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From the Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (www.m-w.com):

Main Entry: an·thro·po·mor·phismPronunciation: -"fi-z&mFunction: nounDate: 1753: an interpretation of what is not human or personal in terms of human or personal characteristics : HUMANIZATION

Anthropomorphism

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Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism: Object-oriented programming

works like human organizations. Each object will

communicate with another one by sending messages. So

the software objects work by just sending those messages.

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Responsibility-Driven Design (RDD)

• Detailed object design is usually done from the point of view of:

– Objects have responsibilities

– Objects collaborate

– Similar to how we conceive of people

• In RDD we do object design such that we will ask questions such as:

– What are the responsibilities of this object?

– Who does it collaborate with?

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Figure 3.1 on page 31 - Architectural Layers

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Sample Problem 1

• What object should receive this message?

• How should objects interact to fulfill the request?

???

Presentation

ApplicationLogic

Video Store

Record Rental

Video ID

...

...

...

... ...

Clerk

appLogicRequest()

Now what happens?

• How do we justify out decision?

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Sample Problem 2

• How should the objects interact in order for changes in the data to be reflected in the two displays?

Graphic

Display

List

Display

Data

User

• How do we justify out decision?

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•idea was first put forth by Christopher Alexander (1977) in his work on architectural design principles

•a pattern is a named problem/solution pair that can be applied in new contexts

•advice from previous designers to help designers in new situations

•rules of thumb - not new ideas

•There are many books on the subject

•Design Patterns by Erich Gamma et al

•Java Design Patterns: a tutorial, by James Cooper

Patterns

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• Guiding principles to help us assign responsibilities

• GRASP:

– General Responsibility Assignment Software Patterns

– Very very fundamental, simple, basic principles of object design.

GRASP Patterns Fundamental Principles of Object Design

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GRASP Patterns

• Expert

• Creator

• Controller

• Low Coupling

• High Cohesion

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Expert

• Assign a responsibility to the object that has the information necessary to fulfill it.

– “That which has the information, does the work.”

– Not a sophisticated idea - rather, it is common sense

– E.g., What software object calculates grand total?

• What information is needed to do this?

• What object or objects has the majority of this information.

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Expert Example.

In the NextGEN POS application, it is necessary to know the grand total of a sale.

Where should that responsibility be placed?

{We will be assigning a few responsibilities in this example}

Expert suggests that we should look for a class that has the information needed to determine the grand total.

If our design is just beginning, we look at the Domain Model and bring the pertinent conceptual classes into the class model

Pages

221-226

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What information is needed to determine the grand total?

It is necessary to know all the SalesLineItem instances of a sale and to sum of their subtotals. A Sale instance is aware of these … Sale is the Expert choice for having the responsibility of knowing the grand total.

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Expert leads us to place the method getTotal() in Sale

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A line item knows its quantity and the associated Product, so it is the expert … SalesLineItem should determine the line item subtotal

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Only the Product Specification knows the price; so Product Specification needs a method ...

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Creator

• What object should have the responsibility to create an X?

– Ignores special-case patterns such as Factory.

• Choose an object C, such that:

– C contains or aggregates X

– C closely uses X

– C records instances of X objects

– C closely uses X objects

– C has the initializing data for X

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Example: Who should be responsible for creating a SalesLineItem? Since Sale “contains” SalesLineItems, Creator suggests Sale as the candidate for this responsiblity

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:Register

:SalesLineItem

makeLineItem(qty)

create(qty)

:Sale

We assign the responsibility of creating a SalesLineItem to Sale – Sale will have a method makeLineItem

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???

Presentation

ApplicationLogic

Video Store

Record Rental

Video ID

...

...

...

... ...

Clerk

appLogicRequest()

What object should this be?

What object in the domain (or application layer) receives requests for work from the UI layer?

Controller

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Basic Principle: Interface objects should not have responsibility for handling system events

Assign responsibility to a Controller, an object in the application/domain layer. Choose, or invent, an object in the application layer for this.

Controller: a non-user interface object responsible for receiving or handling a system event.

In the Process Sale Use Case, there are several system events:

makeNewSale, enterItem, endSale, makePayment

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makeNewSale

enterItem

endSale

makePayment

Part of Figure 9.1

System Operations

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In general there are two candidates:– An object whose name reflects the use case.

• e.g. ProcessSaleHandler

– An object whose name reflects the overall server, business, or large-scale entity.

• A kind of “façade” object• e.g. Register, Store, Cashier

Choose, or invent, an object in the application layer for this.

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Other choices are Store and Cashier

Register was chosen over store as it is conceptually closer to the system event

Register was chosen over Cashier as it is really an actor the runs the Register

Thus Register is the logical choice

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Figure 16.16 Allocating System Operations

Register has been chosen to handle all system operations

Ch 20 shows the code for this

Use Case handlers are chosen

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public void endSale ( ){sale.becomeComplete();}public void enterItem ( String id, int quantity ){ProductSpecification spec = catalog.getSpecification( id );sale.makeLineItem( spec, quantity );}public void makeNewSale ( ){sale = new Sale();}public void makePayment (Money cashTendered ){sale.makePayment( cashTendered );}

System event handling in Register

The Controller doesn’t do

much … delegates work to

other objects … it receives

the request & coordinates

fulfillment

We examine the code just

to get an idea of its

organization

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The Controller pattern promotes reuse

•UI code is not intertwined with system event code

•UI can be replaced

•Multiple UIs could be utilized

When a legal sequence of operations must occur, state information must be kept … the Controller object is an excellent choice for this information

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Every business system should have a controller

A controller is class whose job it is to coordinate the system events

The controller sees to it the messages are sent to the correct objects in the model – it delegates

The reason to have a controller is to separate the business model from the visual logic called a view

This is often called a MVC (Model View Controller) separation

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Advantage - is that the changes to the model do not affect the GUI (view) logic

Advantage - is that the changes to the GUI (view) do not affect the model logic – could have multiple GUIs – GUI is replaceable

It provides a buffer between the visual (view) and the business logic (model)

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Figure 16.7 - desirable coupling of interface layer to domain layer

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Low CouplingHigh Cohesion

We use the same example, “creating a payment”, for both of these patterns.

Both patterns happen to suggest the same collaboration

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Low Coupling

• When we need to assign a responsibility to a class, we should do so such that coupling remains low.

• Coupling: a measure of how strongly one element is connected to, has knowledge of, or relies on other elements.

• Low coupling: not dependent on too many other elements

• High coupling results in

– classes that are harder to understand in isolation

– changes to related classes force local changes

– classes that are harder to reuse

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Low Coupling

• Example

Assume we need to create a Payment instance … what class should do this?

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Creator pattern suggests Register

Figure 16.9 Register creates Payment (Collaboration diagram)

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An alternative design is given in Figure 16.10

Which of the two designs, figures 16.9 and 16.10, supports lower coupling?

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High Cohesion

• How do we assign responsibilities so that cohesion remains high?

• Cohesion: a measure of how strongly related and focused the responsibilities of an element are.

– a measure of how single purpose the attributes and behavior within a class are

– Better that attributes and behavior in classes be related.

• A class with highly related responsibilities and which does not do excessive amounts of work has high cohesion

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High Cohesion

•When we need to assign a responsibility to a class, we should do so such that cohesion remains high

•cohesion: a measure of how strongly related and focussed the responsibilities of an object are.

–a measure of how single purpose the attributes and behavior within a class are

–It is better that attributes and behavior in classes be related.

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High Cohesion

•Rule of Thumb (ROT): A class with high cohesion has a relatively small number of methods, with highly related functionality, and does not do too much work … it collaborates with others to get work done.

•Low cohesion results in classes that

–are hard to comprehend

–hard to reuse–hard to maintain

–delicate - constantly affected by change

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High Cohesion

•ExampleAssume we need to create a Payment instance … what class should do this?

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First solution given in Figure 16.11 (note this Sequence Diagram represents the same logic as the Collaboration diagram in Figure 16.9)

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Figure 16.12 gives a second solution (note this Sequence Diagram represents the same logic as the Collaboration diagram in Figure 16.10)

Which solution supports higher cohesion for Register?

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Note, when considering which class to assign the responsibility of creating a payment, the text arrives at the same solution when applying both principles