradiusstatethatthesmallestradiuscanbeobtainedbymultiplyingthediameterofthefiberby10.Exactguidelineswilldependonthefiberbeingutilizedandcanbesuppliedbythefibermanufacturer.Figure4-8illustratesbendradiusutilizingthegeneralguidelinesprovidedabove.Forthepurposeofexample,thediameterofthefiberis0.25inches.Multiplying0.25x10providesaradiusof2.5inches.Themostthisfibercanbebentisinacirclethatis5inchesindiameter,2.5-inchradius.Additionalbendingofthisfiberwouldcauseleakageoflighttooccurthroughthecladding.

Figure4-8.

Afiber'sbendradius.

Onemanufacturerofplasticopticalfibersstatesthatloose,largeturnstransmitlightfurtherthantightbendsorkinks.Additionally,infibersdesignedtoemitlightfromtheirsides,bendssmallerthanthesuggestedbendradiuswillcauseabrightspottooccurwherethebendislocated.Thefollowingillustrationdemonstrateshowlightcanescapefromthecoreifthefiberisbentsmallerthanthemanufacturer'ssuggestedbendradius.

Chapter5GlassorPlastic?Utilizingafibermadefromeitherglassorplasticisperhapstheareaofgreatestcontroversywhencomparingliteratureproducedbyvariousmanufacturersandrepresentativesoffiberopticcomponents.Itisnotuncommonforcompanymarketingmaterialstomakeambiguousreferencesrelatedtothesuperiorityoftheirproductwhileindicatingthattheseclaimsarerelatedonlytotheglassorplasticfiberstheyrepresent.Fiberopticsystemspossesscharacteristicsthatarecommonregardlessofthefiberutilized.Somerepresenativesoffiberopticproductsrepresentbothglassandplasticsystemsandthereforemaintaintheaccuratepositionthatallfibersofferuniquebenefitsdependingontheapplicationneeds.

GlassVersusPlastic

Inthissection,wewilldiscussvariousgeneralcharacteristicsinwhichglassandplasticfibersdifferandaresimilarinperformance.

ColorShift

Chapter4describedhowfibersabsorbparticularwavelengthswithinthespectrumofvisiblelight.Theindividualwavelengthsthatcombinetoform''white"lightmaybeabsorbeddependingonthelengthandtypeoffiberthatisutilizedintheapplication.Theintensityoflightisdiminishedandthecoloroflightisalteredduetowavelengthabsorption.Thedesignerneedstorealizethatcompanyliteraturetendsto


Epoxy-Thematerialmostoftenusedtoholdbundlefiberstogether.

FusedFibers-Aprocesssometimesusedinthemanufacturingofglassandcertainsmallplasticfiber.Byutilizinghightenperatures,fibersarefusedtogetherattheirinputends.Epoxiesarenotrequiredwhenfibersarefused.Fusedglassfiberscanwithstandextremelyhightemperatures.

Randomization-Randomizationisaprocessthatdistributesacertainamountofthefibersinthecommonendtoeachindividualtail.Thisprocessisusedtoundothenon-uniformlightdistributionattheinputendsofthefibersthatiscausedbymostlightsources.

offerattenuationinformationasafactoriallossoflightperfootoffiber(seeChapter4).Itisextremelyraretofindpublishedinformationpertainingtothenanometerrangewherethislosswilloccur.Generally,plasticlargecorefiberwillabsorbwavelengthsthatshiftthecoloroflightcomingfromthefibertoyellow.Certainplasticandlowerqualityglassfibersmayshiftthecoloroflighttogreen.Glassfibersofthehighestqualitywillalsoabsorblightinthevisible

spectrum,buttendtoexcelintheirabilitytotransmitwhitelight.

Itshouldbenotedthatinmanyapplications,colorshiftscausedbywavelengthabsorptionmaynotposeproblemstotheoveralllightingdesign.Theseareasmayinclude,butarenotlimitedto,certainarchitecturalandcommercialenvironments,numerousdecorativeapplications,installationsthatutilizecolorwheels,andthelightingofswimmingpoolsandfountains.Becausetheamountofcolorshiftthatwilloccurisdirectlyrelatedtothelengthofthefiber,relativelyshorterrunsoffiberwillhavelesscolorshiftsthanrelativelylongerruns.Inapplicationswherecolorrenderingisextremelyimportant,colorcorrectingfiltersareavailabletoassistinre-balancingthecolorshiftscausedbywavelengthabsorption.

Color-CorrectingFilters

Thedesignershouldbeaware,however,thatcolor-correctingfilterswillremoveadditionallightraystocomplementthecolorsthathavebeenlost.Ifafiberabsorbswavelengthsthatshiftthecoloroflightcomingfromthefiberstogreen,acolorcorrectingfilterthatabsorbsorreflectsgreenlightwillbeutilized.

AbilitytoWithstandHeatfromtheLamp

Theamountofheatthatglassandplasticfiberscanwithstandattheirinputendsisconsiderablydifferent.Theacceptableoperatingtemperatureisestablishedbasedonthecompositionofthefiber.Glassfibersareinert,andthereforemoreabletoaccommodatehighertemperaturesthanthosethataremanufacturedfromplastic.Operatingtemperaturesforplasticfibersvary.Onecompanyoffersseveraldifferentplasticfibersthathaveacceptableoperatingtemperaturesthatgenerallyrangefrom-20°Cto85°Cdependingontheexactfiberutilized.Anothermanufacturerofplasticfiberhasatargettemperatureattheinterfaceofthefiberandtheilluminatorsetatorbelow50°C.Certainplasticfiberswillbegintolosetheirlight-transmittingabilitiesiftheyareexposedtotemperaturesabove70°C.Ifthesefibersarecontinuouslyexposedtotemperaturesthatexceed100°C,theywillmelt.Fibermanufacturersdonotalwaysofferinformationrelatedtooperatingtemperaturesintheirpromotionalliterature.Generally,theaverageacceptableoperatingtemperatureforplasticfibersattheinputendshouldnotexceed85°C.Innoticeablecontrast,typicalglassfiberscanwithstandtemperaturesatthecommonendofapproximately200°C.

Figure5-1illustratestheareaofconcernpertainingtoheatfromthelampandtheinputendofthefibers.Additionalconsiderationspertainingtofibertemperaturemustbetakenintoaccountthroughoutthedesignandinstallationprocess.Temperaturesensitivefibers

shouldnotbeexposedtoanysourceofheatthatcouldallowforthefibertoexceedthe

Figure5-1.Dependingonthefiber,thetemperatureattheinputendshouldnotexceed

approximately85°Cformanyplasticfibersandapproximately200°Cfortypicalglassfibers.

recommendedoperatingtemperature.

Excessivetemperaturesfromthelightsourceattheinputendofanyplasticfiberwillcausedamageandthereforelimitthefiber'sabilitytotransmitlight.Althoughglassfibersarenotdirectlyaffectedbyheatfromthelamp,theadhesivesusedinmanyglasssystemstoholdbundledfiberstogethercanbedamagedbyhightemperatures.Epoxyresinsarecommonlyusedtoholdfiberstogetherinthecommonendandendferrulesofglassfibersystems.Manyplasticfiberassembliesarealsoheldtogetherwithepoxies.Overaperiodoftime,theheatfromthelampmaydeterioratetheepoxy,causingittochangecolorandeventuallydamagethefibers.Lightemittingfromthesefibersmaypossesspoorcolorcharacteristicsandbeoflesserintensity.Recentadaptationsinthemanufacturingofsomeglassandsmallplasticfibershasdoneawaywiththeneedforepoxies.Fibersinthecommonendarefusedtogether.Becausethereisnoepoxyusedtoholdthefiberstogether,considerablymorespaceinthecross-sectionofthebundleisusedtotransmitlight.Fusedglassfiberscanwithstandtemperaturesofapproximately350°C.

Heatfromthelampisusuallymanagedbyutilizingacombinationofacoolingfanandinfraredfilterslocatedintheilluminator.Generally,thegoalofinfraredfiltersistoremovewavelengthsabovethevisiblerange.Infraredfiltersandcoolingfansassistinkeepingthetemperatureofthefiber'sinputendsatorbelowthemanufacturer'srecommendations.Theserecommendationsaredevelopedbasedonthecompositionofthefiber.

Whenacoolingfanisutilized,designersshouldrealizethattheremaybeacertainamountofnoiseassociatedwiththefan'soperation.Certainsystems,suchasthosethatutilizefusedglassfibers,donotrequireafanforcooling.

UltravioletLight

Ultravioletlightisanareaofprimeconsiderationwhenconsideringasystemthatutilizesfibersmadeofplasticor

glass.Generally,highqualityglassfibersabsorbacertainamountoftheultravioletradiationemittedfromthelampafterthelighthastraveledafewfeetwithinthefibers.However,certainplasticfibersareextremelysensitivetoultravioletlight.Therefore,toensurethelongestpossiblelifeofplasticfibers,systemdesignsshouldeffectivelyremoveultravioletlightbelow390nmbeforeitreachesthefibers.Therearecurrentlyfiltersavailableforuseinfiberopticsystemsthatfilter99.9percentoftheultravioletlightemittedfromthelampbeforeitreachestheinputendofthefiber.

Harnesses

TheconceptoftheharnesswasintroducedinChapter2.Itwasstatedthatnotallfiberopticsystemsrequiretheuseofaharness.Manysystemsthatutilizeplasticfibersallowforindividualfibersorfiberbundlestoattachdirectlytotheilluminatorbymeansofacommonendormodifiedports.Whenaharnessisutilized,however,therearespecificdifferencesthatmayneedtobeconsideredwhenselectingasystemthatutilizesglassorcertainplasticfibers.

Allsystemsthatutilizeonlyglassfibersrequireaharness.ReferringtotheexampleinChapter2,itwasdeterminedthataharnessconsistingofa30mmcommonendcouldprovide33"Size12"bundlesofglassfibers.Thismeansthat33differentpointsoflight(tails)canbeobtainedfromthisonesystem(meaningonelamp)allofferingthesamebasicphotometriccharacteristics(dependingontheselectionofthefixtureattheoutputend,lengthoffiber,andissuesdiscussedinChapter4)asthosethatareillustratedinFigure2-24andFigure2-25.

Formanyapplicationsutilizingglassfibers,however,theharnessmustbecustom-builtbythefibermanufacturerbasedonthespecificapplicationrequirements.Theharnessisnotassembleduntilthedesignerprovidesthemanufacturerwiththenumberoftailsthatwill

beused,therequiredtailsizestoobtainthenecessarylightlevels,andtheexactlengthofalltheindividualtailsthatwillextendfromthecommonendtoany

outputdevicesthatmaybeutilized.Ifthedesignerfindsthatchangesarenecessarybasedonanynumberoffactors,theharnesswillneedtoberebuiltbythefibermanufacturer.Itisextremelydifficulttomakechangesatthejobsitewhenutilizingaharnessthathasbeenspecificallydevelopedforaparticularlightingapplication.

Therearecertainbenefitstohavingtheharnessassembledbythemanufacturer.Thesesystemsarethoroughlytestedatthefactorybeforetheyareshipped.Whenthesystemarrives,theharnessisinsertedintotheportoftheilluminatorandtheindividualtailsareattachedtoanyoutputdevicesthatmaybeutilizedinthedesign.Thelaborofdesigningthesystemwascompletedduringthelightingdesignprocess.Anditshouldbenotedthatmanyapplicationsmakinguseofglassfibersdonotrequirethattheharnessbecustom-built.Almostallmanufacturersofferstandardharnessesthatareappropriateformanylightingapplications.Aswithcustom-builtharnesses,however,theseharnessesdonotallowforagreatdealofflexibilityshouldthedesignneedtochange.

Amajordifferenceinharnessesusedinplasticsystemsversustheharnessesthatareusedinglasssystemsisthatplasticharnessesdonotneedtobecustom-assembledatthefactory.Shouldthedesignneedtochange,modificationscanbemadeatthejobsite.However,comparedtohavingthesystemreadytobeinstalledwhenworkingwithaglasssystem,plasticsystemsmayrequireacertainamountoflaboratthejobsiteinordertomakethemwork.

AssemblingaHarnessforPlasticFibers(SampleProcedure)

Somemanufacturersdonotincludetheinformationrequiredtoassembleaharnessintheirstandardpromotionalmaterials.Therefore,thefollowingstepsofferageneraloverviewoftheproceduresthatmayneedtobeperformedinordertoassembleaharnessutilizingcertainplasticfibers.Theexactproceduresmayvarygreatly

dependingontheplasticfiberutilized.Certainsystemswillrequire

additionalstepswhileotherfibersmaycallforfewerordifferentproceduresinordertoassemblethesystem.Manycompaniesthatmanufactureplasticfibersystemsofferaccessoriesthatassistincompletingsomeorallofthesesteps.AsdiscussedinChapter2,differentsizes,lengthsaswellasacombinationofsideandend-emittingfiberscanattachtothesameilluminator.

1.Thefirststepistosizethefiberstotheappropriatelength.Plasticfibersaregenerallyavailableinspoolsthatcanrangefrom100to1000feetinlength.Smallerlengthsareavailable.Somecompaniesrecommendthatfibersbeplacedagainstaflatsurface(suchasguidingthefibersagainstawall)foraperiodoftimeaftertheyhavebeenunrolled.

2.Thefibersarenowcuttotheappropriatesize.Itisimperativetoensurethatallcutsaremadeasstraightandcleanaspossible.Thedesignershouldrefertothefibermanufacturer'sguidelinesbeforemakinganycutinafiber.Anewsingle-edgedrazorbladecanbeused,butmanymanufacturesofferacuttingtool(usuallyatadditionalcost)designedspecificallyforcuttingfibers.

3.Plasticfibersthatpossessasheathingmayrequirethataparticularamountofthesheathingberemovedfromtheendofthefiberthatwillattachtotheilluminator.Thesheathingcanberemovedbyscoringaroundthefiberatacertaindistance(usually2-4inches)fromthefiber'sinputendandthenpullingthesheathingbacksothatthecladdingisexposed.Removethesheathingbycuttingcarefullyaroundthefiberorfiberbundle.

4.Thefiberscannowbearrangedintherequiredpatterntocreatethelightingdesign.Thestrippedendofthefiberswillcometogetherforinsertionintothecommonend.Fi-

bersthatdonotneedtobestrippedcanbearrangedsothateitherendofthefiberattachestotheilluminator.

5.Itisatthispointthatcertainfibersmayhavetobesecuredtogetherforinsertionintotheilluminator.Teflon®heatshrinktubingiscutandinsertedoverthefibersthatwillattachtotheilluminator.Heatisappliedtoshrinkthetubingintoplace.Itisimportanttokeepthesourceofheatinconstantmotion,astemperature-sensitivefiberscanbedamagedifheatisappliedforaprolongedperiodoftime.Somemanufacturesrecommendpracticingthistechniquebeforeactuallyworkingwiththefibers.

6.Whenthefibersaresecured,theyareheldtogetherinsidethetubingbyepoxy.Onlyepoxyrecommendedbythefibermanufacturershouldbeused.Theepoxywillneedtobemanipulatedsothatitfillsallofthespacesnottakenupbythefiberswithintheheatshrinktubing.Thepurposeistocompletelyjointhefiberstogetherattheirsides.Theassemblyisthenheatedandinsertedintothecommonendsothataportionofthefibersextendfromtheopposite

Figure5-2.Anelevationandcrosssectionofafiberillustratingthecore,claddingandsheathing.

Figure5-3.Certainfiberswillrequiretheremovalofthefiber'ssheathing

beforethefiberisinsertedintothecommonend.

Figure5-4.Tosecurethefibers,heat-shrinktubingisplacedoverthefibersandsized

byapplyingheat.

side.Theepoxywillsetwhilethefibersorfiberbundlesareinthisposition(thecompletecuringprocessmaytake24hours).

7.Whentheepoxyhashardened,anotherpieceofheatshrinktubingmayneedtobeappliedoverthecompletedassembly.

8.Thefibertipsextendingfromthecommonendarenowcutaway.Itisimportantthatthesefibersarecutsothattheyareevenwiththecommonend.Anunevencutwillaffecttheamountoflightthatwillenterthem.Somesmallplasticfibersmaynowneedtobepolished.

Figure5-5.Theassemblyisplacedintothecommonend.Theepoxysetsinthisposition.

Figure5-6.Theextendingportionofthefibersarecutaway.Certainfibersmaynow

requirepolishing.

9.Thecommonendisnowreadytobeattachedtotheilluminator.

Dependingonthedesignandfiberutilized,additionalstepsarerequiredtoinstallfibersintooutputdevicesoralongmountingchannels(seeChapter6).Figure5-8offersarepresentationofaharnessthathasbeenassembledusingstepsthataresimilartotheonesillustratedabove.

Figure5-7.Theassembledcommonendconsistingofallfibersorfiberbundlesutilized

inthedesignconnectstotheilluminatorbymeansoftheport.

CuttingtheFibers

Certainly,theabilitytocutplasticfiberstoaspecificlengthatthejobsitehasadvantages.Itisextremelyimportant,however,toensurethatanycutismadeascleanaspossible.Someplasticfibermayprojecttheimagesleftfromanunevencutintotheilluminatedenvironment.Asmentionedabove,harnessesutilizingglassfibersareoftencustom-assembledbythemanufacturer;therefore,glassfiberscannotbecutatthejobsite,althoughtheyalsopossesscharacteristicsthatmayallowforcertainprojectionstooccur.Whenlightcomingfromanybundledfiber(glassorplastic)ispreciselyfocused,thepatternoftheindividualfiberswithinthetailmayprojectontotheilluminatedsurface.

VariationsinLightColorandIntensity

Inbothglassandplasticsystems,thereisthepossibilitythatthe''spot"oflightstrikingtheinputendsofthefibersmaybeunevenincolorandintensity.Metalhalidelampshavedistinctlyseparatecolorsblendedwithintheoutputspectrumand,therefore,lightofdifferentcolorsandintensitiescanenterintodifferentfibersextendingfromthesamecommonend.Theresultofnon-uniformlightattheinputendsofthefibersiscolorandintensityvariationsattheilluminatedsurfaces.

Figure5-8.Representationofaharnessthathasbeenassembledusingthestepsdetailedinthetext.AdaptedwithpermissionfromLumenyteInternationalCorporation.

Certainsystemsutilizevariouslenses,quartzrods,"couplers"orotherpatenteddeviceswithintheilluminatortoassistin"mixing"thesevariationsbeforelightreachesthefiber'sinputends.Mixingthelightbeforeitreachesthecommonendallowsforamoreevendistributionoflightacrosstheinputendofthefibers.Somesystemshavetheabilitytorandomizefibers.Randomizationisaprocedurethatdistributesacertainamountoftheindividualfibersinthecommonendtoeachtail.Varyinglightintensitiesoccurringatthecommonendarethereforedistributedtoeachtaildependingontheamountofrandomizationthatoccurs.

Thedesignercanspecifydifferentamountsofrandomization,eachofferingvariousdegreesofsuccessinmixingthelight.Theabilitytorandomizeiscommononlytoglassandsomesmallplasticfibers.ThedrawingsinFigure5-9illustratetheconceptofrandomization.

BendingtheFiber

Chapter4discussedtheamountofbendingthatafibercanwithstandbeforelightlossoccurs.Ashasbeenpreviouslymentioned,bendingisrelatedtothediameterofeachindividualfiberutilizedinthesystem.Becauseglassfibershavesmallerdiametersthanplasticfibers,theycanbebentmorewithintheapplicationbeforetheyexperiencealossoflight.However,ifglassfibersarebentsmallerthanthesuggestedbendradius,theylosetheirabilitytotransmitlightandeventuallybreak.Shouldaglassfiberbreak,acompletelossoflightwilloccurinthedesignedenvironment.Ifthelossoflightissubstantial,theentireharnesswillneedtobereplaced.Somemanufacturessuggestorderingaharnesswithextratailstosafeguardagainstthispotentialproblem.Therearecertainplasticfibersthatmayalsobreakiftheyarebenttooseverely.Butbecauseplasticfiberscangenerallyberemovedfromtheilluminatoratthejobsite,problemsrelatedtobreakagearemoreeasily(andcost-effectively)solved.

Figure5-9.Exampleofrandomization.AdaptedwithpermissionfromSchottFiberOptics,Schottlite,FiberOptic

LightingfromSchott.

Price

Fibersarepricedbasedonthematerialstheyaremadeof.Historically,glassfibershavecostconsiderablymorethanplasticfibers.Inmostapplications,thisisstilltrue.Duetoissuesrelatedtohighervolumedemandandincreasedproductionefficiency,however,pricesmayberelativelycomparableincertainlarge-scaleprojects.

HowLongWillItLast?

Thelifeofafiberwillgenerallybedeterminedbytheconditionsinwhichitoperatesandwillincludefactorsrelatedtoenvironmentandoverallsystemdesign.Theindustryhasnot,asyet,hadopportunitytodetermineexactlyhowlongafiberwilllastbasedonactualfieldapplications.Becausethetechnologyisrelativelynew,soarethemajorityofinstallations.Sinceglassfibersareinert,theycouldlastforever.

Plasticfiberscansufferfromexcessiveheat,ultravioletenergyandvariousotherenvironmentalfactors.Onemanufacturerofplasticfibershasrecentlystatedthatgivenpropersystemdesign,thefiberstheyproducehaveaproductivelifeof20years.

MixingGlassandPlastic

Untilveryrecently,glassorplasticfiberscouldonlybefoundindistinctivelyseparatesystems.Nooptionswereavailabletothedesignerthatallowedforacombinationofbothfibertypestobeutilizedwithoneilluminator.Therearecurrentlyilluminatorsmanufacturedthataccommodatebothglassandplasticfibers.Theportsoftheilluminatorsaredesignedtoallowstandardorcustomdesignedglassorplasticbundlesorindividualplasticfiberstobeattachedorremovedasdesired.Inaddition,illuminatorscanbecustomdesignedtomatchspecificfibers.Thedesignercanrealizea

multitudeoflightingeffectsandcharacteristicswhenutilizinganilluminatorthatisdesignedtoworkwithavarietyofplasticorglass,sideorend-emittingfibers.

Chapter6AccessoriesAccessoriesincludeclips,endcaps,fixtures,colorwheels,filtersandavarietyofotherdevicesusedtocontrollightdistribution,colorandproduceotherdesiredbenefits.Inthischapter,wewilldiscusstheseaccessories,andreviewproductsavailablefromseveralmanufacturers.

AccessorizingtheFiberOpticSystem

Chapter3discussedtheacceptanceangleofafiber.Lightacceptedintoafiberfortransmissionmuststrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceangleinorderforittoexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Generally,lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewilltransmitoutofthefiberatthesameangle.

Theexactangleoflightcomingfromthefiberwillbedeterminedbyhowoftenthefiberisbentthroughouttheapplicationandhowexactingtheinstallerhasbeeninadheringtobendradiusspecifications.Ifafiberislaidperfectlystraight,thedesignercanexpecttorealizealightcut-offhalf-angleatthefiber'sterminatingendtobethesameastheacceptancehalf-angle.Aspreviouslydiscussed,certainglassandlargediameterplasticfiberspossessanumericalapertureofapproximately0.65whilethenumericalapertureofsomesmallplasticfibersisapproximately0.55.Thesenumericalaperturesleadtolightoutputhalf-angles,ofapproximately40and33degreesrespectively.Lightemittingfromfibersattheseanglesisoftenwellsuitedtocertainapplications.


EndFittings-Theendfittingislocatedattheterminatingendofatail.Dependingonthefittingselected,theyareusedtoassistindefiningandshapingthelightemittingfromthefibers.Insomecasesendfittingsarereferredtoasfixtures,luminairesoroutputdevices.Manyfixturesserveonlyasdecorativelightoutputdevices.

Synchronization-Synchronizationallowsforcoordinatingspecialeffectsinnumerousilluminatorsoperatingwithinthesameapplication.

Mostend-emittingapplications,however,doutilizeanendfittingattheterminatingendofthetailtoassistindefiningthelight.Themostcommonendfittingisalens.Alensallowsforcontrolofthelightwhileprovidingthedesignerwiththeabilitytoadjustthebrightnesslevelswithinaparticularapplicationbyindividuallyfocusinglightfromnumeroustailsontocertainareasorobjectswithintheilluminatedenvironment.

Newaccessoriesarecontinuouslybeingdeveloped.Industrycatalogsthatonlytwoyearsagofeaturedalmostnooptionsrelatedtofixtureselectionhavebeenupdatedtoincludeabroadrangeofnewlydevelopedfixturesforuseininteriorandexteriorapplications.Whilesomefixturesarepurelydecorative,othersaredesignedtoperformaparticulartask.Themajorityoffixturesarepatented.Byappearance,

manyofthesefixtureslookthesameasthosethatwouldhouseaconventionallamp.Butfibersattachtothefixture,notwires.Fixturesutilizedwithfiberopticsprovideilluminationwithouttheheatorelectricityassociatedwithatraditionallightingfixture.

Becausetherearenoelectricalrestrictions,moreandmoredesignersaredevelopingcustomfixtures.Designingafixture(andmountingmethods)isoftenonlylimitedtospecificationsrelatedtothedesignedenvironment.Fiberoffersthedesignertheabilitytotransformalmostanythingintoalightfixture.

Figure6-1.Lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandleavingthefiber

atthesameangle.

Figure6-2.Fiberendcaps.Endcapsaremountedattheterminatingendofside-emittingfibersorfiberbundleswhenthedesigndoesnotrequirethattheybeconnected

toanotherilluminator.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternationalInc.

Manyeverydayobjectssuchasfurniture,handrailsandsculptureshavebeenmodifiedordesignedtoaccommodatefiber.

Thefollowinglistrepresentssomeoftheaccessoriesthatareavailabletoassistinobtainingthedesiredlightingresults.Certainaccessoriescanonlybeusedwithspecificsystems;manyaccessories,however,canbeutilizedregardlessoftheilluminatororfibersemployed.Mostfixturesarecurrentlydesignedforusewithend-emittingfiber.

Fixtures

FixturesforDownlighting

Themajorityofcompaniesofferingaccessoriesmarketatleastonefixturedesignedtoprovidedownlight.Comparedto

Figure6-3.TheindividualPinpointDirectionalHead.Itfeaturesalensedballswivelforaimingandafocusinghoodthatslidesouttoadjustthebeampatternfromaspottoabroaderpattern.CourtesyofPinpoint

Fibreoptics.

Figure6-4and6-5.IndividualPinpointHeadspositionedinamountingbar.Themountingbarcanbesizedtofittheexactdimensionsofadisplaycaseandupto60individualheadscanbepoweredwithonelamp.Courtesyof

PinpointFibreopticsLtd.

traditionaldownlights,thesefixturesareincrediblycompact,oftenmeasuring1-3inchesindiameterand1-2inchesinheight.Attimes,theymaybeevensmaller.Duetotheirsmallsize,theyfitinareaswheretraditionallightingfixturescannotbeinstalled.Inmanycases,thesefixturesserveonlyasdecorativeceilingfittings.Atailattachestothefixturefromthebackandlightemergesdirectlyfromthefiberstotheareabeingilluminated.Thesefixturesareusedprimarilyfortask,accentanddisplayilluminationandareavailableinmanydifferentstylesandfinishes.

DecorativeFixturesforDownlighting

Similarinsizetofixturesdesignedtoprovideonlydownlight,decorativedownlightsusuallyincorporateanelementthatlightpassesthroughinordertoprovidereflectionsorglowingeffects.Thesefixturesaregrowinginpopularitybecausetheyaredesignedtoprovideadecorativelightingelementthatcombineswithorcomplementsinteriororexteriordesign.Suchfixturesmayincorporateacrylicmolds,crystalsorshapedclearorcoloredglassintotheirdesign.

EyeballFixtures

Severalcompaniesoffereyeballfixturesthatareadjustablebymeansofasocket.Thebeamoflightcanbeeasilyaimedatparticularareasforuseinwallwashingandaccentlighting.Manyofthesefixturesincludeanadjustablelensthatallowsforlighttobefocusedfromsmalltowidebeams.

LandscapeLightingFixtures

Numerousfixtureoptionsareavailableforilluminatinglandscapes,sidewalksandgardens.Thesefixturescanoftenbemountedflushtothegroundforuplightingorresemblebollardsthatcandiffuseorreflectlight.Somemanufacturersofferoutdoorfixturesthatare

extremelyflexibleandcanbeaimedatvariousareasinthelandscape.Decorativeelementsthatglowareoftenincorporatedintothesefixtures.

Figure6-6.Downlightforaimablespot,highlighting

oraccentlighting.

Figure6-7.Downlightforfixedspot,highlighting

oraccentlighting.

Figure6-8.Downlightforspot,highlightingoraccentlighting.Courtesyof

Fiberstars,Inc.

ExteriorLightingFixtures

Inadditiontofixturesdesignedtoilluminatelandscapes,wall-mountedfixturesforexteriorwallwashing,stairlightingandpatioandsidewalklightingarealsoavailable.Manyofthesefixturescomeinavarietyofshapesandallowforcontrollablelightoutput.Someofthesefixturescanbeburiedinthegroundormountedinconcrete.

Decorativeoptionsareusuallyavailable.

ShowcaseandDisplayFixtures

Itisintheareaofdisplayilluminationwherefixtureselectioncurrentlyexcels.Althoughalmostanyfiberopticfixturecanbeusedfordisplayillumination,therearenumerousfix-

Figure6-9.Steplight.

Figure6-10.Adjustablefloodforlandscape

lighting.CourtesyofFiberstars,Inc.

turesdevelopedspecificallyforthispurpose.Directionalsystemsaremountedinshowcasesorinceilingstoilluminatemanyindividualobjectsorentiregallerywalls.Thesesystemscancontainnumerouslightoutletsthatarepositionedinmountingbarsorrails.Feweroutletscanbeuseddependingontheilluminationrequirements.Theoutletsusuallyswivelinasockettodirectlighttoalmostanyareainthedisplay,whilealsoofferingtheabilitytofocusordiffuselight.

SwimmingPool,FountainandUnderwaterFixtures

Manyfixturedescriptionsincludeastatementthattheyarewaterproof(thedesignershouldalwaysensurethatfixturesandsystemsaredesignedforuseintheappropriateenvironment);however,therearemanyfixturesthataredesignedspecificallyforunderwaterlocations.Thesefixturesusuallyincludeonlyalens,butcustomdecorativeoptionsareavailable.

DecorativeLightingElements

Anassortmentofsmallfixturesdesignedtoprovidetinypointsoflightareavailablefromcertainmanufacturers.Althoughgenerallyusedfordecorativepurposes,someofthesefixturesmayoffersomedegreeoflightcontrol.Thesefixturesinclude''bullets"andChristmastreelights(suchas"icicles")andareusuallymadeofshapedclear,coloredorfrostedglass.

CustomFixturesBasedOntheApplication

Aswithanylightingapplication,standardfixturesmaynotalwaysbeappropriateforcustomdesigns.Inmanycases,fixturesaredevelopedbasedontheneedsoftheparticularapplication.Designersdevelopafixturebasedonthefibersutilizedandlightingeffectsdesired.Therearemanymanufacturers(includingfacilitiesnotdevotedspecificallytolighting)thatwilldevelopacustomfixturebasedonspecificationsprovidedbythedesigner.

Figure6-11.LowProfileLightingSystem.CourtesyofLightlyExpressedLtd.

Figure6-12.EyeballSpotLuminaireTM.UsedwithpermissionfromNoUVIRResearch.

SpecialEffectsAccessories

ColorWheels

Theabilitytoeasilychangethecoloroflighttransmittinginafiberallowsforextremelyuniquelightingeffects.Themajorityofsystemscurrentlyavailableallowfortheoptionofincludingacolorwheelwithintheilluminator.Colorwheeloptionsvaryfrommanufacturertomanufacturer,butallcolorwheelsarelocatedbetweenthelampandtheinputendsofthefibers.Manycolorwheelsmakeuseofdichroicfiltersthateitherselectivelytransmitorreflectlight.Somecolorwheelsutilizeglassfiltersthatabsorbunwantedwavelengthsinordertocreatethedesiredcolor.Standardcolorwheelsaregenerallyavailablewitheitherfouroreightcolors,yetmostmanufacturersoffertheoptionofallowingthedesignertocreatecustom

Figure6-13.TheDimmerSpliceTM.UsedwithpermissionbyNoUVIRResearch.

Figure6-15.Landscapefixture.Courtesy

ofSuperVisionInternationalInc.

Figure6-14.Stairlight.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternationalInc.

colorwheelsthatcanincludeadditionalcolors.Colorwheelsrotatebymeansofamotor,generallyfrom1to7.5timesperminute.Otherrotationspeedsareavailable.

Asanexample,onemanufacturer,SuperVision,offersasstandardforitsfourcolorwheelproducts:

White,magenta,limegreen,cyan

·Clear(white),limegreen,magenta,mediumblue

·Clear(white),yellow,limegreen,orange

·Clear(white),primaryblue,yellow,turquoise,orange,darkblue,magenta,limegreen

Inaddition,optionalcolorsareavailablethatincludeclear(white),bluemagenta,hotpink,red-magenta,darkblue,primaryblue,mediumblue,cyan,turquoise,darkgreen,primarygreen,limegreen,yellow,amber,orangeandred(customcolorsareavailableuponrequest).

Gobos

Therearerotatingwheelsavailablethatprovideotherspecialeffects.Aperforatedgoborotatingonacolorwheelmotorallowsforcertainfiberstoreceivelightwhileothersdonot.Thisprovidesa"twinkling"effectattheoutputendsofthefibers.Variousshapesandholesizescanbeincorporatedintothegobotocreatedifferentlightingeffects.Whenutilizedwithcolorwheels,gobosallowforspectaculardisplaysoflight.

Synchronization

Manyilluminatorsusedinthesamedesigncanbeconnectedsothatcolorchangeandspecialeffectsoccurineveryilluminatorusedintheapplication.Thisprocessisgenerallyreferredtoassynchronization.Synchronizationcanonlyoccurwhenilluminatorsarewiredtogetherandtoa"master"illuminatororexternalcontroldevice.Everyconnectedilluminatormustbeequippedwiththeappropriateequipmentinorderforcontrolstobeaccepted.Controllingthespeedofthecolorwheelandgobos,strobingandcoordinatingcolorchanges

tomusicarejustsomeofthemanyeffectsthatarepossible.Applicationsmakinguseofsynchronizationcanbefoundinsystemsinstalledinnightclubs,shoppingmalls,theaters,casinosandamusementparks.

DimmingAccessories

Somecompanieshavegonetoexhaustivelengthsinordertodevelopcustomaccessoriestoperformaparticularlightingtask.Theseaccessoriesoftenincludemethodsfordimming.Dimmingmetalhalidelightsourcesisusuallyachievedbyutilizingawheelorotherdevice(locatedintheilluminatorandrotatingasacolorwheelorgobowould)torestricttheamountoflightenteringthefibers(seeApplication#15inChapter7).Othermethodsofdimmingincludepatentedadjustabledevicesdevelopedtointerruptthefiberruninordertoreducetheamountoflightthatistransmitted(seeFigure6-13).

AdditionalAccessories

Otheraccessoriesincludecustom-designedkitstocutandsecurefibersatthejobsite.Thesekitscontainvariousknives,bladesorothercuttingdevices.Iffibersrequirepolishing,kitsareavailabletoensurethatthefibersarepolishedquicklyandtothemanufacturer'sspecifications.Thesekitsincludevariousfilesormachinepolishingtools.

Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,otheraccessoriesincludefiltersandfanstocontrolheatattheinputendsofthefibersaswellasfiltersthatremoveultravioletenergyorcorrectcolor.

Cost

Dependingonthenumberofaccessoriesutilizedinaparticularapplication,theycanaddconsiderablecosttothesystem.Someaccessoriesarepricedextremelyhigh.Performancecharacteristicsmustbecarefullyweighed.Componentsmadeofhighqualitymaterialsorofferinguniquedesignbenefitscostevenmore.

MountingtheFiberOpticSystem

Illuminators

Theilluminatorshouldalwaysbemountedinanareathatallowsforeasyaccess.Manyilluminatorsaresecuredtowalls,floors,shelvesandotherarchitecturalsupportsbymeansofscrews.Someilluminatorsarepre-attachedtoportablemountingdevicesandcanbemoved.Certainmanufacturersofferbracketsorotherdevicesthatattachtorecessedceilingsupportsorbetweenarchitecturalbeamsthattheilluminatorwillattachto.Thesedevicesaregenerallyusedformountingilluminatorsaboveceilingpanelsandinplenumareas.Someilluminatorswillneedspaceforaircirculation.Mostmanufacturershavestrictguidelinesastowhereandhowilluminatorsshouldbemounted.Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer'sguidelinesaswellasallcoderequirementsandlocalregulations.

Fibers

Theexactmethodofmountingfiberswillbedeterminedbytheapplication.Inthesimplestcases,fibersarehiddeninceilingsordisplaycaseswithlittleconcernforsecuringthem.Inothercases,however,therearestrictrequirements.Thesheathingofsomefibersmustmeetcertaincodesinordertobeplacedincertainareas.Someregulationsmayrequirethatfibersbeplacedinconduit.Thedesignermustmakesurethatfibersmeettherequiredcodesbasedonwhereandhowtheywillbemounted.

Whenfibersaresecured,particularlyside-emittingfibers,itisusuallybymeansofclipsormountingtrack.Clipsaresecuredtoawallorsomeothersurfaceandfibersrunfromcliptoclip,similartothewayneonissecuredwith"standoffs."

Mountingtracksareattachedtoaparticularsurfaceandtheentire

lengthoffiber(sometimessecuredwithadhesives)isinsertedintoit.Somemanufacturersrecommendthattheirside-emittingfiberbesecuredinawhitemountingtrackinordertoachievemaximumbrightnesseffects.

AsdiscussedinChapter2,side-emittingfibersmakeuseofanendcapattheendofthefiberrun.Ifside-emittingfibersarenotattachedtoanotherilluminatoror"looped,"anendcapwillmostlikelybeutilized.Endcapsprotecttheendofthefibersfromenvironmentaldamageandprovidetherequiredlightterminationpointattheendofthefiberrun.EndcapsareshowninFigure6-2.

Fixtures

Mostfixturesaresecuredwithspringclips.Aholeoftheappropriatesizeisdrilledintothemountingsurfaceandthefixturesareinsertedandsecuredinplacebytheclips.Otherfixturesaresimplyscrewedintoplace.Somemanufacturersmayrecommendusinganadhesivetoassistinkeepingthefixturessecure.Althoughtheexactmethodformountingwillvarydependingonthefixtureandfiberutilized,itgenerallytakesverylittletimetoinstallafiberopticfixture.

Chapter7ApplicationPresentationsInthischapter,wewillpresentavarietyofapplicationswherefiberopticlightingwasemployed.

AsnotedinthePreface,thisbookwasprintedusinganewtechnologythatenablestheproductionofhighlyspecializedtexts.Assuch,althoughthisbookintersectsareasofvisualdesign,photographsareshowninblack-and-whiteasthistext'spurposeistoillustratetechnicalandpracticalperformanceprinciplesratherthandemonstrateaestheticcapabilities.Colorphotosdemonstratingaestheticenvironmentsmadepossiblebyfiberopticilluminationareavailablefrommanufacturersandfromthepagesofmagazinesdevotedtolighting.

CaseStudy#1

ProjectLocation

BlumenthalPerformingArtsCenterCharlotte,NorthCarolina

ProjectDescription

Fiberopticceiling.

LightSource

Inthisproject,thereare72illuminatorseachutilizingan85Whalogenlamp.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticend-emittingfibersprovidingover2,000pointsofindividuallight.

AccessoriesUsed

Colorwheelsarelocatedintheilluminators.Custom-madelensesarelocatedattheendofeachtail.

ReasonforFiberOptics

Developingasystemthatcouldbemaintainedremotelywasimperative.Acousticalbaffleswouldhaveblockedanyaccesstotraditionallightingfixtures.Accordingtothelightingconsultant,BenBoltin,ofTheatreProjectsInc.inHartford,CT,theprojectcouldnothavebeencompletedbyutilizingaconventionallightingsystem."We'retalkingabout2,000pointsoflightthatareatleast80feetintheair.Situatingthatmanypoints,thathighup,whilepreservingaccesstotheluminaireswouldhavebeenimpossiblewithanytechnologyotherthanfiberoptics."

CourtesyofStarfireLighltingIncorporated.PhotographsbyJoannSieburgBaker.

CaseStudy#2

ProjectLocation

ConEdisonClockTowerNewYork,NY

ProjectDescription

Thisprojectreplacedaconventionallightingsystemandinvolvedtheilluminationoffourclockfaces,each25feetindiameter,ontheupperfloorsoftheConEdisonBuilding.

LightSource

Atotalof44illuminatorsareused,11ateachclock.Eightilluminatorslighttheclock'sfacesandcontain60Wxenonmetalhalidelamps.Threeilluminatorslightthehandsofeachclockandutilizea150Wmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Largeend-emittingplasticfibersareused.

AccessoriesUsed

Someilluminatorscontaincomputer-controlledcolorwheels.Aspeciallydesignedopticattheendofeachfiberspreadsthelightsothatthehandsappearbrightfromeveryviewingangle.


Theformerincandescentsystemutilized860lampsthatrequiredcontinuousmaintenance.Colorchangesalsoaddedtomaintenancecosts.AccordingtoPeterJacobsonofConEdison,thefiberopticsystemreducedcostsassociatedwithmaintenanceby$40,000ayear.Theenergydollarsspentonlightingthe860incandescentlampsamountedto$12,501ayear.The44lampsusedinthefiberoptic

systemcost$2,211dollarsayeartooperate.

CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.

CaseStudy#3

ProjectLocation

128PrinceStreetNewYork,NY

ProjectDescription

Retailjewelryexhibitcaselighting(seeFigure1-9).

LightSource

Thetotalinstallationcontains12illuminatorsutilizing150Wmetalhalidelamps.

FibersUsed

Acombinationofglassandlargeplasticend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Directionalheadslocatedinmountingbars.Afibertailattachestoeachhead.


Theownerofthestorewantedthelightingtomeetthefollowingrequirements:

·Spotlightwithafocusedintensebeamthesmallpiecesdisplayed

·Havetheabilitytochangebeamdirectiontocoverthedisplaycase'scompletearea

·Havetheflexibilitytochangethebeamspreadfromatightspottoawidespread

·Evenlywashspecialobjectssuchaspearlnecklaces

·Provideacrisplightwithoutagrainytextureforviewingobjectssuchasdiamonds

Thedirectionalheadwasspecificallydesignedtomeetthesevisualmerchandisingobjectivesandthispatentedsystemisnowusedextensivelytoilluminatedisplaycasesinvariousenvironments.

CaseStudy#4

ProjectLocation

FederalOfficeBuilding290Broadway,NewYork,NY

ProjectDescription

''AmericaSong,"asculpturedesignedbyClydeLynds.

LightSource

Fourilluminators,eachusinga70Wmetalhalidelamparelocatedinstainlesssteelpanelsalongthesidesofthesculpture.

FibersUsed

Fivemilesofsmallplasticend-emittingfibersareusedinthisinstallation.Thefibersaremountedinconcrete.

AccessoriesUsed

Alensisusedtochangethedistributionpatternoflightemittingfromvariousterminatingendsofthefibers.Aspecialeffectswheellocatedwithintheilluminatorallowsforcertainfiberendstobeilluminatedatvarioustimeswhileothersarenot.Thisgivestheimpressionthatlightismovingacrossthesurfaceofthesculpture.


Thelightingdesignrequirednumerouspointsoflightthatneededtobeinconstantmotion.Fourconvenientlylocatedlamps,combinedwiththeabilitytosequence,providethedesiredeffects.Accordingtotheartist,"Thelightingeffectsdesignedinthesculptureareonlypossiblewithfiberoptics."

CaseStudy#5

ProjectLocation

Bentall'sShoppingMallLondon,England

ProjectDescription

Decorativeinteriorlighting.

LightSource

Theprojectused122illuminatorseachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Glassend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Thereare632pointsoflight.Eachtailemploysalensattheterminatingendofthefiber.


Atraditionallightingsystemwouldhavebeenrelativelyinaccessiblewhenitwastimetochangelamps.Fiberopticssavedspaceandreducedenergyuseinthisapplication.

CaseStudy#6

ProjectLocation

BullRunShoppingPlazaManassas,Virginia

ProjectDescription

Exteriorarchitecturallightingdesignedtohighlightfourmainentrancestotheplaza.

LightSource

Thetowerhastwoilluminatorslocatedontherooftops.Thetotalprojecthas13illuminatorsthatuse150Wmetalhalidelamps.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Theilluminatorscontainacolorwheelthatislockedongreen.TheilluminatorsareULwetlocationlistedandcontainatimerforon/offcontrols.


Theclientwantedaneasytomaintainalternativetoaneonsystem.Theabilitytopredictmaintenancecostswasparticularlyimportant,and,opposedtoneon,thereisnobreakageofthelightedpath.

CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.

CaseStudy#7

ProjectLocation

TokyoDomeTokyo,Japan

ProjectDescription

Amusementparkferriswheellighting.

LightSource

Theferriswheelutilizes26illuminatorsthatcontain150Wquartzhalogenlamps.

FibersUsed


AccessoriesUsed

Theilluminatorscontaincolorwheels.Eachspoke-setoftheferriswheelchangescolorinpattern.Afteralleightcolorsofthecolorwheelhavebeensequencedthrougheachspoke-set,theentireridecyclesthrougheightcolorchanges.Asafinale,randomcolorsfromthecolorwheelchangesindividualspoke-setswithalleightcolorsoflight.Theterminatingendsofthefibersarecutsothatlightescapesandilluminatesthecenterofthewheel.



Neonwasconsideredtoobigofamaintenanceissueforthisprojectanddidnotallowforanycolorchanges.

CaseStudy#8

ProjectLocation

ChurchoftheHolyTrinityGeorgetown,Washington,DC

ProjectDescription

TheCrosslocatedoverthepulpitisilluminatedwithfiberoptics.

LightSource

Thisapplicationutilizesoneilluminatorcontaininga150Wmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticend-emittingfibers

AccessoriesUsed

OnelampprovideslighttosixcustomfixtureslocatedwithintheCross.


TheheatfromtheformerlightingsystemwasdamagingtheCross.Thefiberopticsystemprovideslightabsentofheatandultravioletrays.Theonelamputilizedinthefiberopticsystemisconvenientlylocatedinthebasement,10feetfromthebottomoftheCross.Unlikethepreviouslightingsystem,changingthelampwhennecessaryiseasy.Churchrequirementsrelatedtothedesignincludedspecificationsthatnopointsoflightbevisibletothecongregation.Thecustom-designedfiberopticfixtureswereeasilyconcealedwithintheCross.

CaseStudy#9

ProjectLocation

HardRockCafeUniversalStudios,Florida

ProjectDescription

Thisfiberopticapplicationreplacedaneonlightingsystem.Theaestheticlightingwasdesignedtobeviewedfromtheairaswellasfrompedestrianandautoareas.Theshapeoftheguitarsurroundsthebuildingandishighlightedbyfiberopticlighting.The"strings"oftheguitararefibers.

LightSource

Inthisproject,11illuminatorsutilizing400wattmetalhalidelampsareusedintheguitar"handle"and"string"sectionsofthisdesign.

FibersUsed


AccessoriesUsed

Colorwheelslocatedintheilluminators.Thefibersareheldinplacealongtheguitarareasbytheoriginalneonmountingsystem.Thefibersareattachedtothe"strings"oftheguitarbymonofilamentfishingline.


Neonwasreplacedduetobreakageandmaintenanceproblems.Accordingtothedesigner,RobertLaughlinofRobertLaughlin&AssociatesinWinterPark,FL,"Fiberopticlightingwasselectedastheappropriatesourceto'mimic'guitarstrings.Thesize,texture,saggingproperties,etc.wereideal.Inaddition,thelightingsources

wereconcealed.Looksgoodindaytimeandbetteratnight."

CaseStudy#10

ProjectLocation

PrivateResidenceFlorida

ProjectDescription

Exteriordrivewayandpathlighting.

LightSource

One250Wquartzhalogenlamp.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.Themaximumlengthoffiberusedinthesystemis75feet.

AccessoriesUsed

Timersforonandoffcontrol.Colorwheelwithintheilluminatorandadjustableaccentfixturesatthefiber'sterminatingend.


Thisprojecteliminatedtheneedtochangeindividualbulbsandgavetheoptionofprovidingdifferentcolors.Thefixturescanbemovedtodifferentlocationsprovidedthefiberlengthisadequate.

CaseStudy#11

ProjectLocation

TrumanLibraryIndependence,Missouri

ProjectDescription

Theilluminationofamuralthatillustratesthegardenssurroundingthere-createdOvalOfficeofHarryS.Truman.Thethreedimensionalmuralispaintedonawallapproximately6inchesfromthefabricatedwindowsanddoors.Viewersseethemuralfromapointlocatedacrosstheroom.Thereisnonaturallightinthisspace.

LightSource

Fourilluminatorsperwindowarelocatedunderthefloorintheplenumspaceofthebasement.Eachilluminatorcontainsa60Wxenonmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Largeend-emittingplasticfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Certainfibersallowthelightthatiscomingfromthemtoilluminatethemuralwithouttheuseofaccessories.Otherfibersemployzoomfocuslensesattheirterminatingendstoassistindirectinglight.


Thelightingdesignforthemuralcalledforeffectsthatwouldcomeclosetomimickingoutdoorsunlightvariations.Thelightcomingfromtheterminatingendofeachfiberisdirectedatvariousareasofthemuraltoassistincreatingthiseffect.Ultravioletandinfraredarefiltered.Inthisproject,192individualpointsoflightwereobtained

from16lamps.Muchlessspaceistakenupbythesystemthanwouldhavebeenifaconventionallightingsystemwasutilized.Totaloperatingcostsperyearwerecalculatedtobe$1,300lessthanthosethatwouldhavebeengeneratedbyusingaconventionalincandescentlightingsystem.

CaseStudy#12

ProjectLocation

Washington,DC

ProjectDescription

FiberOpticTreeTopperutilizedatthetopoftheU.S.NationalChristmasTreein1993.

LightSource

Thisapplicationutilizestwoilluminatorseachcontaininga60Wmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Smallend-emittingplasticfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Onecolorfilterineachilluminatorprovidingblueandorangelighttovariousareaswithinthefixture.


Thiswasacustomengineeredprojectthatcouldbescaledtotheappropriatesizewithoutconcernforspacethatwouldhavebeenrequiredifindividuallampsandelectricalcomponentswereutilized.Theilluminatorsareconvenientlylocatedatthebottomofthetree,30feetbelowthefixture.

CaseStudy#13

ProjectLocation

Orlando,Florida

ProjectDescription

ThisfiberopticinstallationislocatedintheconferenceandshowroomofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.Covelighting,wallandtablehighlighting,andastar-fieldceilingarepresented.Theroomdimensionsare12feetby12feet.

LightSource

Thereisoneilluminatorforeachspecificapplication.Thecove,table,andvideowallalluseanilluminatorthatcontaina150Wmetalhalidelamp.Thestar-fieldceilingusesa75Whalogenlamp.

FibersUsed

Thecove,table,andvideowallutilizesmallplasticside-emittingfibers.Thestar-fieldceilingutilizessmallplasticend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Thecove,table,andvideowallare"looped"(seeChapter2)totheirrespectiveilluminator.Thestar-fieldceilingutilizesdimmingcontrolsandallilluminatorscontainacolorwheel.


Thisprojectillustratesavarietyoffiberopticlightingpossibilities.Theobjectivewastointegratefunctionalapplicationswhiledemonstratingseveralfiberopticaccessories.Thecoveisextremelycompact.Accessformaintaininganeonorfluorescentapplicationwouldhavebeenalmostimpossible.Afterthefibersareinstalled,theyrequirealmostnoadditionalmaintenance.Colorchangewouldhave

beenimpossibleifatraditionallightingsystemwasutilized.

CaseStudy#14

ProjectLocation

WarwickCastle,England

ProjectDescription

Stairlightinginthetowersofanhistoriccastle.Thecastleisatouristattractionthatreceivescrowdsoftouristsonadailybasis.

LightSource

Threeilluminators,eachutilizinga150wattmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Glassend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Fiberbundlesaremountedwithinthehandrail.Lightisallowedtoexiteachbundlewithouttheuseofadditionalaccessories.


Thelightinggoalwastoprovidesafelevelsofilluminationwithoututilizinganylightingfixturesthatwouldtakeawayfromthehistoricatmosphereofthecastle.Theexistinghandrailwasrebuilttoaccommodatethefibers.Nofurtherarchitecturalmodificationswerenecessary.

CaseStudy#15

ProjectLocation

BeloitCollege,LoganMuseumofAnthropologyBeloit,Wisconsin

ProjectDescription

Museumlighting.TheLoganmuseumcontains225,000artifactsonpermanentdisplayrequiringsafe,conservationlevelillumination.

LightSource

30illuminators,eachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.Fiberlengthsaverage20feetfromtheilluminatortotheterminatingend.Atotalof25milesoffiberisutilizedintheapplication.

AccessoriesUsed

Five-and8-footcustomfixturesareutilizedthroughoutthisapplication.Acustomdesigned''variableaperturedimmingsystem"isinstalledineachilluminator.Thisdimmingsystemoperatesonacolorwheelmotorand,whenactivated,rotatesandstopstoallowthecorrectamountoflighttoreachtheinputendsofthefibers.Eachdisplaycaseisindividuallycontrolled.Acolor-balancingfilterisutilizedthroughoutthedesigntoachievelightoutputatapproximately3000K.


Controllingultravioletandinfraredwascritical.Theabilitytoeasilyfiltertheseraysbecameamajorreasonforselectingafiberopticsystem.Additionalpreservationbenefitsarerealizedbecausethe

fibersproducenoheatattheilluminatedareas.ThelampsarelocatedawayfromthedisplaycasesinthebasementoftheMuseum.Becauseallmaintenanceactivitiestake

placeataremotelocation,thecasesareneverdisturbedwhenalampneedstobechanged.Exteriorreflectionsonthefrontofthecasesarereducedbecausethelightcarryingfibersarelocatedinside.Fiberopticsalsoofferedflexibilitypertainingtothedesignofthecases.Becausethefibersandfixturesaresmall,theywereeasilyincorporatedintothesupportsystemofeachindividualcase.

CaseStudy#16

ProjectLocation

PrivateResidence,Florida

ProjectDescription

Swimmingpoolandlandscapeillumination.

LightSource

Sevenilluminators,eachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticsideandend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Numerouslensesdesignedforunderwateruseaswellasvariousfixturesdesignedtoprovideuplightingandwashingeffects.Colorwheelsarelocatedineachilluminatorandareindependentlycontrolledfromtheinterioroftheresidence.Thisallowsthehomeownertoselectsynchronizedcolorsoravarietyofdifferentcolorscomingfromeachilluminator.


Fiberopticsisawidelyacceptedandexpandingmethodofilluminatingswimmingpoolsandspas.Therearenoelectricalconcernsbecausealloftheelectricalcomponentsarelocatedawayfromthedesignedenvironment.Byutilizingacombinationofside-andend-emittingfibersextendingfromacommonilluminator,bothlinearandpointlightingisachievedfromonelamp.Thistechniquewouldhavebeenimpossibleifanyotherlightingsystemwasutilized.


CaseStudy#17

ProjectLocation

PrivateResidence,CA

ProjectDescription

Theilluminationofrarewinesinacustomdesignedtemperaturecontrolleddisplaycase.Thecasemeasuresapproximately8feetinheight,12feetacrossand2feetdeep.

LightSource

Twoilluminators,eachutilizinga250Wquartzhalogenlamp.

FibersUsed

Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

Custom-designedfixtures.Colorwheelsarelocatedwithintheilluminator.


Therarewinesneededtobeprotectedfromultravioletandinfraredlight.Thiswasaccomplishedbymeansoffiltrationwithintheilluminator.Thetemperaturewithinthedisplaycasecouldnotbealteredbytheilluminationsystem.Becausethereisnoheatassociatedwiththelightcomingfromthefibers,noadditionaldemandsareplacedupontherefrigerationsystem.Reflectionsontheglassdoorsfromoutsidelightsourcesareminimizedbecausethefibersaremountedwithinthecase.

CaseStudy#18

ProjectLocation

HuntingtonLibraryandBotanicalGardensSanMarino,CA

ProjectDescription

DisplaycaselightingfortheExhibition"MasterpiecesinLittle:PortraitMiniaturesfromtheCollectionofHerMajestyQueenElizabethII."

LightSource

Eachcasecontainsacustomizedilluminatorutilizinga75Wquartzhalogenlamp.

FibersUsed

Glassandlargeplasticend-emittingfibers.

AccessoriesUsed

DirectionalHeadspositionedinU-ChannelMountingBars.


ThistravelingexhibitiononloanfromtheBritishRoyalCollectioncontained75pricelessminiaturesbymasterssuchasHolbeinandHilliard.Manyoftheportraitswerepaintedonsensitivematerialssuchasvellumandivory.TheQueen'sSurveyorhadprescribednomorethan5footcandlesinthecases.Theuseoffiberopticsallowedforfiltrationofultravioletandinfraredwavelengths.Andbecauseonelampprovidesilluminationtomanydirectionalheads,thepreparatorcouldfocusindividuallightbeamsoneachdelicateobjectwhilemaintainingthelowcuratorialilluminationlevels.

CaseStudy#19

ProjectLocation

CedarCreekCinemaWausau,Wisconsin

ProjectDescription

DecorativelightingintheflooroftheCinema'slobby.

LightSource

Theilluminatorhousesa75Wquartzhalogenlamp.

FibersUsed


AccessoriesUsed

Acolorandspecialeffectswheelislocatedintheilluminatorprovidingcolorchangeandtwinkling.Differentfiberswithinthecommonendreceivedifferentcolorsandamountsoflightasthecolorwheelrotates.


Thedurabilityofthefibersutilizedinthisapplicationallowsforthemtobemountedinthefloor.Thelightshowcreatedbytheaccessoriesisvisibletopatronsastheywalkto,from,andovertheinstallation.Lowmaintenance,specialeffectsandtheabilitytoeasilychangecolorwerethereasonsfiberopticswereselectedforthisproject.

CaseStudy#20

ProjectLocation

PrivateResidenceOrlando,Florida

ProjectDescription

Theilluminationofartobjectsinrecessedniches.

LightSource

Oneilluminatorhousinga250Wquartzhalogenlamp.

FibersUsed


AccessoriesUsed

Afixedlensisutilizedattheterminatingendofthefibers.


Theareasthatneededtobeilluminatedarecompact.Thecomponentsutilizedinthefiberopticsystemareideallysizedtothespacelimitationsoftheenvironment.Theilluminatorislocatedinthegarageoftheresidenceandprovideslight,withoutheat,tofournichelightsandtwosteplightsinsidethehome.

Chapter8TheStar-LikeDisplayPuttingItTogether

ApplicationDetails

We'veseenthecomponentsthatcanbeusedinthefiberopticilluminationsystemaswellasanassortmentofapplicationsmakinguseoffiber.Thischapterwilladdresssomekeypointsthedesignermaywanttoconsiderwhendevelopingastar-likedisplayoneofthemostpopularfiberopticapplications.

TheStar-LikeDisplay

Thestar-likedisplayusesfibertocreatepointsoflightthatoftenresemblesastarfilledsky(seeapplicationpresentation).Whilesomeoftheseapplicationsmayuseonlyoneilluminatorandafewfeetoffibertocreateindividualpointsoflight,otherswillrequiremanyilluminatorsandperhapshundredsofthousandsoffeetoffibertoobtainthedesiredlightingcharacteristics.

Asanincreasingnumberofdesignersincorporatestar-likedisplaysintoresidential,retailandcommercialenvironments,consultantsneedtounderstandbasicsystemlayoutandinstallationconceptsiftheyaretomaximizelightoutputcharacteristicsandcontroloverallsystemcosts.Althoughceilingstendtobethemostcommonareaforcreatingthestar-likeeffect,thedisplayisoftenincorporatedintofacades,floors,walls,domesandavarietyofotherinteriorandexteriorenvironments.

Thissectionwilldemonstratehowthedesignprocesscan

KeyTermsUsedinThisChapter:

FiberDensity-Thetermassociatedwithhowmanyfibersarelocatedinasquarefootsectionofthestar-likedisplay.Atypicalfiberdensityisbetween3and5.

FiberMix-Fibermixreferstomixingthesizeofthefiberswithinthestar-likeapplicationtocreateaperceptionofdepth.Usuallydescribedinpercentages.Forexample;90-5-5.Thismeansthat90%ofthetotalfibersusedinthedisplaywillbeonesize,5%ofthefiberswillbeanothersizeandtheremaining5%areyetanothersize.

Section-Largeapplicationsaretypicallydividedintosectionsinordertocalculatehowmuchfiberwillberequiredfortheentireapplicationandtoensuremaximumlightoutputbasedonilluminatorlocation.Oftenreferredtoaszone.

beapproachedsothattheconsultantmaygainanunderstandingofhowthestar-likedisplaycanbespecifiedandinstalled.Theexamplesincludedbelowfocusspecificallyonaceilingdisplay,butthebasic

conceptscanberelatedtoalmostanyapplication.

TheStar-LikeDisplay,SelectingFiberType

Althoughanyfibermaybeusedinthedisplay,themajorityofstar-likedecorativeapplicationstendtoutilizesmallplasticfiber.Theabilitytocutthefiberatthejobsiteaswellasmaximizethenumberofpointsoflightthatcanbeobtainedfromoneilluminatoraretwokeyreasonsforspecifyingsmallplasticfiber.Largeplasticfibermaybeappropriateforsomedesignsthatrequirelargerpointsoflightsuchasinhighceilingsorinareaswhereambientlightlevelsarehigh.Glassfibersareoftenspecifiedinapplicationsthatdemandabsolutelongevity.Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,differentfiberswillpossessesvaryinglighttransmittingcharacteristicsand

factorsrelatedtocostandinstallationtechniquesmayneedtobeaddressedbeforetheexactfiberisspecified.Thischapterwillfocusonassemblingthestar-likedisplayusingsmallplasticfiber,butmanyoftheconceptswillapplytoglassandlargeplasticfiberaswell.

Somemanufacturesrecommendaparticular"fibermix"whenspecifyingastar-likedisplay.Fibermixreferstovaryingthefibersizeswithintheapplicationinordertocreatelightpointsofdifferentsizes.Thiscreatesaperceptionofdepththatcloselyresemblesanactualstar-filledsky.Differentmanufacturerswillrecommenddifferentratiosoffibermixing,butatypicalfibermixwillconsistof90%ofthefibersusedintheapplicationbeingofonesize.Another5%ofthefiberswilloftenbethenextsizeup,andtheremaining5%willbeofanevenlargersize.Figure8-1illustratesanassortmentofactualplasticfibersizes.

Figure8-1.Anassortmentofactualplasticfibersizes.RowArepresentssmallplasticfiber.RowBrepresentslargeplasticfiber.

HowMuchFiberIsRequiredtoCreateaStar-LikeApplication?

Theamountoffiberrequiredwillbedeterminedbythesizeofthedisplay,thelocationoftheilluminator(s)andthefiber"density."Fiberdensityisthetermthatreferstothenumberofpointsoflightpersquarefootintheapplication.

Typicalapplicationswillemploy3to5pointsoflightpersquarefoot.Factorsthatmayinfluencefiberdensityareusuallyrelatedtotheoveralldesigngoal,butmayincludehowhightheceilingis,theneedtoincorporateuniquedesignsorshapesintothedisplay,andissuesrelatedtooverallsystemcosts.Figure8-2illustrateshowthetotalnumberoflightpointsaredeterminedbasedonaparticularfiberdensity.

The10x10footareamakinguseofafiberdensityof5willrequire500(100x5=500)pointsoflight.Thismeansthat500individualplasticfiberswillbeneededtoassemblethedisplay.Figure8-3illustrateshowfibersmountedinaceilingpanelcreatepointsoflight.

TheLocationoftheIlluminator

Thelocationoftheilluminatorwillsignificantlyinfluencetheamountoffiberthatisrequiredtomeetthelightingdesignobjective.Manufactureswilloftendeterminetheamountofplasticfiberneededfortheapplicationbyobtaininganoverall

Figure8-2.Thefirststepsindetermininghowmuchfiberisrequiredforatypicalstar-likedisplay.

Figure8-3.Dependingonthefiberdensity,atypical2'x4'areaofthestar-likedisplaywillmakeuseof25-40individualfiberstocreate25-40

pointsoflight.

averagefiberlengthbasedonilluminatorlocationandsizeofthedisplay.Oncethelocationoftheilluminatorisdetermined,theshortestandlongestfibersneededintheapplicationarecalculated.Thenextstepistoaddanadditionalamountoffibertoboththeshortestandlongestfiberrun.Theextrafiberwillallowtheinstallertoeasilymovethefiberaroundanyarchitecturalobstructionswhileprovidingenoughfibertoaccommodatefinishingcuts.Manufactureswilltypicallysuggestaddingthreetofivefeetofadditionalfibertoeveryfiberusedintheapplication.Oncetheshortestandlongestfibersaredetermined,andtheextrafiberisaddedtoeach,theaveragefiberlengthisobtained.Figure8-4illustratestheshortestandlongestfiberthatwillbeusedintheapplication.

CalculatingtheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheApplication

Thedesignercannowcalculatethetotalamountoffiberneededforthe10'x10'application.Basedontheilluminatorbeinglocatedwithinthedisplayareaandafiberdensityof5,multiplyingtheaveragefiberlength(6.25')bytherequirednumberoflightpoints(500)providesananswerof3,125.Thismeansthat3,125feetoffiberwillbeneededtocompletethisdisplay.Loweringthefiberdensitywillsignificantlyreducetheamountoffiberrequiredfortheapplication.Forexample,usingthesameareawithafiberdensityof3

reducesthetotal

Figure8-4.Theshortestandlongestfiberusedinthestar-likedisplay.

Figure8-5.Calculatingaveragefiberlength.

amountoffiberneededby1,175feetbecausemultiplyingtheaveragefiberlengthby300equals1950feet(6.5x300).Thismethodwillusuallyprovidethedesignerwithasolidguidelineforplanningtheamountoffiberneededtocompletethestar-likeapplication.Exactfiberneedswillbedeterminedbasedonspecificdesigncriteriaandwilloftenrequireinputfromthesystemmanufacture.

OptimumIlluminatorPlacement

Thedesignershouldnotethatlocatingtheilluminatorinanareaawayfromthedisplaywillincreasetheamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.Inaddition,iftheilluminatorislocatedataconsiderabledistancefromthedisplay,lightlossandcolorshiftmayoccur(seechapter4).Ifatallpossible,theilluminatorshouldbemountedwithintheapplicationifreducedfibercostsandmaximumlightoutputbasedonfiberdistancesaretoberealized.Figure8-6demonstrateshowtheamountoffiberneededtoassemblethedisplayincreasesastheilluminatorlocationmovesawayfromtheapplication.

TheLargerApplicationSomeAdditionalFactorstoConsider

Theexamplesillustratedabovehavemadeuseofoneilluminatortocompletethedisplay.Therearemanyapplicationsthatwillrequirenumerousilluminatorsinordertomeetthelightingdesignobjectives.Theactualnumberofilluminatorsthatwillbeneededwilldependonmanyvariablesincludingthesizeofthedisplay,thefibersused,thefibermix,thenumberorportstheilluminatorpossessesandthesizeofthecommonend(s)thatwillattachtoeachilluminator.

TheSizeoftheDisplay

Calculatingthetotalpointsoflightrequiredforanyapplicationisbasedonmultiplyingtheareaofthedisplaybythe

Figure8-6.Locatingtheilluminatorawayfromthedisplaysignificantlyincreasestheamountof

fiberneedtocompletetheapplication.

fiberdensity.Thisexamplewillmakeuseofanareathatis100'x100'withafiberdensityof3.Thetotalareais10,000squarefeet(100'x100').Multiplying10,000bythefiberdensityof3equals30,000.Thismeanstherewillbe30,000pointsoflightinthedisplay.

TheNumberofFibersUsed

Basedonthe10,000-square-footareacalculatedaboveandafiberdensityof3,thisapplicationwillrequire30,000individualfiberstocompletethedisplay.

TheFiberMix

Sincemoststar-likedisplaysarecomposedofvaryingfibersizes,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountthatasthediameterofthefiberincreases,thenumberoffibersthatwillattachtotheilluminatordecreases.

TheSizeoftheCommonEndandtheSizeoftheFibersDeterminesHowManyFibersWillAttachtotheIlluminator

Asdiscussedinchaptertwo,thenumberoffibersthatwillattachtotheilluminatorisgenerallybasedontheoverallsize(diameter)ofthefiberandthediameterofthecommonend.Forthepurposeofthisexamplewewillutilizeacommonendthatcanaccommodate1,000fibersofastandardfibermix.Dividingthetotallightpoints(30,000)bythenumberoffibersthatwillattachtothecommonend(1,000)givesthetotalnumberofone-portilluminatorsneededtocompletethedisplay.Forthisexample30illuminatorsarerequired(30,000/1,000=30.)

TheNumberofPorts

Manymanufacturersofferilluminatorsthathavemorethatoneport.Thenumberofilluminatorsneededinadisplaycanbesignificantlyreducedbasedonhowmanyportseachilluminatorpossess.Forexample,usingtheexampleabove,if30oneportilluminatorsarerequiredtocompletethedisplay,only15twoportilluminatorswillbeneeded.

LayingOuttheApplication

Thedesignermustconsiderthelocationofeachilluminatorusedintheapplicationinordertoensureageneralconsistencyoflightoutputthroughoutthedisplay.Typically,manufacturerswillsuggestdividingtheapplicationintosectionsbasedonhowmanyilluminatorsarerequiredtocompletethedesign.Sinceitwasdeterminedthatthe10,000squarefootdisplaywillrequire30one-portilluminators,thelayoutapproachwillentaildividingthetotalareainto30individualsections.Figure8-7illustrateshowthetotalareaisdividedintosectionsbasedontherequirednumberofilluminators.

The30illuminatorsarenowlocatedintheindividualsectionsofthe

display.Iftwoportilluminatorswereused,15sectionswouldbedefined.Figure8-8illustrateshowilluminatorsarelocatedintheindividualsections.

Figure8-7.Thedisplayisdividedintosectionsbasedontherequirednumberofilluminators.

Figure8-8Locatingtheilluminatorsinindividualsections.

CalculatingtheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheLargerApplication.

Theproceduresfordeterminingthetotalamountoffiberneededforthelargerdisplayarethesameasthosethatareusedwhenonlyoneilluminatorisrequired.Averagefiberlengthisobtainedbasedonthelocationoftheilluminatorforeachindividualsection.Theaveragefiberlengthisthenmultipliedbytherequirednumberoflightpointsinthesection.Thisfigureisthenmultipliedbythetotalnumberofsectionsintheapplicationandequalstheamountoffiberneededtocompletethedisplay.Manyapplicationswilldivideintosectionsthatarenotalwaysthesamesize.Whenthisoccursindividualsectiontotalscanbeaddedtogethertoobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededfortheapplication.Figure8-9Illustratestheshortestandlongestfibersinasection.Usingthisexample,oncethefiberneedsaredeterminedforonesection,itwillbemultipliedby30(thetotalnumberofsections)toobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededforthedisplay.

Figure8-9.Theshortestandlongestfibersinthesection.

CreatingtheStar-LikeDisplay,theFormula:

Thefollowingformulareviewsthestepsandproceduresintroducedabove.Thesestepsshouldbeusedasaguidelineforplanningtheapplication.Actualfiberandilluminatorneedsshouldbedeterminedinconjunctionwiththesystemorfibermanufacturer.

HowManyFibersWilltheStar-LikeDisplayRequire?

A)Obtainthesquarefeetofthedisplayarea.

B)Determinefiberdensity.Howmanypointsoflightarerequiredpersquarefootofdisplay?

C)Multiplythesquarefeetoftheapplicationbythefiberdensity.

Thisnumberwillequalthetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplication.

HowManyIlluminatorsWillBeNeededtoCompletetheDisplay?

A)Obtainthetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplication(seeabove).

B)Atthespecifiedfibermix,determinethemaximumnumberoffibersthatcanbeaccommodatedinthecommonend.(Mayrequireinputfrommanufacturer.)

C)Dividethetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplicationbythemaximumnumberoffibersthatcanbeaccommodatedinthecommonend.

Thisnumberwillequalhowmanyone-portilluminatorsareneededtocompletetheapplication.

WhatIstheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheDisplay?

A)Determinethelocationoftheilluminator

B)Calculatetheshortestandlongestfiberusedintheapplicationbasedonlocationoftheilluminator.Remembertoaddbetween3and5feetofextrafibertoboththelongestandshortestfiber.

C)Obtaintheaveragefiberlengthbyaddingthelengthoftheshortestandlongestfibertogetherandthendividingbytwo.

D)Multiplytheaveragefiberlengthbythenumberoflightpoints(fibers)intheapplication.

Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.

ForLargerApplications:

A)Iftheapplicationrequiresmultipleilluminators,dividetheapplicationintosectionsbasedonhowmanyilluminatorsarerequired.

B)Determinethelocationoftheilluminatorforeachsectioninthedisplay

C)Calculatetheshortestandlongestfiberusedinthesectionbasedonthelocationoftheilluminator.Remembertoaddbetween3and5feetofextrafibertoboththelongestandshortestfiber.

D)Obtaintheaveragefiberlengthbyaddingthelengthoftheshortestandlongestfibertogetherandthendividingbytwo.

E)Multiplytheaveragefiberlengthbythenumberoflightpoint(fibers)inthesection.

Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletethesection

F)Ifallofthesectionsintheapplicationareofequalsizesandlightpoints,multiplythesectiontotalbythenumberofsectionsintheapplication.Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.

G)Ifthesectionsareofvaryingsizes,addtheindividualsectiontotalstogethertoobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.

InstallingtheStar-LikeDisplay.

Thefollowingstepsareincludedinthischaptertoprovidethedesignerwithgeneralinformationrelatedtoinstallingthestar-likeapplication.Thisinformationwillallowthedesignertoincorporateinstallationrequirementsintothelayoutandspecificationprocess.Theexactinstallationrequirementsshouldbeobtainedfromthesystemmanufacturer.

TheIlluminator

Asdiscussedaboveandinpreviouschapters,theilluminatorshouldalwaysbemountedperallpertinentcodesandguidelinessuppliedbythemanufacturer.

Moststar-likeapplicationsmakeuseofilluminatorsthatcontainalowvoltagehalogenlampofaparticularwattage.Illuminatorspossessingmorethanoneportwillcontainmorethanonelamp.Whendevelopingtheapplicationlayout,thedesignershouldtakeintoaccountthephysicalandoperationalcharacteristicsoftheilluminator.Figure8-10illustratesaoneandtwo-portilluminator.Someilluminatorswillpossessmultipleports.

Ventilation

Themajorityofilluminatorsusedinthestar-likeapplicationarecooledbyfan.Theilluminatormustbeinstalledso

Figure8-10.Aone-andtwo-portilluminator.

thatproperaircirculationisalwaysmaintained.Manufacturerssupplyguidelinesastohowcloseilluminatorsshouldbelocatedtoparticularsurfacesandotherilluminatorsusedintheapplication.Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer'sguidelines.Keepinmindthatcoolingfanswillmakeacertainamountofnoise.

AccesstotheLampandComponents

Illuminatorsmustbemountedsothatmaintenancepersonnelhaveeasyaccesstothelampandothersystemcomponents.Thecomponentsareoftenaccessedbyremovingorliftingthetoppaneloftheilluminator.Whenconsideringilluminatorlocation,thedesignermustallowenoughclearanceroomforanymovingparts.Figure8-11illustrateshowlampsandothercomponentsareaccessedinmanyilluminators.

Figure8-11.

Thedesignermusttakeintoaccountanymovingpartswhenlocatingthe

illuminator.

IlluminatorMountingAccessories

AsdiscussedinChapter6,somesystemandcomponentmanufacturesofferilluminatormountingaccessories.Theseaccessoriesareusedtosecurelymounttheilluminatorinareaswherenoappropriatemountingsurfacesareavailable.Figure8-12illustratesanilluminatormountingbracketthatcanbeusedindropceilingsorbetweenarchitecturalsupportsbasedonthemanufacturer'smountingguidelines.

Figure8-12.Anilluminatormountingbracket

InstallingtheFibers

Formanystar-likeapplicationsthesystemcomponentsarriveatthejobsitewithallofthefibersalreadyattachedtotheappropriatecommonend(s).Thismeansthatthefactorywherethecomponentsweremanufacturedassembledthesystembasedonmanyoftheproceduresintroducedabove.Themanufacturerwilloftensupplyamapindicatingwhatcommonendgoeswithwhatilluminatorandwhatfiberwithinthecommonendgoestowhatareaofthedisplay.Thisisparticularlyhelpfulwhenmultipleilluminatorsareused.Iftheapplicationisnotpreparedbythemanufacturer,theinstaller(s)willassemblethecommonend(s)basedonmanyoftheproceduresoutlinedinChapter5.Ineithercase,thefollowingparagraphswilloutlinesomeoftheinstallationtechniquesrequiredtoinstallthe

displayafterthecommonend(s)havebeenassembled.Asmentionedearlier,thestar-likedisplaycanbemountedinalmostanymedium.Thestepslistedbelowillus-

trateinstallationinastandarddropceiling.However,theprocedurescanbeappliedtoalmostanymaterial.Figure8-13illustratesanilluminatorandcommonend.

Figure8-13.Thestar-likedisplayfiberopticcomponents.

BeginningtheInstallation

Oncetheilluminator(s)andcommonend(s)arematchedtothecorrectsectionsofthedisplay,theilluminator(s)canbemounted.Mounttheilluminatorbasedonallmanufacturer'sguidelinesandaccordingtoallelectricalcodes.Itisnotrecommendedthatthecommonend(s)beattachedtotheilluminator(s)atthistime.

TheCeilingPanels

Theceilingpanelscannowbepreparedforthefibers.Theinstaller(s)shouldbeveryfamiliarwiththeexactfiberplan.Althoughthemajorityofstar-likeapplicationsplacethefibersinrandomlocationsthroughouttheapplication,someapplicationswillfollowadefinitepattern.Mostmanufacturerssuggestthatatleasttwopeopleareinvolvedintheinstallationprocess.

Holesarecreatedintheceilingtilesasperthespecifiedfiberdensity.Thismeansifafiberdensityof4wasspecified,4holespersquarefootwillbeprepared.Generally,holesaredrilledusinga1/16''drill

bit.Theinstallershouldpracticedrillingintotheceilingtilebeforetheactualinstallationprocessbe-

gins.Aftertheholesareprepared,theceilingpanelsaremountedintheceilingframe.Itisoftenrecommendedthatafewpanelsbepreparedatatimeandthepanelslocatedthegreatestdistancefromthesectionilluminatorbeinstalledfirst.Figure8-14illustratesthepreparedceilingpanelsbeinginstalled.

Figure8-14.Installingtheceilingpanels.

Afterthefirstfewceilingtilesareinstalled,thecommonendcontainingallofthefibersrequiredinthesectionisbroughttothedisplay.Althoughthecommonendcanbeattachedtotheilluminatoratanytime,itisofteneasiertoinstallthedisplaywithoutthecommonendattached.Thisallowsforacertainamountofflexibilitywhenmovingandinstallingindividualfibers.Theindividualfibersareinsertedintothepreparedholesfromabovesothatafewinchesofeachfiberextendstowardthefloor.Figure8-15demonstrateshowfibersareinsertedintothepanels.

Oncethefirstfewpanelsareinstalledandalloftheappropriatefibersinserted,thefibersaregluedintoplacefromabove.Onlygluethathasbeenapprovedbythefibermanufacturershouldbeused.Figure8-16demonstrateswherethefibershouldbeglued.

Figure8-15.Insertingthefibersintotheceilingpanels.

Figure8-16.Gluingthefibersintoplace.

Additionalceilingpanelscanbepreparedwhilethegluedries.Continueinstallingtheceilingpanelsuntiltheentiresectioniscompleted.Iftheceilingistobepainted,somemanufacturer'srecommendthatitbedonewhilethefibersareintheextendedpositionasillustratedinFigure8-17.Paintingshouldnotbedoneuntilthegluehasthoroughlycured.

Figure8-17.Completingthesection.Paintingshouldtakeplace

afterthegluehasdriedwiththefibersintheextendedposition.

Onceanynecessarypaintingiscompetedthefiberscanbecutsothattheyareflushwiththeceiling.Thefibersusedinthestar-likedisplaycanbecutwithavarietyoftoolssuchasanelectroniccutteroranyothersharpblade.Somemanufacturersincludeacutterwiththesystempackage.Figure8-18illustratesthecompletedstar-likedisplay.

Figure8-18.Thefibersarecutsotheyareflushwiththeceiling.

GlassFibers

Star-likedisplaysemployingglassfibersaretypicallypre-assembledatthefactorywherethesystemismanufactured.Whiledisplaysmakinguseofplasticfiberrequireonefibertoprovideapointoflight,numerousglassfibersarebundledtogethertoformindividualtails.Eachtailwillprovideapointoflight.

Thesesystemsaregenerallyspecifiedbasedonmanyofthestepsoutlinedinthischapter.Whenglassfibersareemployedinastar-likedisplay,theentiresystemgenerallyarrivesatthejobsitereadytobeinstalled.Manufacturerssupplydetailedinstallationguidelinesforeachapplicationandnocuttingisrequired.

Manymanufacturersofglassfibersystemsofferastandardstar-likedisplaypackage.Thesesystemstendtobeshippedquicklybecausetheyarepre-built.Designersgenerallyspecifythesesystemsforparticularareasbasedonthenumberoftailsincludedinthepackage.

Chapter9PerspectivesOnthePresentandFutureofFiberOpticIllumination

WheretofromHere?

Itwasstatedintheintroductionthat"thefiberopticilluminationindustryhasalwaysbeeninastateofgrowth."Thedesignershouldrealizethatthisgrowthcannotbeoveremphasized.

MoreApplications

Lightingapplicationsmakinguseoffiberopticsareincreasingatanastoundingrate.Refrigeratedareas,Navyships,medicalenvironmentsandlocationsthatareeasilyvandalizedarebutafewofthenewestinstallationstakingplace.Theautomotiveindustryisexperimentingwithfiberopticsfortheinteriorandexteriorlightingofautomobiles.Similarexperimentsareoccurringinallaspectsofthetransportationindustry,withfiberopticsystemsalreadyinstalledinairplanes,shipsandtrains.Studiesrelatedtopotentialapplicationsareconstantlyoccurring.

IndustryGrowth

Intheearly'90s,tradeshowsdevotedtolightingfeaturedonlyasmallnumberofcompaniesrepresentingfiberopticssystems.Atthe1997LightFairInternational,therewerenumerouscompaniesshowinganextensivearrayoffiberopticlightingproducts.Newsystems,accessoriesandevencompa-

niesmanufacturingfiberopticcomponentshaveincreaseddramaticallyinthelastfewyears.

Somecompanieshavealwaysmanufacturedentiresystems(illuminators,fibersandaccessories),whileothershavemanufacturedonlyfiberorparticularsystemaccessories.Manyofthenewercompaniesarequitespecializedandmanufactureonlyilluminatorsorfixturestobeusedwithcomponentsthatareproducedbyothers.Thegrowththathasbeenoccurringinthefieldcanbeattributedtothetechnologicaladvancementsrealizedbyalmosteverycompanyinvolvedintheproductionoffiberopticsystemsorcomponents.

AttenuationImprovements

Advancementsrelatedtoreducingattenuationareallowinglighttotravelfartherdistancesinfibers.Afewyearsago,dependingonthelightingdesignrequirements,thegenerallypublishedfigurerelatedtohowfarlightshouldtravelinanend-emittingfiberaveraged30feet.Althoughissuesrelatedtowavelengthabsorptionarealwaysanimportantfactorinfiberopticlightingdesign,todaymanymanufacturerswillstatethat60feetistheacceptabledistance.

OpticalControl

Considerableimprovementshavealsobeenmadeintheareaofopticalcontrol.Theabilitytofocusmorelightontotheinputendsofthefibershasincreasedefficiencyinmanysystems.Asanexample,Chapter7includesacasestudyofthefiberopticinstallationattheHardRockCafeatUniversalStudiosinFlorida.Theoriginalsystemwasdesignedutilizing11illuminators,eachcontaininga400Wmetalhalidelamp.Atthetimeofthiswriting,theentireinstallationisbeingrelampedtoreplacethe400Wlampswithametalhalidelampthatdraws150watts.Thereflectorsusedinthesystemhavebeennewlydesignedsothatmorelightfromthelampentersthefibers.The

manufacturerclaimsthatthebrightnesslevelsachievedbyusingthenewreflectorsareequivalenttothelevelsthatwereobtainedwiththe400Wlamp.

LightSourceDevelopment

Evenwithreducedattenuationandbetteropticalcontrol,itisintheareaoflightsourcedevelopmentwhereanincredibleamountofsuccessisbeingrealized.Lampdesignhasbecomeapriorityinmostcompaniesconcernedwithmanufacturingfiberopticilluminationsystemsorcomponents.Tremendoussuccesshasbeenobtainedutilizingsulfurlamptechnology.Althoughstillintheexperimentalstage,therearesomeilluminatorsbeingmanufacturedutilizingasulfurlampasthesourceoflight.Thislamphasallowedfortheentireilluminatortobere-designed.Onecompanyusingthislamptechnologyhasdevelopedaprototypeilluminatorthatcontains53individualports.Thisilluminatorisnotyetavailabletothedesigner,butresultsofpreliminarytestinghavebeenextremelyimpressive.Asadvancementsandcontinuedsuccessoccursintheareaoflightsourcedevelopment,designerswillhavetheoptiontoutilizefiberopticsinanextraordinaryamountofeverydaylightingapplications.

TheNeedforMoreEducation

Evenwiththeextraordinarygrowthoccurringinthefieldoffiberopticillumination,thereremainsveryfewwaystoeffectivelyandobjectivelylearnaboutthissubject.Currently,themainsourceofeducationpertainingtothistechnologyisavailablebymeansoftheliteratureproducedbythefiberopticlightingindustry.Itshouldbenotedthatagreatdealofthisguidewaswrittenusingarticlesandproductinformationsubmittedbythefiberopticmanufacturingcommunity.Informationcollectedincludedproductandsystemdescriptions,installationinformationandtechnicalreports.Inthefallof1995,aconferencewasheldinBostononthesubjectof"PlasticOpticalFibers"andincluded,forthefirsttime,seminarsonplasticfibersusedforilluminationpurposes.Papersandinformationpresentedandavailableatthisconferencewerealsousedinwriting

thisguide.Additionalmaterialswerecollectedfromlightingdesignerswhohaveworkedwithand/orresearched

fiberopticlightingsystemsaswellasfrominterviewswithindividualsworkinginthefieldoffiberoptics.Thereislittleotherinformationavailablethatspecificallyaddresseslightingdesignutilizingthistechnology.Therefore,themanybrochuresofferingvaryingamountsofinformationrelatedtoparticularsystemsandcomponentsbecomeakeysourceforeducation.

ItwasstatedintheIntroductionthatthespecificgoalofthisbookwastoallowthereadertogainabasicunderstandingoffiberopticillumination.Thisbasicunderstandingisvitalifthepromotionalliteraturesuppliedbythefiberopticindustryistobeusedasatrueeducationaltool.Itisextremelyimportanttonote,however,thatthemajorityoftheliteraturethatiscurrentlyavailableoriginatesfromcompaniesorindividualswhoaredirectlyassociatedwithpromotingparticularproductsorsystems.Therefore,thistypeofliteratureisoftenriddledwithinformationdesignedtopromoteratherthaneducate.Studyingoneortwocompanybrochures,orevenmorecompletepublicationsauthoredbyindividualswithinthefiberopticcommunity,willneverofferthereaderenoughinformationtomakeaneducatedchoiceastowhatsystemmaybethebestforaparticularapplication.Evenliteraturewhichappearstobetheresultofthoroughresearchandcomparesparticularproductsdoesnotofferthereaderenoughinformation.Marketingliteratureconsistingofcomparedsystemsmayillustrateoneambiguouspositiveaspectaboutacompetitorsproductwhilealsodescribingseveraloverlydetailednegativeaspects.

LookingattheBenefitsObjectively

Almostallpromotionalliteraturewillincludestatementsaboutthedirectbenefitsoffiberopticilluminationsystems.Thesestatementsusuallyincludetheabilitytoprovidelightthatisfilteredofcertainwavelengths,noheatattheilluminatedsurface,flexibilityindesign,

andincreasedoptionsrelatedtocreatingspecialeffects.AsdiscussedintheIntroduc-

tion,however,manystatementsincludedinpromotionalliteratureallowforacertainamountofconfusiontooccur.

"FiberOpticLightingCanSaveEnergy"

Therearemanyapplicationswherefiberopticshavebeeninstalledtoreplaceatraditionallightingsystem.Insomeoftheseapplications,energycostshavebeenreduced.Butpromotionalliteraturethatincludesstatementsclaimingsavingsinenergycostsmustbeviewedwithacertainamountofskepticism.Therearefactorsrelatedtoenergycoststhatneedtobeconsideredforeachspecificapplicationandwillincludeissuesrelatedtothelightingefficiencyoftheformersystemversestheefficiencyofthefiberopticsystem.AsdiscussedinChapter4,onlyacertainpercentageofthelightemittedfromthelampwillreachthedesignedenvironment.Insomedesigns,lightcomingfromthefibersanddirectedtoprecisepointsmayprovetobemuchmoreefficientthanthegenerallightingprovidedbyatraditionalsystem.Inmanydesigns,however,theamountoflightlost,combinedwiththeoverallenergyconsumed,makefiberopticsystemsarelativelypoorlightingchoice.

Otherfactorswillincludeissuesrelatedtotheenvironment'sHVACsystem.Becauseheatismanagedatalocationawayfromtheilluminatedsurfaces,lessairconditioningmayberequiredinthedesignedenvironmentthanwhenatraditionallightingsystemisutilized.Butthesepotentialenergysavingswillalsobebaseduponthespecificrequirementsoftheapplication,andwillincludefactorsrelatedtotheefficiencyoftheHVACsysteminuse.

"FiberOpticLightingCanReduceMaintenanceCosts"

AsdiscussedinChapter1,changingonelampinaneasilyaccessiblelocationwillrequirelesstimethanchangingmultiplelamps.However,thehoursworkedbymaintenancestaffmaynotalwaysbe

reducedbecauseafiberopticsystemisinstalled.AsdiscussedinChapter4,dirtanddustaccumulatingwithinoronthecomponentsofafiberopticsystemwill

reducetheirefficiencytremendously.Someapplicationswillrequireanextensivemaintenanceprograminordertoensurethatanadequateandevenlightoutputismaintained.Similartoanypotentialsavingsinenergy,reductionsinmaintenancecostswillberealizedonlyinparticularapplications

Chapter7introducedanapplicationwherebothenergyandmaintenancecostswerereducedafterafiberopticsystemwasinstalled.TheConEdisonClockTowerreplacedatraditionallightingsystemandsignificantreductionsinenergyconsumptionandmaintenancecostswererealized.Theinitialcostofafiberopticsystemiscurrentlyhigherthanthecostofatraditionallightingsystem.However,inapplicationswhereenergyandmaintenancecostsarereduced,theoriginalhigherpricecanoftenbeoffsetoveraperiodoftime.Anyreductioninenergyormaintenancecostswillbedeterminedbytheexactsystemandcomponentsutilized,buttherearemanyapplicationswherefiberopticshavepaidforthemselvesinarelativelyshortperiodoftimebyreducingthesecosts.

PhotometricData

Photometricdataisanareaofcompanyliteraturethatthedesignershouldpayparticularattentionto.Althoughnotallcompaniesprovidephotometricreportsintheirstandardliterature,companiesthatdoprovidethisinformationtendtodevelopstandardprocedureswhencompilingreportsrelatedtotheirownproducts.Differentcompaniesmayuseatotallydifferentsetofcriteriatoobtaintheirresults,however.Itbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible,forthedesignertocomparetheefficiencyofvarioussystemswhendifferentstandardsareusedtoobtainphotometricinformation.

Fiberspeak

Anadditionalareathatmaycauseconfusionwhenreadingvariouspromotionalliteraturecanbefoundinindustryvocabularydifferences.Manufacturersandrepresentativesdonotalwaysusethesamewordstodescribethesamebasicpieceof

equipment.Somecompanyinformationwilldescribeacomponentutilizingaparticulartermwhileotherswillcallthesamebasicpieceofequipmentsomethingentirelydifferent.

ThedifficultiesthedesignerexperiencespertainingtoavariedindustryvocabularyandinconsistentphotometricdatahasbeenrecognizedbytheLightingIndustryResourceCounciloftheInternationalAssociationofLightingDesigners(IALD).TheRemoteSourceLightingCommitteewasformedtodevelopaseriesofstandardizationmaterialstobeusedinthefiberopticlightingindustry.AccordingtoanarticlewrittenbyKenYarnell,IALD,IESandpublishedinthe1996January/FebruaryIssueofArchitecturalLighting,thefirstsuccessfuleffortsofthiscommitteewereinestablishingastandardlistofvocabularyforunderstandingandtalkingabout''remotesourcelighting."Thesetermsincludemanythathavebeenusedinthisbook(andobtainedfromYarnell'sarticle)suchas"illuminator"and"ferrule."Thiscommitteehasbeenreferredtoinotherpapersbut,asofthiswriting,anyadditionalinformationrelatedtotheworkofthecommitteeappearstobeunavailableorincomplete.Giventheamountofmarketingandpromotionalmaterialscurrentlycirculatingrelatedtofiberopticillumination,itseemsthatimplementingthefindingsofthecommitteewhateverthesefindingsmaybethroughouttheentireindustrymaytakeconsiderabletime.

TheRoleoftheSalesRep

Salesrepresentativescanalsobeusedasasourceforeducation.However,designersseekingadviceandinformationfromcertainrepresentativesmaynotgainabetterunderstandingthanthosewhostudyonlycompanypromotionalliterature.Althoughtherearerepresentativeswhopossessagreatdealofknowledgerelatedtothissubject,thereareotherswhodonottotallyunderstandallofthetechnologyinvolvedwithfiberopticillumination.And,similarlyto

readingcertaincompanypromotionalmaterials,whenspeakingwithparticularrepresentatives,itcanbedifficulttosortoutwhatisabsolutefact

verseswhatmaybeacustomizedsalesprogram.Inflatedclaimsofproductsuperioritycombinedwiththedowngradingofcompetingproductsissomewhatcommonintheindustry.

GettingtheBestResults

Itmustbestatedthattherearenumerousfiberopticinstallationsthathavefailedintheirabilitytoprovidethedesiredlightingresults.Therearemanyreasonswhyafiberopticsystemmaynotperformasanticipatedbythedesignerorend-user.Inmostcases,thisfailurecanbeattributedtoeitherthewrongsystembeingselectedfortheparticularprojectorthedesigner'sgenerallackofunderstandingrelatedtothelimitationsofthetechnologyinvolved.

Thereareoptionsavailabletoassistthedesignerinlearningmoreaboutproductandsystemlimitations.Certaincompanieswillsupplythedesignerwithtechnicalpackagesthatofferspecificguidelinesrelatedtocomponentlimitations.However,evenwhenworkingwiththebestprintedtechnicalinformation,itisalmostimpossibleforthedesignertocompletelydevelopanentiredesignwithoutsubstantialinputfromsystemmanufacturers.Almostallmanufacturershaveengineersandtechnicalpeopleavailabletoassistinansweringquestionsrelatedtopotentialdesignsandproductlimitations.Speakingwithcompanytechnicalpeopleshoulddetermineifaparticularcomponentorsystemisrightforaparticularapplication.Itisnotuncommonformanufacturestoreferdesignerstoanothercompanywhoseproductsmaybebettersuitedtotheparticularapplicationbeingdiscussed.Inaddition,sometechniciansmayadvisethatamock-uptakeplacetodetermineifthesystemwillperformtothespecificrequirementsofthedesign.

Mock-Ups

Manydesignersperformmock-upsofanentireprojectbeforethe

actualsystemisspecified.Itisoftendifficulttovi-

sualizewhatcharacteristicsafiberopticsystemwillofferwithoutfirstworkingwiththesysteminanenvironmentwhereitcanbemanipulatedandtestedtomeettheneedsofaparticulardesign.Workingandexperimentingwithvarioussystemsisanexcellentwaytomakecomparisonsonwhatsystemscanofferthebestresultsforparticularapplications.

GettingInformationfromtheInternet

TheInternethasrecentlybecomeasourceofinformationrelatedtofiberopticillumination.Mostcompanies,aswellasmanyindependentdesignersworkingwithfiberoptics,haveWebpagesdevotedtotheirproductsandservices.Althoughmainlyservingasmarketingtools,somecompaniesdoofferacertaindegreeofeducationalinformation.Manycompaniesincludephotographsofilluminators,fibersandfixtures.Applicationphotographsareoftenincluded.TheseWebsitesareaccessiblebysearchingtheWebutilizingthecompany'snameorbysearchingunder"fiberopticlighting"andmovingaroundfromthere.

HowDidItWork?

Obtainingreferencesfromend-usersoffiberopticilluminationsystemsisanexcellentwaytolearnmoreaboutparticularsystemsandmanufacturers.Themajorityofcompanypromotionalliteratureprovidesalistingofcompaniesthathaveutilizedtheirproducts.Contactingindividualsandaskingquestionsrelatedtooverallsystemperformancecouldprovidevaluableinformationwhenconsideringaparticularsystem.

Companiesarenottheonlyplacetoobtainreferences.Everydesignerorarchitectwhohasworkedwithfiberopticshasastorytotell.Theseindividualsaremorethanwillingtosharetheirstoriesrelatedtoparticularinstallations.Theabilitytohearfirsthandofactual

successesandproblemsrelatedtoprojectdesign,communicationwithmanufacturersandrepresentatives,aswellasoverallexpectationsversusactualresultsallowsforalearningexperiencethatcouldneverbereal-

izedbystudyingprintedmaterialsalone.Obtainingreferenceswithdesignerswhoareworkingwithorhaveworkedwithvariousproductsisanextremelyinterestingwayoflearningmoreaboutthistechnology.

MoreInformationIsNeeded

Clearly,thereisaneedformuchmoreinformationonthesubjectoffiberopticillumination.Readingpromotionalliteratureandengaginginconversationswithrepresentatives,technicalpeopleandfellowdesignersdoesnotprovidenearlyenoughinformationinorderforthedesignertomasterthissubject.Designersshouldnothavetorelyoncompanypromotionalliteratureasthemainsourceofeducationpertainingtothistechnology.Thedesigncommunityisinneedofadditionaleducationalmaterials.

Thefirststepfollowingthedevelopmentofstandardsrelatedtothissubjectistocallupontheprofessionalsintheindustrytoeducatethedesignerswhowillbeworkingwiththistechnology.Personseducatedinthissubjectneedtocommunicatemorewiththelightingdesigncommunitythroughqualitynon-biasedwritings,seminarsandconferences.Educatorswhoteachcoursesinlightingdesignmustthoroughlyfamiliarizethemselveswiththistechnology.OrganizationssuchastheIALDandtheDesignersLightingForumneedtoexpandtheireffortsindevelopingunderstandableprogramstoeducateandpromotethistechnologytotheirmembers.Studentsandprofessionalsinvolvedinlightingdesignneedtobeinformedbymeansofliteraturethatisdevelopedspecificallyforeducationalpurposes.Onlywhendesignersandusersoffiberopticilluminationsystemsbecomefamiliarwiththistechnologybasedonqualityeducationwillthemysterysurroundingfiberopticilluminationcompletelydisappear.

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Hughes,Robert,ProductManager,LightingandTrafficSystems,NorthAmerica,SchottFiberOpticsInc.Interviewbytheauthor,29July,1996,Southbridge,MA.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.

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IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.IlluminationTechnologies.EastSyracuse,NY,October1992.CompanyInformationCatalog.

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Kay,Gersil,N.WhatisGlassFibre-OpticsArchitecturalLighting?ConservationLightingInternational,Philadelphia,PA,1995.

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AppendixIIASelectionofManufacturersandRepresentativesCableLiteCorporation15510WrightBrothersDriveDallas,TX75244-2137Tel:972-239-5483Fax:972-239-5489

ConservationLightingInternationalLtd.1901WalnutStreet,Suite9BPhiladelphia,PA19103Tel:215-568-0923Fax:215-568-4572

DramaLighting,Inc.49AyerRoadAmherst,NY14221Tel:716-626-9300Fax:716-626-1055

EdmundScientific101EastGloucesterPikeBarrington,NJ08007Tel:609-573-6250Fax:609-573-6295

FiberopticSpecialties,Inc.P.O.Box215Ellenton,Florida34222Tel:800-523-5520Fax:813-723-1441

Fiberstars,Inc.2883BayviewDriveFremont,CA94538Tel:800-327-7877510-490-0719Fax:510-490-3247

FiberOpticsInternational,Inc.309SouthCloverdaleStreetSuiteD-2Seattle,Washington98018Tel:206-762-2922Fax:206-762-3503

GELightEngineGELightingNelaPark#5438Cleveland,Ohio44112Tel:216-266-6876Fax:216-266-2987

LightingServicesInc.2KaysFriesDriveStonyPoint,NY10980-1996Tel:914-942-2800Fax:914-942-2177

LightlyExpressedLtd.

803EighthStreetSalem,Virginia24153Tel:540-387-2104Fax:540-387-2105

LumenyteInternationalCorporation350LearAvenueCostaMesa,CA92626Tel:714-556-6655Fax:714-556-9329

MitsubishiInternationalCorporationFiberOpticsDepartment520MadisonAvenueNewYork,NY10022Tel:212-605-2392Fax:212-605-1746

NoUVIRResearchUSHighway13&Loop532RR4Box748Seaford,DE19973Tel:302-628-9933Fax:302-628-9932

OpraKeyInternational,Inc.150East52ndStreetNewYork,NY10020Tel:212-308-6100Fax:212-308-8686

PinpointFibreoptics,Ltd.P.O.Box7085BeverlyHills,CA90212Tel:310-276-3437Fax:310-276-3475

RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.

32961CallePerfectoSanJuanCapistrano,CA92675Tel:714-248-0141Fax:714-248-0142

RohmandHaasCompany100IndependenceMallWestPhiladelphia,PA19106Tel:215-592-3437Fax:215-592-3300

SchottCMLFibreopticsLLC45BartlettStreetMarlborough,MA01752Tel:508-229-8312Fax:508-229-8323

StarFireLighting317SaintPaul'sAvenueJerseyCity,NJ07306Tel:800-443-8823Fax:201-656-0666

SumitaOpticalGlass,Inc4-7-25,HarigayaUrawa,Saitama,338JapanTel:48-832-3165Fax:48-824-0734

SuperVisionInternational,Inc.8120PresidentsDriveOrlando,Florida32809Tel:407-857-9900Fax:407-857-0050

TorayIndustries600ThirdAvenueNewYork,NY10016Tel:212-697-8150

Fax:212-672-4279

AppendixIIIHowtheResearchWasDoneTheidealeadinguptothisprojectwasoriginallyconceivedinthesummerof1995.TheauthorhadagreedtoperformresearchonfiberopticilluminationsystemsforthedepartmentofLightingDesignatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYorkCity.CompletionofthisprojectwouldserveashisthesisfortheLightingDesigngraduateprogramhewasenrolledinatParsonsSchoolofDesign.Preliminaryideasinvolvedcompilingacollectionoflightingapplicationswherefiberopticswereutilizedandwritingabouteachproject.Thegoalwastoprovideapicturerepresentationoffiberopticilluminationsystemsinusewhilealsoexplainingwhytheywereselectedtoaccomplishtheparticularlightingdesignobjective.Itbecameapparentthatthisprojectwouldonlyhavevaluetothepotentialreaderiftheconceptsrelatedtohowfiberopticilluminationsystemsworkwerealsoincluded.Therefore,theauthorbeganresearchthatinvolvedassemblingtechnicalinformationaswellasphotographsanddescriptionsofcompletedapplicationswherefiberopticshadbeenutilized.Hisgoalwastokeepthesubjectasnon-technicalaspossiblewhileexplaininghowthetechnologyisusedinillumination.

InNovemberandDecemberof1995,afiberopticdatabasewiththenamesofcompaniesandindividualsworkingwithfiberopticswasdeveloped.Themajorityofthedatabaseconsistedofcompanieswhomanufactureorrepresentvariousfiberopticsystemsorcomponents.Someofthedatabaseincludeddesigners.Thesenameswereobtainedfromseveralpublications.AdditionalnamesweresuppliedbyLindsayAudin,EnergyManageratColumbiaUniversity.Mr.Audinhadrecently

developedaprogramonfiberopticlightingfortheDesignersLightingForumofNewYorkandhegraciouslysharedhisdatabaseforthatprogramtothisproject.Atotalof85namesandorganizationswerecompiledintheoriginaldatabase.

InconjunctionwiththedevelopmentoftheoriginaldatabaseandalsoinDecemberof1995,aletterwasdevelopedthatwouldserveasthefirstformofcommunicationintroducingthisprojecttotheindividualsandorganizationsincludedintheoriginaldatabase.ThisletterwasmailedtoeverypersonandorganizationinthedatabaseduringthemonthsofFebruaryandMarch1996.Astheprojectprogressedandmorenameswereaddedtothedatabase,asecondletter,modifiedslightlyfromthefirst,wassentbyfaxto30moreindividuals.Thisbroughtthetotalnumberofnamesinthedatabaseto105.

Phonecallsweremadetopersonsincludedinthedatabaseapproximately10daysaftertheletterwassent.Thepurposeofthisinitialphonecallwastoaskindividualsoftheirinterestintheprojectandforcontributionsofinformationoractuallightingapplications.Thetelephoneprocesswashelpfulinnarrowingthedatabasedowntospecificindividualsandorganizationsthatcouldbethemosthelpfultothisguide.Theauthorspokewithmanypeoplewhowereextremelyinterestedintheproject,butwhowereeithertoonewinthefiberopticindustrytohaveprojectstosubmit,orwhosecompanygoalwasnotrelatedtofiberopticsforilluminationpurposes.Manyindividualswereuntiringintheireffortstohelpwithsubmittinginformation,answeringquestionsandinofferingadditionalnamesofpeopletocontact.ThemonthsofFebruary,March,AprilandMayof1996weredevotedtothisprocess.

Itwasintheearlyspringof1996thatprojectswerebeginningtobereceived.Astandardsetofquestionsthatcouldberelatedtoallprojectssubmittedwasdevelopedatthistime.Thegoalofhaving

thesequestionsansweredwastoprovidetheendreaderofthisguidewithabasicconsistencywhenviewingcompletedinstallationssothateachprojectcouldbeeasilyunderstoodandrelatedtooneanother.Thelistofquestions

wasmodifiedovertime.Someindividualsandorganizationsobjectedtoparticularquestions,especiallythosethatwererelatedtocostsandend-userfeedback.Andbecausethequestionnairerequiredadditionaltelephonecommunication,responsessuffered.Overall,atotalof61projectswerereceived,butonlyasmallfractioncontainedanswerstothequestionsfromtheoriginalquestionnaire.Themajorityofprojectsincludedonlyaphotographwithnoexplanationspertainingtohowthesystemwasdesigned.Onequestionnairewasansweredcompletely.Theinformationpresentedintheapplicationpresentationsectionofthisguideisbaseduponquestionsthatweredevelopedafterallprojectshadbeenreceived.

Throughoutthisperiodandintothebeginningofthesummerof1996,theauthorresearchedarticlesandinformationrelatedtofiberopticlighting.Individualcomputerfileswereset-uprelatingtoparticulartopicsonthesubject.Severalofthesedocumentscontainednumerouspagesfilledwithnotesobtainedfromseveraldifferentsources.Themajorityofthesesourcescontainedonlysmallpiecesofinformationoneachofthetopicdiscussed.Itwasbyassemblingalargecollectionofinformationfromnumeroussourcesthatallowedforworktoprogress.Thesedocumentswereconstantlyaddedtoandedited.ItwasduringthemonthsofJune,JulyandAugust1996thatthesecomputerfilesbecametheindividualchaptersincludedinthisbook.

Theauthor'sphonecallworkthroughoutthisperiodprovidedhimtheopportunitytomeetandinterviewseveraldesignersandcompanyrepresentativesworkingwithfiberoptics.Informationobtainedduringtheseinterviewsprovedinvaluabletohisowneducationinthesubjectand,whereappropriate,isincludedinAppendixI,Bibliography.TheauthorwasalsofortunatethroughoutthisperiodtoworkwithZackZanolli,lightingdesigneratTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,onfiberopticmock-upprojectstakingplacewithintheMuseum.TheexperienceattheMuseumwasextremelyhelpfulinrelating

informationreceivedinprinttoactualfiberopticsystems.

TheInternetwasanothersourceforresearch.ManylightingcompaniescurrentlyhaveinformationavailableontheInternet,butthemajorityofthisinformationseemstobeorientedtowardmarketingandpromotionalstrategies.Theamountofinformationonfiberopticsislimitedwithsomesitesmarked"underconstruction."However,communicatingtocertaincompaniesviae-mailbecamecommonpracticethroughouttheresearchprocess.

Thefollowingthreepagesincludetheoriginalletterthatwassenttonamesincludedinthefirstdatabase,theoriginallistofquestionsthatweretobeaskedofallprojectssubmitted,andthemodifiedletterthatwasfaxedtoindividualswhowereaddedtothedatabaseasresearchprogressed.

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