SOCIOLOGY

PROJECT REPORT OF

SOCIOLOGY

TOPIC - FEMINISM - LIBERAL AND

RADICAL APPROACH

Submitted to:- Compiled by:-

Mrs. Daizy Mohit Munjaal

Roll No. 197/11

8th Semester

UILS, PU

Chandigarh

INTRODUCTION

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The term ‘feminism’ is derived from the Latin word, ‘femina’ meaning women, it originally

meant ‘having the qualities of females’. It began to be used with reference to the movement for

sexual equality and women’s rights, replacing womanism in the 1890s. Dictionaries define it as the

advocacy of women’s rights based on the belief in the equality of the sexes, and in its broadest use

the word refers to everyone who is aware of, and seeking to end, women’s subordination to

man.Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having

coined the word "feminism" in 18371. Feminism is a collection of movements and

ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and

social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women

in education and employment. Depending on historical moment, culture and country,

feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist

historians assert that all movements that work to obtain women's rights should be

considered feminist movements, even when they did not apply the term to themselves.

While other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist

movement and its descendants. But, basically a feminist advocates or supports the rights

and equality of women. Feminist theory, which emerged from these feminist movements,

aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and

lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to

issues such as the social construction of sex and gender. Some of the earlier forms of

feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated

perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multi-cultural forms of

feminism. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical

fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology,

economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis and philosophy.

Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics,

power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political

relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and

interests.

1 Goldstein, L., Early Feminist Themes in French Utopian Socialism: The St.-Simonians and Fourier, (1982), Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.43, p. 92

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In the present discussion I would like to discuss feminism in the Indian context

which over a period of time has carved a distinct and separate niche for itself due to its

several distinctive features based mainly on the on the diversified socio-cultural facets of

India. Feminism in India has been a long, unsettled debate which is still persistently

prevalent in various forms. Indian feminist researchers or Women Studies researchers

have not yet been able to define “Indian Feminism”. Unlike western feminism, Indians don’t

have any clear cut corpus of writing which can categorically be referred to as “feminism” or

“feminist writing/theory”. Until the 1990s, Indian feminist scholars were not engaged in

academic conversation within the corpus of what is a western-dominated international

academic feminism. Indian feminism has always been looked down upon due to the

sparseness of theoretical writings which could grasp the crux of the problems of the Indian

women, it’s inevitable and unavoidable association with “western feminism” and the

existence of a recurrent sense of evasion, ambivalence and ambiguity towards the term

“feminism” itself. Feminism in India can be defined as a set of movements aimed at

defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal

opportunities for Indian women. It is the pursuit of women's rights within the society of

India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world, feminists in India seek gender

equality: the right to work for equal wages, the right to equal access to health and

education, and equal political rights2. From anti-dowry campaigns in the '80s, to anti-rape

demonstrations in the '90s, Indian feminism has taken a trajectory that has brought it into

closer contact with the spontaneous struggles of women throughout the country. Indian

feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India's patriarchal society,

such as inheritance laws and the practice of widow immolation known as Sati. Despite the

progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face

many issues of discrimination. India's patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining

land-ownership rights and access to education challenging. In the past two decades, there

has also emerged a disturbing trend of sex-selective abortion. To Indian feminists, these are

seen as injustices worth struggling against.

2 Ray, Raka Fields of Protest: Women's Movements in India, (1999) University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, page 13.

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The above mentioned topic has been discussed in a detailed and analytical manner

in various upcoming sections.

Various phases of the feminist movement in India.

Unlike the Western feminist movement, India's movement was initiated by men, and

later joined by women. The efforts of these men included abolishing sati, which was a

widow's death by burning on her husband's funeral pyre, the custom of child marriage,

abolishing the disfiguring of widows, banning the marriage of upper caste Hindu widows,

promoting women's education, obtaining legal rights for women to own property, and

requiring the law to acknowledge women's status by granting them basic rights in matters

such as adoption. The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues

come under the spotlight and reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for

Indian women were conducted by men. However, by the late 19th century they were joined

in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protégées and other individuals directly

affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women's education. By the late 20th

century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women's

own organizations. By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed

regarding "women's activism". This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to

create 'logical' and organic links between feminism and Marxism, as well as with anti-

communalism and anti-casteism, etc. The Constitution of India did guarantee 'equality

between the sexes,' which created a relative lull in women's movements until the 1970’s3.

The history of the Indian feminist movements can be categorized into three different

phases with each phases dealing with the various aspects of the same issues.

First phase: 1850–1915

The colonial venture into modernity brought concepts of democracy, equality and

individual rights. The rise of the concept of nationalism and introspection of discriminatory

practices brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations.

This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the social evils of sati

3 Kumar, Radha, The History of Doing- Kali for Women, New Delhi, (1998).

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(widow immolation), to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce

illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through

legal intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints

they faced under Brahminical traditions. However, efforts for improving the status of

women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late nineteenth century, as

nationalist movements emerged in India. These movements resisted 'colonial interventions

in gender relations' particularly in the areas of family relations. In the mid to late

nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts made to

'modernize' the Hindu family. This included the ‘Age of Consent’ controversy that erupted

after the government tried to raise the age of marriage for women4.

Second Phase: 1915 - 1947

During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationalism became

the pre-eminent cause. Claiming Indian superiority became the tool of cultural revivalism

resulting in an essential model of Indian womanhood similar to that of Victorian

womanhood: special yet separated from public space. Gandhi legitimized and expanded

Indian women's public activities by initiating them into the non-violent civil disobedience

movement against the British Raj. He exalted their feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation,

sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those in the public arena. Women-only

organizations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) and the National Federation of

Indian Women (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to the scope

of women's political participation, women's franchise, communal awards, and leadership

roles in political parties.5The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as

'feminism' that was responsible for the creation of localized women's associations. These

associations emphasized women's education issues, developed livelihood strategies for

working class women, and also organized national level women's associations such as the

All India Women's Conference. AIWC was closely affiliated with the Indian National

Congress. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, it worked within the nationalist and

anti-colonialist freedom movements. This made the mass mobilization of women an

4 Gangoli, (2007), pages 88–89.5 Sen, Amartya, The Many Faces of Gender Inequality -The New Republic, 17 September 2001; p. 39

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integral part of Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very important part of various

nationalist and anti-colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the

1930s6. This phase of the nationalist played a significant role in bringing out the women as

feminists. The mass participation of the women on the freedom movement developed their

critical consciousness regarding their rights and status in the independent Indian society.

This period can be termed as the transitional period whereby the women replaced the men

as the flag-bearers of the feminist movement in India.

Third Phase - Feminism: Post-1947

Post independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were

allowed to engage in the workforce. Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the

sexual divide within the labor force. However, feminists in the 1970s challenged the

inequalities that had been established and fought to reverse them. These inequalities

included unequal wages for women, relegation of women to 'unskilled' spheres of work,

and restricting women as a reserve army for labor. In other words, the feminists' aim was

to abolish the free service of women who were essentially being used as cheap capital.7

Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing

the inequalities not just between men and women but also within power structures such as

caste, tribe, language, religion, region, class etc. This also posed as a challenge for feminists

while shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus within efforts to

ensure that fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for

another. Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement

has gone beyond treating women as useful members of society and a right to parity, but

also having the power to decide the course of their personal lives and the right of self-

determination8.

6 Ibid.7 Supra 3.8 Ibid.

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Change in the perspective of feminism (after 1990’s) and its

impact on the Indian society.

The feminism in the Indian society has come a long way since the independence. In

the due course it has underwent a series of changes making it more bold and dynamic. The

feminist movement that started in India during late 1990’s can be termed more as a radical

feminism but still there certain feminist who deny to this fact.

Radical Feminism was the result of the disillusionment resulted from the failure of

Marxist Feminism. According to radical feminists, in order to liberate women, it is not

capitalism that is to be overthrown but patriarchy. Above all, they opposed the growing

sexual crimes against women. The analyses of radical feminism points out the need for

women to escape from cages of forced motherhood and sexual slavery. Hence, the

immediate goal of radical feminist politics is for women to regain control over their own

bodies. In the long run, the radical feminists seek to overthrow patriarchy and to create a

new society informed by the radical feminist values of wholeness, trust and nurturance of

sexuality, joy and mildness. Radical Feminists see men’s domination of women as the result

of the system of patriarchy which is independent of all other social structures – that is, it is

not a product of capitalism9.

On the other the feminists who deny the fact that the feminist movement taking

place in the Indian society is a radical form of feminism argue that the particular movement

going on in the Indian society cannot be termed as a radical form of feminism rather than it

is sort of feminist movement with the post-modern philosophy forming it’s basis.

Postmodern feminism emerges from two main sources. First, out of criticisms of modernist

9 Freedman, Feminism, p. 5.

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feminist theorizing and second, perhaps obviously, from postmodern and post-structural

thought. Following this, postmodern feminists are equally keen to expose the flaws and

weaknesses of traditional feminisms, particularly with regard to their modernist

commitments. One of the significant aspects is the destabilization of the category of

woman. It is certainly the case that postmodernists are keen to develop ideas about the

social world that do not rely on the traditional understanding10. Contemporary postmodern

feminism thus emerges out of the conflicts within feminist theorizing and the influence of

postmodernist thought. Postmodern feminism thus is aligned with the deconstructive

strategies of postmodernism in general but has a specific interest in gender and the

feminine/female11.

The contemporary Indian women’s movement is a complex, variously placed, and

fertile undertaking. It is perhaps the only movement today that encompasses and links

such issues as work, wages, environment, ecology, civil rights, sex, violence, representation,

caste, class, allocation of basic resources, consumer rights, health, religion, community, and

individual and social relationships. Perhaps the most significant development for women in

the last few decades has been the introduction of 33% reservation for women in local,

village-level elections. In the early days, when this move was introduced, there was

considerable skepticism. Another development to watch with interest is the diasporic links

among Indian women’s groups. This diasporic network is unusual and could become an

important source of mobilization against communal identity politics.

Impact of feminist movement in Indian Society

The feminist thought and feminist movement in the west have some influence on the

woman’s movement in the developing country like India. Yet, feminism as it exists today in

India has gone beyond its western counter parts. Uma Narayan rightly puts it third world

feminism is not mindless mimicking of western agenda in one clear and simple sense. Until the

1990s, Indian feminist scholars were not engaged in academic conversation within the corpus

of what is a western-dominated international academic feminism. Indian feminism has always

been looked down upon due to the sparseness of theoretical writings which could grasp the

10 Zalewski, Feminism after Postmodernism, p. 17.11 Zalewski, Feminism after Postmodernism, p. 26.

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crux of the problems of the Indian women, its inevitable and unavoidable association with

“western feminism” and the existence of a recurrent sense of evasion, ambivalence and

ambiguity towards the term “feminism” itself. The impact of the feminism in the Indian society

can be best in the areas of the literature, academics and in the politics. Here, I would like to cite

certain feminist who are in the same line regarded as the best known feminists of India. Indian

writing in English is now gaining ground rapidly. In the realm of fiction, it has heralded a new

era has earned many laurels both at home and abroad. Indian woman writers have started

questioning the prominent old patriarchal domination. Today, the works of Kamla Markandaya,

Narayan Sahgal, Anita Desai, Geetha Hariharan, Shashi Deshpande, Kiran Desai and Manju

Kapur and many more have left an indelible imprint on the readers of Indian fiction in English.

A major development in modern Indian fiction is the growth of a feminist or women centered

approach, that seeks to project and interpret experience, from the point of a feminine

consciousness and sensibility. As Patricia Meyer Specks remarks:

“There seems to be something that we call a women’s point of view on outlook sufficiently

distinct to be recognizable through the countries.”12

Shobha De, a supermodel, celebrity journalist and the well-known author stands as a

pioneer in the field of popular fiction and ranks among the first to explore the world of the

urban woman in India. She has given importance to women’s issues and they are dealt with

psychology in her style of intimate understanding. Her novels indicate the arrival of a new

Indian woman, eager to defy rebelliously against the well-entrenched moral orthodoxy of the

patriarchal social system, eager to find their identity in their own way. Her female characters

break all shackles of customs and traditions that tie them in the predicaments and rein in their

freedoms and rights. They are not against the entire social system and values but are not ready

to accept them as they are. Her female characters are modern, strong and take bold decisions to

survive in society. This secures her position in literature as a feminist novelist.

Similar, is the situation in the area of politics. Discussing the importance of the

women in the scene of Indian politics would be a futile job because for the fact that the

active participation of women in the politics in India is second to none. But, there is a high

level of discrepancy in the ratio of men and women when the question is about the top

positions. Although the provisions for a women reservation bill has been made whereby

12 Patricia Meyer Specks, Feminist Sensuality, Antwerp, 2002, p. .37.

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33% reservation is given to the women in the local and the state govt. have been all but

futile. Although the situation do seem to be grim in the arena of the politics but the

situation is developing gradually with the women being given certain positions of

authority. But, still it is far from satisfactory.

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To critically analyze the Indian feminism in relation to the western

feminism.

Feminism has attracted attention due to its impact in social change in the Indian society.

While feminism in some forms is generally accepted, dissenting voices do exist. Many people

object to the feminist movement as trying to destroy traditional gender roles. They say that men

and women have many natural differences and that everyone benefits from recognizing those

differences. Although the Indian women movement can legitimately claim a rich, unique history,

but the recent upheavals are forcing us to reconceptualise (or, it could be argued, to

conceptualise for the first time) the basic concepts of patriarchy, gender and empowerment. It is

not for nothing that some of the current debates affecting women, such as those around a uniform

civil code, or reservations for women in Parliament none of them new issues --- are nonetheless

raising far reaching questions for which existing answers are inadequate. More to the point, the

current mood in feminist circles is anything but complacent. The Indian feminism has been

criticised on certain points chalked out in relation to the western feminist movement.

Most criticisms of Feminist perspectives have stemmed from Feminists themselves

(this is sometimes referred to as an "internal critique" (that is, one that comes from various

writers

working within the same broad perspective). The following points refer to this kind of

internal critique...

1. Liberal Feminism

a. Liberal Feminists have focused their attention upon "equality of opportunity" between

males and females. They have largely ignored the study of social structural factors that

other Feminists see as a basic cause of inequality in Capitalist societies (for example,

patriarchy and the inequalities created by Capitalist forms of economic production).

b. Liberal Feminists have been criticised for their failure to understand that in any society

that is fundamentally unequal in its economic and social structure "equality of opportunity"

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is a fairly meaningless concept. In a society divided along class lines and driven by

economic exploitation, women - like working class men - are at a fundamental economic

disadvantage.

2. Radical Feminism.

a. There is no real evidence that women constitute a "sex class", since it is clear that apart

from a common biological structure, women may have no real shared interests "as a class

apart from men". It is difficult to see, for example, what "common interests" are shared by

upper class and working class women - aside from the fact that they are women. The

experiences and life chances of upper class females are significantly different to those of

working class females where the position of the former may be closer to that of men than

to their working class counterparts.

b. The primary importance attached to patriarchy downgrades the importance of concepts

like social class and ethnicity. For Marxist Feminists, patriarchy itself stems from the way in

which women are generally exploited economically.

c. To view women as a "sex class" whose basic interest involves emancipation from men

would leave unresolved the problem of economic exploitation.

d. Radical Feminism tends to overlook the fact that the general position of women in

society has changed over time and this can only be explained in terms of wider economic

and political changes in society.

e. Socialist Feminists do not see women as a "sex class", nor do they see all men as "the

class enemy". Not all male / female relationships are characterised by oppression and

exploitation, for example. Technological "solutions" to female exploitation are also viewed

with suspicion (since control over development and exploitation of technology has

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traditional been a male preserve), as is the idea that a matriarchal society is somehow

superior and preferable to a patriarchal society.

f. Radical Feminists over-emphasise factors that separate women from men their biological

anatomy in particular - over-stating the significance of biological differences - and also

unsubstantiated / uncritical assumptions about male and female psychology.

3. Socialist Feminism.

a. This form of Feminism underplays the significance of Capitalist forms of exploitation.

b. Socialist Feminism is criticised for being neither revolutionary nor radical enough to

create lasting solutions to the problem of female economic and social exploitation.

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CONCLUSION

It is important to recognize that for a country of India’s magnitude, change in male

female relations and the kinds of issues the women’s movement is focusing on, will not come

easy. For every step the movement takes forward, there will be a possible backlash, a possible

regression. But this backlash could lead to positive results. The women, who are denied

opportunities to come forward and hence oppressed, are more motivated to take up the cause

more seriously. This makes possible for women who can aspire to, and attain, the highest

political office in the country, and for women to continue to have to confront patriarchy within

the home, in the workplace, throughout their lives. The women’s movement in India today is a

rich and vibrant movement, which has spread to various parts of the country. It is often said that

there is no one single cohesive movement in the country, but a number of fragmented campaigns.

Activists see this as one of the strengths of the movement which takes different forms in different

parts. While the movement may be scattered all over India, they feel it is nonetheless a strong

and plural force.

In India, women’s movement is beginning to show results. The society accepts the

equality of both sexes. The Indian society is still patriarchal and hence the space for women to

actualize and to assert themselves is limited. Yet we hope that women’s movement will lead to a

more radical feminist movement. This does not mean that we are going to ape the Western

feminism. An authentic Indian way of being feminine has to be sought and put into practice by

the Indian feminists. Third wave feminism suggests that women are different and distinct. The

well-being of the society depends on each man and woman; neither can develop without the

other. The feminist movement in India invites Indians to affirm the uniqueness of the feminine,

to cherish their uniqueness and thus giving them a right place in human society, because it is a

woman who ultimately is responsible for the uplift of the society. Therefore, the future is

predicted to be bright and clear with dreams unlimited.

Feminism of today marches into this heaven of freedom where the world has not been

broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls of division, exploitation, domination, over

the other. That is the dream of feminism, the desire of a true human society, of a true human

world. As Margaret Mead has rightly pointed out, ‘feminism is fundamental to the change’. It is

fully integrated into evolution and it implies a real transformation of humanity, of the totality,

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not only for women, but also for men. On this depends in a big way the revival of the world; it is

a consciousness which has already begun to emerge slowly and insistently, but the repercussions

are yet to be foreseen and identified.

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