FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin - Jun00leb

8/9/2019 FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin - Jun00leb

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ISSN 0014-5688 USPS 383-310

Features

Departments

6 Focus on Corrections

Correctional Criminal Investigators

An Effective AssessmentCenter Program

By Thurtson L. Cosner and

Wayne C. Baumgart

BiometricsBy Stephen Coleman

Violent CrimesAmong Juveniles

By William Andrew Corbitt

A Medical Model forCommunity Policing

By Joseph A. Harpold

Flight as Justification for Seizure

By Michael E. Brooks

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June 2000Volume 69Number 6

United StatesDepartment of Justice

Federal Bureau ofInvestigation

Washington, DC20535-0001

Louis J. FreehDirector

Contributors' opinions andstatements should not be

considered an endorsement bythe FBI for any policy, program,

or service.

The Attorney General hasdetermined that the publicationof this periodical is necessary in

the transaction of the publicbusiness required by law. Use of

funds for printing this periodicalhas been approved by theDirector of the Office of

Management and Budget.

The FBI Law EnforcementBulletin (ISSN-0014-5688) is

published monthly by theFederal Bureau of Investigation,

935 Pennsylvania Avenue,N.W., Washington, D.C.

20535-0001. Periodical postagepaid at Washington, D.C., and

additional mailing offices.Postmaster: Send addresschanges to Editor, FBI LawEnforcement Bulletin, FBI

Academy, Madison Building,Room 209, Quantico, VA 22135.

Editor

John E. OttAssociate Editors

Glen Bartolomei

Cynthia L. Lewis

Bunny S. Morris

Art Director

Brian K. Parnell

Assistant Art Director

Denise Bennett Smith

Staff Assistant

Linda W. Szumilo

Internet Address

[email protected]

Cover Photo

Don Ennis

Send article submissions toEditor, FBI Law Enforcement

Bulletin, FBI Academy, MadisonBuilding, Room 209, Quantico,

VA 22135.

From fingerprints and hand geometry tofacial and voice recognition, biometrictechnology offers a wide range ofidentification applications.

Police managers can use assessmentcenters to select the best person for theposition and develop a standard for theirdepartment.

18Police officers can identify behaviorpatterns of juvenile offenders andimplement crime prevention strategies.

22

The police can borrow techniques fromthe medical profession to treat andprevent disease in the communities theyserve.

17 Book Review

Victims of Crime

23

Officers must be able to support areasonable suspicion of criminal activityto justify a temporary investigativedetention.

28


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June 2000 / 1

irst used in the 1920s, as-

sessment centers were de-signed to select and promote

law enforcement. Regardless of the

occupation, common elements existfor an effective assessment center.While an assessment center basedprogram may not incorporate all ofthe criteria of a true assessment cen-ter, certain components exist thatall assessment programs shouldinclude. By becoming familiar withthese components, agency adminis-trators can improve the chancesof providing an assessment pro-gram that will best benefit their de-partment.

One key principle for a success-ful assessment center is that allmembers of the assessment processmust work as a team. Properly ex-ecuted, an assessment program

should provide considerable ben-

efits to a department. Not only willthe best candidate be selected forthe position, but others in the de-partment will benefit as well.

Getting to Know the Department

In making an effective assess-ment program, the assessors firstshould become familiar with thetargeted department or unit. This preliminary step involves meetingwith all individuals involved in theassessment process, including cur-

rent employees, their supervisors,and any others who work with theincumbents. Additionally, consid-ering the current trend toward com-munity-oriented policing, assessors

F personnel in occupations rangingfrom engineers and scientists to sec-retaries, military personnel, andeven spies. More specifically, an as-sessment center is a process, not aplace, which a team1 uses to identifyand evaluate leadership skills forhigher level positions, such as su-pervisors and managers. These cen-ters2 gained widespread acceptancein the United States during the

1950s and 1960s. Today, variousorganizations view the assessmentcenter as a widely accepted tool forrecommending personnel actions ina variety of occupations, including

Mark C. Ide

An EffectiveAssessmentCenter Program

Essential ComponentsBy THURSTON L. COSNER, Ph.D. and WAYNE C. BAUMGART


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2 / FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin

may meet citizens who could inter-act with incumbents. In fact, citi-zens may even serve on the assess-ment team.

In addition to learning the du-ties of the employee and their placewithin the department and the com-munity, members can glean a betterunderstanding of the prevailing so-cial climate of the work environ-ment from this meeting. Becausesubtle differences exist between po-

lice departments, each assessmentteam needs specific informationto generate a useful program. Forexample, some police departmentsemphasize enforcement andSWAT-type activities, while otheragencies may be more community-and public relations-oriented. Fi-nally, this first step of the assess-ment process can generate adepartmentwide self-study that cancontinue far beyond the assessmentprocedure.

Reviewing andUpdating Job Descriptions

The second step in conductingthe assessment involves both the

assessment team and key depart-ment personnel reviewing and up-dating current job descriptions.This activity should remain a jointventure between the assessmentteam and the department. Unfortu-nately, this important step in theassessment process often gets ne-glected. However, the job descrip-tion can tell the assessment team asmuch about the department as itdoes about the position itself. Re-

viewing current job descriptionsalso can help clarify the roles of theindividuals who currently hold the positions. The review process en-ables departments to take a rationaland reflective look at how they haveoperated in the past. If the depart-ment and assessment team can forgea high level of cooperation, all willbenefit. Managers must not under-estimate the importance of updating job descriptions. Departments thatoperate without updated job de-

scriptions may appear poorly man-aged, encounter huge legal risks,and lack an effective or defensibleemployee evaluation program.Agencies easily can rectify this

situation and put the departmenton track for more effective modelsof police performance by periodi-cally reviewing their position

descriptions.

Conducting Job Analysis

After the assessment team com-pletes the initial meetings and jobdescription process, they conduct a job analysis. The job analysis dif-fers from the job description, in that job descriptions usually appear innarrative form, list the kinds oftasks employees perform, and de-fine the jobs place within the orga-nization. In contrast, the job analy-sis, a process that involves currentemployees as well as supervisors,and in some cases, subordinates andclients, entails a breakdown of thenature, extent, frequency, and importance of specific types of be-havior that characterize the job(e.g., ability to negotiate, managetasks, or handle certain types ofsituations).

Job analysis stands as thelynchpin of any assessment center

program. Through job analysis,team members identify critical andimportant tasks of the position, de-velop an understanding of the un-derlying knowledge, skills, abili-ties, behaviors, and traits necessaryto perform the work, and measurethese elements through the assess-ment process.

After the team completes theassessment program and ranks thecandidates, they should make theresults of the job analysis available

to the entire organization. Updating job descriptions, coaching currentemployees, improving employeeevaluations, and identifyingtraining needs for personal and

Chief Baumgart heads the Euclid,Ohio, Police Department.

Dr. Cosner is a clinical andconsulting psychologist inprivate practice.


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professional development representsome job analysis functions. A post-assessment meeting with the assess-ment team to discuss the results of

the job analysis can aid departmentadministrators in strategic planningand can serve as a precursor tochange for the department. By fol-lowing this process, the effects ofchange will have a greater impactand remain more consistent withdepartment objectives and goals.

Meeting with Candidates

Upon completion of the jobanalysis, assessors should meetwith candidates to help them under-stand the assessment process. At themeeting, assessors should tell can-didates what to expect during theassessment process, as well as therating methods.

The meeting also allows candi-dates to ask any questions they mayhave about the procedure. Mostcandidates have an interest in theassessment procedure, the evalua-tion process, and the assessors ex-perience. Candidates have reported

that this meeting prepares them forapproaching the assessment proce-dure and that it helps reduce unnec-essary tension and stress that mostcandidates naturally experiencewhen preparing for an assessmentcenter program.

DevelopingAssessment Activities

After the meeting, the assessorsshould develop procedures that theywill use to evaluate the candidates.

Each procedure must have a contentand construct valid relationshipwith the results of the job analysis.Content validity refers to activities

culled from the potential types ofactual activities that the employees perform or will perform. Bycomparison, construct validity re-

lates to the underlying skills,knowledge, abilities, behavior, andtraits employees need to performthe critical or important aspects oftheir job.

exercises (e.g., the in-basket activ-ity, the fact-finding exercise, andthe group activity3) to evaluate thecandidates and observe how they

would react in certain situations.Because time and resource con-straints exist, each program will notuse all exercises and will varyamong departments.

In addition to using a mix ofthese exercises, the team should in-terview each of the candidates.Generally, to facilitate the inter-view, the candidates first shouldcomplete a personal and career atti-tude questionnaire. This question-naire can ask the candidates abouthow they spend their work day,their interests, what problems theybelieve currently exist in the depart-ment, and other relevant questionsfor the position. Assessors inter-weave the content-valid materialgathered in the interview and on thequestionnaire with other behavioralobservations made during theassessment activities to providea comprehensive picture of thecandidates.

Psychological Testing

In addition to including law en-forcement professionals, assess-ment teams should include a police psychologist to participate in as-sessment activities. These activi-ties, such as psychological tests andstructured interviews and simula-tion activities with construct valid-ity, can provide a more dynamicview of the candidate. Not only canassessment teams observe the

candidates visible behavior, butalso, through the testing process,they can more thoroughly assessunderlying characteristics and traits

Policeadministrators...have an obligationto participate fullyin the assessmentcenter program.

The job analysis identifies cer-tain characteristics, such as the abil-ity to analyze particular problems orthe ability to read, interpret, and ap-ply a department rule or regulationto a practical situation. If these con-

stitute critical or important tasks forthe job, then the exercises can mea-sure the skills and abilities relatedto these tasks. More than one exer-cise should exist to measure impor-tant aptitudes. If the procedure hasconstruct validity, assessors canlogically and empirically link theassessment activity and its relation-ship to the critical aspects of perfor-mance identified in the job analysis.An assessment team that cannot re-late its procedures to the job analy-

sis risks conducting an invalid as-sessment center.Assessment centers can use

a number of different types of


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the candidate may possess. Onone hand, it remains vital to under-stand the candidate from the per-spective of a seasoned veteran po-lice officer, yet, it remains equallyimportant to understand the candi-date from a psychological perspec-tive, which will often identify per-sonality characteristics thatobservation and interview do notalways reveal. Additionally, a psy-chological test can validate the ob-servations made during the assess-ment. If the test findings and theobservations agree, then the ratingis supported from a different per-

spective. If disagreements betweenthe results of the test and the behav-ior of the candidate should occur,then the assessors should reconcilethe differences.

Evaluating Performance

In the next step, typically two orthree assessors evaluate the candi-dates. This process should proceedwith each assessor compiling ascore for each of the candidates,based on their performance on the

assessment exercises. After each as-sessor completes this step, theyshould meet to discuss their ratingsand to achieve a consensus score foreach candidate. In those rare caseswhere assessors experience an im-passe, they should average the can-didates scores to achieve a finalrating for the characteristic in ques-tion. Additionally, assessors canuse psychological tests to settle anydiscrepancies.

Ranking the CandidatesAfter reaching a consensus on

each score, the assessors rank thecandidates by converting the values

into percentage ratings. By trans-forming the scores into percentages,the assessors can factor in the rela-tive weight for the assessment cen-ter score into the candidates over-all promotional evaluation scores,which may include results from pro-motional tests and departmental rat-ings. Assessors must evaluate can-didates against clearly definedstandards and not against eachother.

of the candidates. The assessorsshould destroy the report followingthe completion of the promotional process and the expiration of thelist.

Debriefing the Candidates

After the team makes the pro-motion selections, an opportunityshould exist for candidates to vol-untarily talk to the assessors andreceive feedback on their perfor-mances and reasons for their scores.This discussion of strengths andweaknesses not only informs candi-dates why they placed where they

did, but allows them to use the feed-back to capitalize on their strengthsand improve their weaknesses. Forthose individuals who have an inter-est, the session proves beneficial fortheir career development and thedepartment as a whole.

Conclusion

Promotional examinations of-ten are a period of great stress andturmoil in many departments. Whena department uses an assessment

center approach to promotions, thedepartment administrator shouldchoose the best possible team togain the highest quality results. Po-lice executives have the opportunityto make the entire process a positiveexperience for the candidate and thedepartment, as well.

Police administrators and theassessment team, along with others,have an obligation to participatefully in the assessment center pro-gram. Various comprehensive mod-

els exist of the essential compo-nents of an effective assessmentcenter program. In fact, few assess-ment centers contain all of the

...all membersof theassessmentprocess must

work as a team.

Compiling the Narrative ReportBecause of the considerableamount of information generatedfrom the assessment and to helpthe appointing authority understandthe reasoning behind a particularscore, the assessors should developa narrative report. The narrativereport should include the candi-dates behavior, their responses onthe test, and other appropriate char-acteristics observed during the as-sessment. Ideally, the narrative report assists both the appointingauthority and the candidates in un-

derstanding the reasons for a par-ticular score.

The narrative report should notbecome a part of any permanent file


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o the public, when criminals get convicted andsentenced to prison, it means that society no

In addition to the volume of crimes that occur,the prisons unique environment limits the ability ofoutside agencies to conduct successful investigations.Only correctional officers understand the physicallayout and daily operations of the prison. Perhapsmore important, the prison contains a subculture ofhardened criminals that bears only a slight resem-

blance to what exists on the street. Even the mostseasoned investigator would find it difficult toinvestigate a crime with uncooperative victims,witnesses, and, of course, perpetrators. On the street,people who witness crimes usually report them to thepolice, whereas in prison, inmates rarely reportcrimes. A code of silence, punishable by death ifviolated, keeps most inmates from talking to thepolice.

Additionally, outside the prison, witnessesusually give an account of an incident based on theirhonest perception of the event. Inmates, on the otherhand, go to great lengths to make sure they serve their

own best interests. Suspects and witnesses may evenstage crime scenes. Even the most cooperativeinmates will not give a complete account of whatthey have seen. They may answer direct questions butwill not offer any additional information unless

Tlonger has to worry about them. Unfortunately, thisrarely proves true. As the big steel door slams shutbehind them, many offenders merely graduate to ahigher level in their criminal educations. In fact,todays new breed of criminal is more motivated,

better organized, more dedicated to crime, and lessfearful of punishment than ever before. Some of theoffenders sophistication comes from the influx oforganized gang activity within the prisons.

Correctional facilities traditionally have managedtheir own operations successfully. At the same time,they have depended frequently on outside policeagencies to investigate felony crimes committed bytheir inmates. Yet, this arrangement can createproblems for the prison and cause frustration foroutside investigators for a number of reasons.

First, incarcerated offenders generate a hugenumber of cases. For example, in 1998, Colorado had

about 13,000 inmates and recorded more than 14,000violations. These violations ranged from minorinfractions to murder. No outside agency would havethe time or the resources to investigate all of theseprison crimes.

Focus on Corrections

Correctional CriminalInvestigatorsThe New Cops on the BeatBy William R. Bell

Digital Stock


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investigators specifically request it. Indeed, prisonfosters an us against them society, where failure tocooperate remains the rule of the day.

Finally, experienced investigators know that

intelligence gathering plays an essential role insolving, and possibly preventing, crimes. Thus,investigators who work in the prison full time stand inthe best position to gather the information they needto combat prison crime.

THE COLORADOEXPERIENCE

Prior to 1983, the ColoradoDepartment of Corrections, likemost prison systems, employedoutside law enforcement officersto investigate felony crimes.

Because the approach generatedfew prosecutions, the departmentabandoned it. Next, the departmenttried using corrections employeeswith law enforcement experienceto investigate some crimes withinthe prison. This approach, although surpassing pastefforts, fell short of expectations. A lack of supportfrom local law enforcement agencies and the districtattorneys office presented a significant obstacle tothe departments efforts.

To gain support from the criminal justice commu-nity, department investigators increased their contact

with outside agencies. During these contacts, theyshared valuable intelligence information. By demon-strating that they possessed considerable informationthat could benefit law enforcement officers outsidethe prison and clearing a large number of criminalcases, the investigative division began to earn cred-ibility with local law enforcement officers andprosecutors.

In the early 1990s, officials from the ColoradoDepartment of Corrections and the local districtattorneys office approached legislators with aproposal to make correctional investigators certifiedpeace officers, with the duty and authority to investi-gate all crimes associated with the prison system.Given this authority, and coupled with the dedicationand experience of its investigators, the CriminalInvestigation Division (CID) came into its own.

A New Cop on the Beat

CID has 34 employees, including 25 criminalinvestigators. CID investigators have extensive lawenforcement backgrounds and hold certifications from

the states Peace Officers Standards and TrainingBoard. In addition to detecting and prosecuting allfelony crimes associated with the Department ofCorrections, the unit also conducts background

checks of new employees, man-ages the drug deterrence program,handles internal affairs cases, andinvestigates inmate and civiliancomplaints. Of all of the cases CIDinvestigators handle, drugs repre-sent the largest percentage.

Combating Drugs

Drug cases constitute about 70percent of the CID investigatorscase load, as literally hundreds ofthousands of dollars in illegaldrugs flow into Colorado prisonsweekly.Inside the prison, the

street value of drugs increases tenfold. Accordingly,drugs satisfy the inmates needs for power andmoney. Drugs also create a dangerous climate in theprison. Inmates on drugs pose a danger to themselvesand others; drug debt collections generate seriousassaults and homicides.

A number of law enforcement agencies have been

working with CID in a concentrated effort to curbdrug trafficking. In recent years, the DEA has solic-ited intelligence from CID and assisted with severalcomplex drug investigations.

The CID K-9 unit also actively participates indrug interdiction programs. Canine crime fightersdetect drugs inside the prison, at outside work crewsites, and in visitors vehicles. The unit also works inconcert with local prosecutors from the districtattorneys office in drug deterrence programs withinthe prison. In recent years, several state and federalagencies have called upon the CID K-9 unit to assist

in some very high profile cases. In addition to theirwork in drug cases, the units dogs track escapedprisoners and often help find missing persons in thecommunity.

...the prison containsa subculture of

hardened criminalsthat bears only a slightresemblance to what

exists on the street.


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Monitoring Gangs

The Colorado Department of Corrections employsgang coordinators at each of its prisons to monitor theactivities of gang members. The gang coordinators

share intelligence with outside law enforcementagencies and maintain the Security Threat IntelligenceNetwork Group, a regional database of gang informa-tion. CID generally becomes involved when the gang-sters commit crimes, whichusually revolve around drugs. TheDepartment of Correctionsproactive approach to gangs hasforced much of their activityunderground. Any actions thatsurface, such as recruiting newmembers, subject inmates toadministrative sanctions and, mostlikely, a transfer to a more securefacility.

Solving Other Cases

CID investigates a widevariety of crimes that occur bothinside and outside the prison.These crimes include assault, sexual assault, felonytheft, fraud, bribery, escape, bank robbery, andmurder for hire. In the last 5 years alone, CID hasinvestigated more than 20 cases in which inmateshave hired undercover CID investigators to commitfirst-degree murder. In September 1998, three sepa-rate cases came from one prison cell block. Thesuccessful resolution of these cases spared the lives oftwo judges, three district attorneys, and two civilians,while resulting in three successful prosecutions withtwo other offenders awaiting trial.

Results

Since its inception, CID has successfully resolvedseveral hundred cases every year. In 1997, the unitscase load included 292 felony investigations and 133internal affairs cases. The remaining 1,361 casescomprised 345 intelligence cases (a case initiated

based on information received from some source),295 agency assists (e.g., provide intelligence, helpwith a raid), 83 K-9 actions, and 638 complaintreports. In 1998, 1,460 investigations covered 240felony and 177 internal affairs investigations. One

Mr. Bell serves as a criminal investigator for the ColoradoDepartment of Corrections in Canon City. Readers may

contact him by e-mail [email protected].

hundred seventy-four intelligence cases, 328 agencyassists, 37 K-9 actions, and 504 complaint reportsmade up the remaining 1,043 cases. In 1999, the unithandled 1556 cases306 felonies, 188 internal

affairs investigations, 232 intelligence cases, 303agency assists, 27 K-9 actions, and 500 complaintreports.

The cases CID resolves represent more than merenumbers. While no real deterrent exists for inmates,

prisoners in Colorado now mustpay a punishment for the crimesthey commit while incarcerated. Asa result, a safer prison environmentexists. Moreover, the improvedrelationship between outside lawenforcement agencies and theDepartment of Corrections has

enhanced the crime-fighting effortswithin the prisons and in thecommunities these public safetyofficials all serve.

CONCLUSION

Many people do not realizethat prison inmates often belong to very complexcrime organizations that spread throughout thecountry. Their crimes may initiate inside the prison,but they reach out into the community. The ColoradoDepartment of Corrections has recognized the need tobetter protect society by holding its inmates respon-sible for the crimes they commit in prison. As a result,a new cop has emerged on the beat. These seasonedinvestigators remain dedicated to protecting andserving the public by keeping convicted felons incheck.

While the Colorado Department of CorrectionsCriminal Investigation Division is a relatively newaddition to the law enforcement community, it has agreat deal to offer any agency seeking intelligenceand assistance in monitoring career criminals. Thisapproach to law enforcement may well serve as aresource for other states to espouse.

CID investigates awide variety of

crimes that occur

both inside andoutside the prison.


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early a century ago, law en-forcement agencies discov-ered the value of using fin-

enforcement and crime prevention by accurately identifying peoplewhen they cash checks, collectwelfare benefits, use automatedteller machines (ATMs), cross bor-ders into the United States, sign onto computer networks, or enter se-cure buildings. The promise of bio-metrics may become tarnished,however, if governments or busi-nesses use it to monitor and gather

information on a persons privateactivities.In 1998, the Center for Applied

Research and Policy Analysis at theMetropolitan State University in St.

Paul, Minnesota, studied biomet-rics; its accuracy, applications, andcosts; as well as the legal and pri-vacy issues associated with these potential uses. The center con-cluded that biometric systems haveenormous potential for public andprivate organizations alike.

BIOMETRIC SYSTEMS

Biometric systems serve twopurposes: identification and authen-tication. For example, when the po-lice make an arrest, they comparethe suspects fingerprints with fin-gerprints on file to determine if the

BiometricsSolving Cases of Mistaken Identity and MoreBy STEPHEN COLEMAN, Ph.D.

Ngerprints as a means of positiveidentification.1 Today, law enforce-ment continues to use fingerprintsto solve crimes, identify criminals,and keep criminal records. How-ever, fingerprints represent merelyone type of biometric, a physicalcharacteristic that can distinguish

one person from another. Others in-clude the face, the eyes, the hands,and the voice.

Biometric technology createsnew opportunities for law

PhotoDisc


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person has a criminal record. Bio-metric systems also can identifycriminals who refuse to disclosetheir names or who give aliases.Traditionally, highly trained spe-cialists did this fingerprint workmanually. Now, the typicalbiometric fingerprint system auto-matically reads a persons finger-prints with a video camera, convertsthe fingerprint images into com-puter data, and searches the fingerprint file for similar prints, whichthe system stores digitally as elec-tronic data.

By comparison, authenticationoccurs when, for instance, a personuses an ATM card and must enter a personal identification number(PIN) to prove authenticity. Experi-ence shows, however, that this typeof security remains weak, andfraudulent use of cards, checks, anddrivers licenses costs businesses

millions of dollars each year. Incontrast, with a biometric ATMsystem, the bank could put apersons fingerprint data or anotherbiometric on the magnetic strip on

the back of an ATM card when theperson first applies for it. To use thecard, the owner would place it in acash machine and put a finger on themachine, which would read theprint, convert it into numbers, andcompare it with the fingerprint dataon the card. If the numbers match,the machine would pay out. A smallcomputer in the ATM machinewould do the work. Alternately, acentral computer could store thebiometric and retrieve the informa-tion when customers present theiridentification cards or enter theirpasswords into the system. Finally,a smart card with a small com-puter chip memory could hold thebiometric.

The number of comparisons thesystem makes to verify the persondifferentiates identification fromauthentication. For identification,the computer may have to compare

many thousands of fingerprints; au-thentication requires only one comparison between the card and the person presenting it. A biometricsystem that makes thousands of

comparisons must have a higher ac-curacy rate than a system designedfor a single comparison. Thus, ac-curacy represents one concern for

potential users because differentsystems vary in their degree of ac-curacy. Depending on their needs,agencies must select the right typeof system.

Types of Systems

A profusion of vendors nowproduces a variety of biometric sys-tems. The most common systemsidentify or authenticate users bytheir fingerprints, eyes, hands,faces, or voices.

Fingerprints

No two fingerprints are alike.For this reason, law enforcementand the courts recognize fingerprints as unique personal identifi-ers. Most biometric fingerprint sys-tems work by finding the breaks andforks, also called minutiae, in thefingerprint ridges and convertinginformation about their positioninto a series of numbers, like coor-dinates on a map. Some systems useother information about the ridgesor pores of the skin.

Eyes

Two biometric systems use in-formation about a persons eye; onelooks at the pattern of veins in theretina, while the other uses the pat-tern of fibers, tissues, and rings inthe iris. Experts believe that both ofthese biometrics are as unique asfingerprints, but their use in identi-

fication lacks the established his-tory of fingerprints.2

The retinal system, the first sys-tem invented, requires shining alight into the eye at close range to

Dr. Coleman serves as an associate professor and director of theCenter for Applied Research and Policy Analysis at the MetropolitanState Universitys School of Law Enforcement, Criminal Justice, andPublic Safety in St. Paul, Minnesota.

The public generallyaccepts the use

of biometric systemsas a necessary partof doing business intodays crime-ridden

society.


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June 2000 / 11

illuminate the retinal pattern. As aresult, it demands the cooperationof the person being checked. Theretinal systems accuracy rate

makes it appropriate for high-secu-rity facilities, such as nuclear powerplants.

Users have begun to express a preference for the iris-based sys-tem. Although relatively new, it re-quires only that a person look to-ward a video camera operatingseveral feet away. In addition, nei-ther eye color nor corrective lenses(glasses or contacts) interfere withthe biometric. Similarly, changes inthe size of the iris in response tolight do not affect the system. Actu-ally, a biometric system can use thefact that the iris adapts to light toverify that the eye belongs to a per-son, not a photograph.

Although the theory requiresadditional research, some evidencesuggests that patterns in the eyemay change over time because ofillness or injury. Therefore, eyeidentification systems may notwork for blind people or individuals

with eye damage.Hands

Biometric systems can use thehands distinct, three-dimensionalcharacteristics, including thelength, width, thickness, and con-tour of the fingers; veins; and otherfeatures. Hand-geometry systemsmost commonly control access tobuildings. A person seeking admit-tance places a hand in a device thatexamines it with a video camera and

converts the video image to num-bers in a computer for comparisonwith the persons prerecorded handgeometry.

Changes in a persons fingers,for example, large rings or swollenfingers, may affect hand identifica-tion, and the system may not work

for people with hand paralysis ortremors. Environmental problems,such as temperature or light shiningat the camera, also may hamper thesystem.

These systems may not be able todistinguish twins.

Voice

To a limited degree, voice orspeech patterns can identify people.To use a voice-recognition system,a person must prerecord specificwords on the system. Later, whenthe system needs to authenticate the persons identity, it prompts theperson to say one of these words. Acomputer analyzes the speech pat-tern and tries to determine if thevoice matches the prerecorded ver-sion. Voice recognition differs from

speech recognition, in which a com-puter tries to understandwhat a per-son says.

Voice recognition suffers froma variety of problems. A personsvoice may change because of illnessor stress, and women prove moredifficult to identify than men. Anoisy background also can present aproblem.

Other Biometrics

A few available, but rarelyused, biometric systems use palmprints, and others use finger geom-etry. Some researchers are trying todevelop biometric systems based onwritten signatures, personal odors,ears, sweat pores, the way a persontypes on a keyboard, and bodymotions.

APPLICATIONS

Biometric technology covers awide range of applications, fromidentifying criminals to preventing

welfare fraud. Because of their highsecurity needs, correctional institu-tions have led the way in imple-menting biometric systems.

Biometrictechnology createsnew opportunitiesfor lawenforcement and

crime prevention....

FaceFacial biometric systems haveseen rapid improvement.3 A videocamera scans the face and recordsthe arrangement of features forcomparison with previously re-corded facial images. Facial-recog-nition systems can automaticallyscan peoples faces as they appearon television or a closed-circuitcamera monitoring a building orstreet. One new system uses the in-frared heat pattern of the face as thebiometric, which means the systemworks in the dark.

Individuals who change theirappearances markedly, for ex-ample, by growing beards, or who

make unusual facial expressionscan confuse the system. The orien-tation of a persons face toward thecamera also can influence accuracy.


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Corrections

In a number of federal prisons,visitors, staff, and inmates havetheir hand biometric put on a photo

identification card, which they mustcarry with them. Card and handreaders installed throughout theprisons control access to various ar-eas; the systems also recordeveryones movements.

Similarly, the Minnesota De-partment of Corrections has hand-geometry systems in the statesthree medium-security prisons.People leaving the institution swipetheir identification cards into thesystem, while placing their hands

on a reader. The system comparesthe biometric on the card with thepersons hand before allowing themto leave. Staff members also havephotos on their identification cardsto supplement hand-geometry veri-fication and make false identifica-tion a remote possibility.

The department installed thesystems in 1997 and continues torefine them, with plans to put simi-lar systems in other prisons. Thesystem at one prison, which in-cludes a computer network, termi-nals at three access points, and pro-gramming tailored to the systemsspecifications, cost $130,000.

In 1990, the Cook County, Illi-nois, Sheriffs Office began using aretinal identification system forprisoner identification and release.4

At the time, the system cost about$500,000 for 23 scanners and otherequipment to connect the system, but prices for the equipment have

come down. The Lancaster County,Pennsylvania, prisons prisoneridentification system uses iris- based technology. In 1997, the

stand-alone system cost about$10,000.5

New York City recently con-tracted for an electronic probation

monitoring system, for a cost of$925,000.6 The hand-geometrysystem uses kiosks with videotouch-screens that allow probation-ers and parolees to check in elec-tronically with probation officerson reporting dates. The city expectsto use the system to monitor about

Accelerated Service System(INSPASS), which uses either handgeometry or, at one location, finger-prints.9 Business travelers who fly

into the United States at least threetimes yearly can apply for a biomet-ric identification card at anINSPASS enrollment center. Then,on arrival, the traveler puts the cardinto a kiosk and puts a hand on thedesignated spot. If the system veri-fies the persons identity, it opens agate and records the process.

The U.S. Department of Justiceevaluated the initial INSPASS sys-tem, which cost about $3 million.The audit found that INSPASS has

the potential to be a cost-effectivemeans of reducing processing timefor frequent travelers...without sac-rificing security.10 The $45,000kiosk costs less than a borderinspectors yearly salary, approxi-mately $50,000.

INS has opened automated bor-der crossing systems (Port Passen-ger Accelerated Service System, orPORTPASS) on the northern bor-der in Montana and in Coronach,Canada.11 In these remote locations

where employees do not workaround the clock, a voice-recogni-tion system, which can withstandsevere weather conditions, authen-ticates border crossers. On theMexican border, illegal immigrantscaught crossing the border havetheir fingerprints read into an elec-tronic database for future identifica-tion and to check for those wantedby the police.12

Criminal Identification

In 1978, Minnesota became thefirst state to install an automatedbiometric fingerprint identification

35,000 low-risk probationers, al-lowing probation officers to spendmore time supervising high-riskprobationers.

Voice-recognition systems alsocan monitor probationers. One sys-tem randomly pages a probationer,who must call a toll-free number.The system then verifies the callerby voice,7 while Caller ID verifiesthe probationers location.

Border Control

The federal Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) haspioneered biometric systems in bor-der control. A multitude of peoplecross into the United States daily

100,000 in El Paso, Texas, alone

8

which makes prompt and accurateidentification necessary. In 1993,INS began a trial of its Passenger

Live scanning...allows

agencies to transmitprints to otheragencies, including

the FBI.


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June 2000 / 13

system. It identifies arrested crimi-nals and permits searching of printsfound at crime scenes.13 Live scan-ning, in which video cameras and

computers directly read digital fin-gerprints, allows agencies to trans-mit prints to other agencies, includ-ing the FBI. The FBIs newlyimplemented NCIC 2000 systemcan, among other services, matchsubmitted fingerprints to subjectson the national list of wantedpersons.

The sheriffs offices ofHennepin and Ramsey counties, theSt. Paul police, and a local company plan to test a portable fingerprint

reader that law enforcement can usein or near their vehicles to learn onthe spot whether a suspect is on thenational wanted list. The devicescost about $2,500 to $4,000, withadditional costs to upgrade policeradio or telephone systems to ac-commodate the fingerprint readers;federal funds may help agenciespay for the equipment.

Criminal Background Checks

Many states require criminal

background checks as a conditionof employment or licensing forsome individuals, including law en-forcement officers, licensed day-care workers, foster-care providers,and individuals applying for liquorlicenses. In 1998, California begansubmitting fingerprints electroni-cally by live-scanning individualswho need background checks; sher-iffs offices throughout the statehouse the terminals, which costabout $55,000 each.14 This servicelikely will cut the time it takes to doa background check to 72 hours orfewer for 95 percent of applicants,who pay a fee for the service.

system recognizes someone, it will

alert the police. This technologyalso can monitor public video cam-eras for missing children or scan forterrorists at airports.

Drivers Licenses

Because a drivers license has become a key form of personalidentification, its authenticity re-mains critical. Drivers licensefraud contributes to other types ofcrime, including identity theft,17

credit card fraud, and the illegalpurchase of alcohol and tobacco byunderage minors. States are takingmore precautions to control the is-suance of a drivers license, and biometrics offers the best way tocheck a persons identity.

In 1998, West Virginia becamethe first state to apply facial-recog-nition technology to the drivers li-cense application process.18 Whenpeople apply for a new license, thesystem digitally stores their photo-

graphs. When they renew their li-censes, or try to replace lost or sto-len ones, the system captures theirphoto and automatically comparesit with their previous photo. This

Photo Identification

Automated systems that cap-ture and digitize mugshots can in-corporate facial recognition. In1988, the Lakewood Division of theLos Angeles County Sheriffs De-partment installed a system that cantake the composite drawing of asuspect or a video image of some-one committing a crime and searchit against its database of digitizedmugshot photos. The departmentalso intends to use the system tosearch for suspects on Megans

Law CD, a photo database of regis-tered sex offenders.15

British police plan to automati-cally monitor closed-circuit surveil-lance video cameras with facial-rec-ognition software. Britain has morethan 200,000 video cameras usedfor surveillance, many watchingstreets and shopping areas. InNewham, a borough of London, thelocal police have planned a 6-monthtrial of facial recognition at a cost of

about $100,000 for a system thatincludes 140 street cameras and 11mobile units.16 A computer willmonitor video cameras set to watchfor known criminals. When the

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...biometrictechnology can saveinvestigators manyhours of work andsolve crimes that

might remain unsolvedusing traditionalpolice practices.

system prevents people from get-ting a license under a false identity.West Virginians also can have theirfingerprints stored on their drivers

licenses for identification at storesand other locations.

Other Applications

For government benefit pro-grams, a biometric system can offer both reduced opportunity for wel-fare fraud and increased security forrecipients who get their benefitselectronically. For credit card com- panies, biometrics may one dayeliminate fraud.19 Biometrics also

can provide computer and Internetsecurity by authenticating the per-son signing on to a computer orcomputer network, controlling ac-cess to sensitive data, and makingInternet financial transactions moresecure.

In addition, a recent break-through in technology will furtherreduce prices and extend the rangeof fingerprint verification.20 Mostfingerprint scanners have a smallvideo camera to capture an image of

the fingerprint. But soon a singlecomputer chip will hold fingerprintscanners at an expected cost of $40or less. Users will simply put theirfinger on the chip itself to scan thefingerprint into the computer. Thechip is so small and thin, users canmount it virtually anywhereon acomputer keyboard, a doorknob, acar ignition, or a cell phone. Witha fingerprint chip on the handle anda small computer inside,21 thesmart gun relies on this technol-ogy. The owner of the gun wouldtouch the fingerprint sensor toactivate the gun; no one else coulduse it.

CONSIDERATIONS

Biometric systems continue toprove their worth for a broad rangeof applications. However, theirwidespread use in government andcommercial arenas depends on anumber of factors. Short-term con-siderations include the cost andaccuracy of various systems on themarket. In the long run, and perhapsmore important, agencies muststudy the legal issues, privacy con-cerns, and public attitudes associ-ated with biometrics.

for instance, which requires a veryhigh level of security, would need abiometric access system that madeit virtually impossible to let in an

unauthorized person.Some biometric systems can

adjust error rates, which involves atrade-off between the two types oferrors. That means that a systemthat reduces the chance of apersons getting into a building bymistake increases the likelihoodthat legitimate users will be deniedadmittance. So agencies must bal-ance security interests against theannoyance and problems that arisewhen legitimate users cannot gainaccess. For example, bank custom-ers who cannot access their ac-counts through the ATM mightswitch banks.

Legality and Privacy

Federal and state governmentshave used fingerprints for years toidentify people, both in criminalcases and for civil purposes. Theseapplications have consistently with-stood legal challenge.22 Similarly,the government can require photo-

graphs for identification. Courtshave not extended any constitution-ally based privacy right to peoplewho are required to prove theiridentity with a fingerprint, althoughthe government may have to showthat it has a reasonable public purpose for taking a fingerprint. Thecourts have not yet ruled on newbiometrics, such as iris or hand ge-ometry, but fingerprints may pro-vide a precedent. When used with

public or private survillance video,facial recognition raises unique privacy concerns because peoplecan come under surveillance with-out their knowledge.

Accuracy

Biometric systems use twomeasures of accuracy, one for eachtype of mistake they make. For ex-ample, a biometric system that lim-its access to a building would makea mistake if it let in an unauthorized person. Other times, the systemmight fail to recognize a personwho should gain access. Biometricsystem users must decide upon thedegree of error they will permit,taking into account the type ofbiometric system needed, cost, se-curity desired, and what happens ifa mistake occurs. A nuclear plant,


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June 2000 / 15

Privacy issues emerge when agovernment agency does somethingwith a persons fingerprint that goesbeyond the original purpose for its

collection. The California SupremeCourt approved taking fingerprintsfor drivers licenses but ruled thatindiscriminate dissemination of fin-gerprint records by the state vio-lated individual privacy rights.23

The provincial Information andPrivacy Commissioner of Ontario,Canada, leads the way as govern-ments around the world workon guidelines and laws for the pri-vacy of biometric information. Theoffice proposed a series of safe-guards for fingerprint identifica-tion records of the Ontariogovernments social assistance pro-grams.24 Recommended safeguardsinclude encrypting the biometric tomake it impossible for anyone touse it without authorization; re-stricting use of the finger scan; pre-venting unauthorized access to the biometric database; and keepingmost personal information separate.These elements became law in

Ontario in 1997.25

CONCLUSION

Simply put, biometrics workwell. Systems currently on the mar-ket can successfully identify andauthenticate people with a high de-gree of accuracy. Fingerprints re-main the best choice for applica-tions involving large numbers ofusers. Iris-based systems may equalor exceed fingerprints in accuracy,but the limited number of vendors

and lack of precedent for irisrecognition make them less attrac-tive. Hand-geometry systems haveproven themselves in physical ac-

cess control, particularly in prisons,which require high levels of accu-racy and security. Voice recogni-tion proves least accurate but might

represent the best alternative toverify someones identity over thephone.

Facial-recognition systems cre-ate opportunities to identify peopleunobtrusively and without their co-operation, as in video surveillance,and they can be added to digitalphoto systems used for mugshots ordrivers licenses.

Biometric systems also have proven their cost-effectiveness instate welfare systems and bordercontrol, where the system costs lessthan hiring a person to do the samework. In criminal identification,biometric technology can save in-vestigators many hours of work andsolve crimes that might remainunsolved using traditional policepractices.

Before selecting a vendor for abiometric system, agencies shouldconsider the companys ability toprovide long-term maintenance and

keep pace with technology. Agen-cies should test biometric systemsthoroughly prior to purchase orbefore expanding to larger systems.Buyers need to make their own as-sessment about the accuracy andreliability of biometric systemsand not rely totally on claims ofmanufacturers.

Although they work well, bio-metric systems have little compat-ibility with one another. Agenciesmay find advantages in adoptingcompatible systems, but compat-ibility also makes it possible toshare data on people across sys-tems, which might infringe onpeoples privacy.

The public generally acceptsthe use of biometric systems as anecessary part of doing business in

Mark C. Ide


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todays crime-ridden society.26

With safeguards in place to protectthe legal and privacy rights of citi-zens, organizations can use biomet-

ric systems with the cooperation ofthe public. Indeed, biometric tech-nology can help agencies in both the public and private sector solvecrimes, protect identities, secure en-trances to buildings and borders,safeguard computer databases andnetworks, and deter fraud in thecommunities they serve.

Endnotes1 See, e.g., The History of Fingerprints,

available from http://onin.com/fp/

fphistory.html; accessed 10/5/99.2 Richard Wildes, Iris Recognition: AnEmerging Biometric Technology,Proceedingsof the IEEE85 (September 1997), 1348-1363.

3 Juan Velasco, Teaching the Computer toRecognize a Friendly Face,New York Times,October 15, 1998, D7.

4 General Accounting Office,ElectronicBenefits Transfer: Use of Biometrics to Deter

Fraud in the Nationwide EBT Program

(Gaithersburg, MD: September 1995), 24,GAO/OSI-95-20.

5 Keith W. Strandberg, Biometric ID,Corrections Forum, 1997; available fromhttp://www.prisons.com/cforum/id.html;accessed 11/19/99.

6 New York City Awards $925,000Contract to Pacer Infotec for ElectronicProbation Management Systems, press release,March 5, 1997; available from http://www.corrections.com/products/news/

crad.htm#pacer; accessed 11/19/99.7 VoiceTrack, available from http://

www.voicetrack.com/; accessed 11/19/99.8 William R. Baron, U.S. Department of

Transportation, Volpe Engineers UseBiometrics to Help Ease Border Crush, VolpeTransportation Journal, spring 1997; availablefrom http://www.volpe.dot.gov/pubs/journal/

spring97/biomet.html; accessed 11/19/99.9 Ibid.10 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the

Inspector General, Audit Division, Immigra-tion and Naturalization Service PassengerAccelerated Service System Pilot Program,Audit Report 95-8, March 1995; available fromhttp://www.usdoj.gov/oig/inspass1/

inspass1.htm; accessed 11/19/99.

11 Supra note 8.12 Verne G. Kopytoff, A Silicon Wall Rises

on the Border,New York Times, January 14,1999, D1, D5.

13 Stephen Coleman, Minnesotas

Automated Latent Fingerprint IdentificationSystem,Proceedings of the Fourth Interna-tional SEARCH Symposium, SEARCH Group,Inc. (Sacramento, CA: 1979), 223-227.

14 California Department of Justice, Bureauof Criminal Identification and Information,Applicant Live Scan, available from http://www.caag.state.ca.us/app/livescan.htm ;accessed 11/22/99.

1998; available from http://www.instantphoto.polaroid.com/polinfo/press-releases/march98/

032598a.html[access via www.polaroid.com];accessed 11/19/99.

19 MasterCard Wins Another Round

Against Fraud, MasterCard, press release,May 11, 1998; available from http://www.mastercard.com/about/press/

980511a.html; accessed 11/19/99.20 Miquel Helft, Digital Fingerprints: A

Key of the Future, Wired News, May 22, 1997;available from http://www.wired.com; accessed11/19/99.

21 David Kocieniewski, Trenton DebatesRequiring Guns Only Owner Can Fire,NewYork Times, September 24, 1998, A27.

22 John D. Woodward,Biometric Scanning,Law & Policy: Identifying the Concerns

Drafting the Biometric Blueprint, 59 U. PITT.L. REV. 134 (Fall 1997). The U.S. SupremeCourt also has ruled in United States v.

Dionisio, 93 S. Ct. 764, that a grand jurywitness can be compelled to furnish a voiceexemplar because it does not violate the FifthAmendment privilege against self-incriminationand, further, that the Fourth Amendment

prohibition against unreasonable searches doesnot protect a voice exemplar because the voiceis a physical characteristic constantly exposedto the public. In Whalen V. Roe, 97 S. Ct. 869,the Court ruled that a state could collect theidentities of medical patients who obtained

prescriptions for certain drugs. The Court saidthat the patient identification requirementrepresented the product of rational legislativeaction and a reasonable exercise of state police

powers; it did not impair any privacy interest

protected by the Constitution.23 Perkey v. Department of Motor Vehicles,

42 Cal. 3d 185 (1986).24 Ann Cavoukian, Privacy and Biometrics:

An Oxymoron or Time to Take a 2nd Look?Office of the Information and PrivacyCommissioner, Ontario, Canada; available fromhttp://www.ipc.on.ca/web_site.eng/matters/

sum_pap/papers/cfp98.htm; accessed 11/19/99.25 Social Assistance Reform Act, 1997, Bill

142, ch. 25, S.O. 1997 (Can.).26 Alan F. Westin, Public Attitudes Toward

the Use of Finger Imaging Technology forPersonal Identification in Commercial andGovernment Programs, National Registry, Inc.(St. Petersburg, FL: August 1996).

15 Los Angeles Sheriffs DepartmentInstalls Facial Recognition Software, ViisageTechnology, Inc., press release, September 26,1998; available from http://www.viisage.com/

imagewar2.htm; accessed 11/19/99.16 Candid Camera for Criminals,BBC

News, October 13, 1998; available from http://news2.thls.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/newsid_

191000/191692.stm; accessed 11/22/99; andRobert Matthews, Security Camera Can Finda Face in Crowds,Electronic Telegraph, UK

News, Sunday, July 6, 1997; available fromhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk:80/; accessed11/22/99.

17 Identity theft generally refers to stealingsuch items as credit cards, checks, and driverslicenses and using them to commit fraud, orobtaining a persons personal information, suchas social security numbers or bank accountnumbers, and using that information, perhaps

with a fake drivers license, to open new creditaccounts in that persons name without the

persons knowledge.18 West Virginia Becomes First State to

Issue Drivers Licenses Using Facial Recogni-tion Technology, press release, March 24,

Because of their

high security needs,correctional

institutions haveled the way inimplementing

biometric systems.


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June 2000 / 17

Book Review

Victims of Crime by Robert A. Jerin andLaura J. Moriarty, Nelson-Hall, Inc.,Chicago, Illinois, 1997.

Victims of Crime, a well-developedtextbook for the field of victimology, hasmany criminal justice applications. Scholarsand practitioners will find the information onthe criminal justice system objective andcomprehensive. This publication presents anexcellent overview of the many facets ofvictimization.

The authors identify issues and concernsthat students and professionals have voicedover the years. The chapters are organized andwell written, and the authors experiencesworking for victims contribute to the clarityof the writing.

The authors bring to light several signifi-cant issues for police officials to consider andstress that the mutual dependence betweencrime victims and the police cannot be under-estimated. For example, although policeofficers are trained to gather as much infor-mation as possible at the scene of the crime in

order to make an arrest, this requirement togather evidence may conflict with the victimsneeds. This delicate balance can put lawenforcement officers at odds with the victim.

Police officials depend on cooperationfrom the victim. Remaining sensitive duringthe investigative phase will improve rapportand enhance communication. Furthermore,consideration and sensitivity to the victimsneeds results in successful investigations andprosecutions.

An in-depth review of the text revealsextensive coverage of victimology. Initially,

the authors provide a brief overview of thevictims movement and various programs forcrime victims. The first three chapters concernvictims and the police, victims and the courts,and victims and corrections. The next threechapters address domestic violence, women asvictims, children as victims, and elderly asvictims. Additional chapters study non-domestic violence, sexual assault, and hatecrimes.

In the final chapters, the authors examinecrime prevention, international programs, andthe future for victims of crime. All of these

will prove quite useful to those in law enforce-ment. Accurate information about victimologywill help bridge the gap between victims andthose who investigate the crimes. Victims ofCrime is essential reading for criminal justicepractitioners and individuals concerned withthe rights and welfare of victims.

Reviewed byThomas E. Baker

Assistant ProfessorUniversity of Scranton

Scranton, Pennsylvania


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he United States is home toapproximately 57 millionchildren under age 15 and

and nonnegligent manslaughter,forcible rape, robbery, andaggravated assault)2 among juve-niles increased by 14.9 percentfrom 1989 to 1998.3 In 1998, lawenforcement officers arrested morethan 1.8 million teenagers under age18, representing 18 percent of allpersons arrested.4 Twenty-nine per-cent of these youths were arrestedfor Crime Index offenses.5

Several factorssuch as child

abuse, a difficult home life, and exposure to crimecan predict cer-tain types of future behavior. Al-though these factors may adverselyaffect juvenile behavior, serious

and violent juvenile offenders tendto develop behavior problemssuch as aggression, dishonesty,property offenses, and conflict withauthority figuresfrom childhoodto adolescence.6 Parents, law en-forcement officers, schools, andcommunity organizations must rec-ognize the behavior patterns of de-linquents to implement appropriatecrime prevention strategies.

CONTRIBUTING FACTORSNumerous variables affect chil-

dren during specific stages of theirlives.7 During infancy, such factorsas sex, intellect, activity level,

Violent Crimes Among JuvenilesBehavioral AspectsBy WILLIAM ANDREW CORBITT, M.S.

Tnearly 20 million between 4 and 8years old. Experts believe that theteenage population may reach al-most 30 million by 2006.1 Thispopulation growth may partially ex-plain why the United States has wit-nessed a nationwide epidemic of ju-venile violence in the past 15 years.More violent and troubled youth are

entering the juvenile justice systemthan ever before.

Indeed, although crime rateshave decreased across the UnitedStates, violent crimes (e.g., murder

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June 2000 / 19

temperament, and attention spanmay affect behavior. During thetoddler, or preschool, stage, chil-dren may demonstrate risk-taking

and sensation-seeking behavior andfail to show a sense of guilt or em- pathy. In early adolescence, poor parental supervision, depression,excessive sibling rivalry, peer rejec-tion, or exposure to violence maycause children to react negatively,leading to violent behavior.8

Many juvenile delinquents lack proper guidance and direction intheir lives. Because they are sub-jected to multiple risk factors, thesechildren may become more violent.For example, in 1994, over 4 mil-lion American children lived in se-verely distressed homes or neigh-borhoods that contributed to violenttendencies among troubled juve-niles.9 Additionally, the divorcerate has increased over the past 20to 30 years, and many experts support the broken homes theory,which implies that homes with oneparent absentusually the fathermay contribute to future delinquent

behavior of children. Often, in situ-ations without a positive male rolemodel, mothers may have less con-trol and authority over their chil-dren, particularly boys. This theoryalso maintains that a family withonly one parent present may have toreduce its standard of living and ul-timately live in impoverished con-ditions that present an environmentfor delinquent behavior.10

Several studies suggest that a pattern of aggressive or intolerant

behavior may signal future prob-lems.11 This type of behavior pre-vails in children ages 6 to 11 whoparticipate in nonserious delinquentacts. Research shows that sexual or

physical abuse victims; youths ex-

posed to violence in the home, com-munity, or from television; andadolescents who use illegal drugsand alcohol may have a higher propensity for developing violenttendencies. Further, consistent ex- perimentation with sexual activityat a young age also may predict vio-lent behavior.12 Finally, socioeco-nomic factors such as poverty,severe deprivation of necessities,divorce or separation of parents,and family separation may havea negative impact on impression-able youth and lead to violenttendencies.13

BEHAVIOR PATTERNS

For years, researchers have de-veloped models depicting variousreasons for childhood delinquency.Early studies focused on biologicalfactors; however, experts now be-lieve that social and psychologicalfactors influence delinquency, as

well. The current clinical modelfactors in an individuals personal-ity type.14 One study concluded thatserious and violent juveniles differfrom typical youths involved in

delinquent conduct. This study

identified three paths that adoles-cent males may follow that lead to alife of delinquency.15 The firstroute, the authority conflict path-way, starts prior to age 12, usuallybegins with stubborn behavior, andcontinues with youths showing de-fiance and disobedience. At thispoint, adolescents demonstrate au-thority avoidance16 by staying outlate, skipping school, or runningaway from home.

The second route, labeled theovert pathway, usually beginswith minor aggressions, such as bullying or annoying others, then progresses to physical fighting.Sometimes adolescents fulfill theirneed to fight by joining gangs. Thefinal step in the overt pathway isviolence.

In the third route, called thecovert pathway, youths first mayshow minor covert behavior, suchas lying or shoplifting, and then

progress to property damage, suchas vandalism or arson. Adolescentsthen proceed to moderate or seriousoffenses such as fraud, burglary, orfelony theft.

Communities andlaw enforcement

agencies mustwork togetherto support and

mentor youths....

Officer Corbitt serves with the University ofTennessee Police Department in Knoxville.


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One study found that male juve-nile offenders often live in large,low-income families and may have parents with criminal back-

grounds.17 This study also revealedthat parents of male offenders usu-ally supervise their children poorlyand use harsh discipline techniquesthat often cause conflict betweenthe parent and the child. In school,these children demonstrate low lev-els of intelligence, behave poorly,act impulsively, and associate withother known delinquents.18 Variousintervention strategies can helpcombat these behavior patterns.

COUNTERMEASURESTO COMBAT JUVENILEVIOLENT CRIME

In order to gain control of thecurrent juvenile crime trend, lawenforcement agencies can assistschools and communities in imple-menting several countermeasures toreduce violent juvenile crimes. Cur-rent research indicates that manyviolent crime issues result from be-haviors that an individual haslearned, as well as from human ele-ments, such as age, sex, and socio-economic status. Law enforcementmust recognize the importance ofthese factors when attempting to de-termine the root cause of a problem.Implementing effective early inter-vention and progressive crimeprevention strategies remains a keyto reducing the current crime trendamong juveniles.

School Response

School teachers and counselorsplay a vital role in detecting knownrisk factors that may lead to juveniledelinquency. By training schoolstaff members to distinguish

students who demonstrate violenttendencies, law enforcement agen-cies can take a proactive approachto help identify and minimize

known risk factors that lead to juve-nile violence. Police agencies canassist schools in offering childrensocial competence training and dis-cussing ways to resolve conflicts.For example, representatives fromlocal law enforcement agencies, so-cial service organizations, or the ju-venile court system could familiar-ize teachers with known risk factors

prevention strategies involvingchildren, pushing for tougherweapon laws, implementing cur-fews for youths, and adopting a zero

tolerance for alcohol and otherdrugs can help achieve these goals.Communities and law enforcementagencies must work together to sup-port and mentor youths, as well asto help children overcome preexist-ing conditions that may later influ-ence their welfare.20

Government Programs

The Anti-Gang and Youth Vio-lence Control Act of 1997 desig-nated $75 million for local jurisdic-

tions to disseminate in 1998. Thisinitiative, the Juvenile MentoringProgram (JUMP), includes assis-tance from the U.S. Department ofJustice and may help combat tru-ancy, school violence, and other ju-venile crime. Mentors with various backgrounds volunteer their timeand develop a rapport with troubledadolescents.21 By December 1998,over 3,000 youth were enrolled andactively involved in the JUMPproject.22 The Office of JuvenileJustice and Delinquency Preventioncurrently evaluates 93 projectsfunded under the JUMP program.Both mentors and youths report thatmentoring has been a positive expe-rience. Specifically, the programhas helped youths avoid alcohol andother drugs, fights, gangs, and re-frain from using guns or knives.23

Other federal programs alsorecognize the power and impor-tance of, as well as the need for,

youth leadership. For example, theNational Youth Network pairs ado-lescents with adults through com-munication, action groups, andhands-on participation.24 They

...serious and violent

juveniles differfrom typical

youths involved indelinquent conduct.

and behavior patterns of troubledjuveniles. Then, the school systemcould offer intervention throughschool counseling and organizededucational activities. Studentsmust feel that the school systemrepresents a safe place where theycan confide in teachers and staffmembers.

Community Involvement

The community where a childlives also should offer a safe settingthat promotes pride and a senseof cohesiveness among the resi-

dents. Local police departmentsshould help develop a commu-nity policing initiative and encour-age community involvement.19 De-veloping neighborhood crime


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June 2000 / 21

encourage youth interaction withlocal, state, and federal leaders.This programs missions includepromoting youth activities through

the media and reaching out to non-affiliated youth, especially those inthe juvenile justice system.25

The Drug-Free CommunitiesSupport Program combats youthsubstance abuse, creates an aware-ness about drug abuse, and offers analternative for troubled youth.26 Itincludes community support from parents, other adolescents, busi-nesses, schools, law enforcement,media, health care professionals,and volunteer groups. This programencourages citizen participation inreducing substance abuse and dis-seminating information about effec-tive programs. Law enforcementagencies and communities shouldwork together to create these typesof programs in their areas.

CONCLUSION

Recent research traces violentjuvenile behavior to human and so-cial elements rather than attributing

it solely to biological factors. Influ-ences such as community environ-ment, economics, parental care, andschool involvement now appear tohelp determine violent behavioramong adolescents. Therefore,countermeasures, such as increased parental and community involve-ment, the implementation of crimeprevention strategies, and interven-tion of school personnel, can helplower the juvenile crime rate. Be-cause the number of violent juve-

nile offenders has increased at sucha rapid pace, law enforcement agen-cies must develop and implementcomprehensive strategies to helpdeter violent juvenile offenders

from http://www.ncjrs.org/jjhome.htm;accessed July 14, 1999.

7 Ibid.8 Ibid.9 J. D. Hawkins, J. Howell, B. Krisberg, and

J. J. Wilson, Serious, Violent & ChronicJuvenile Offenders, (Thousand Oaks,California; Sage Publications, 1995), 10.

10 A. Binder, D. Bruce, and G. Geis,Juvenile Delinquency: Historical, Cultural,

Legal Perspectives (New York: MacMillanPublishing Company, 1988), 89.

11 American Academy of Child andAdolescent Psychiatry, Understanding Violent

Behavior in Children and Adolescents, 1997;available from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/

frontline/shows/little/readings/violent.html;accessed July 14, 1999.

12 Supra note 6.13 Supra note 11.14 D. Musick,An Introduction to the

Sociology of Juvenile Delinquency (Albany,NY: State University of New York Press, 1995),87.

15 Supra note 6.16 Supra note 6.17 J.D. Hawkins,Delinquency and Crime

(Cambridge, England: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1996), 69.

18 Ibid.19 Supra note 6.20 Supra note 9, 53.21 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,Justice Department Grant Program to HelpSteer Youth Away from Crime and Drug Use,April 1997, available from http://www.ncjrs.

org/prcrime.htm; accessed July 14, 1999.22 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,Juvenile Mentoring Program, December1998; available from http://www. ncjrs.org/

pdffiles1/952872.pdf; accessed November 8,1999.

23 Ibid.24 U.S. Department of Justice, National

Youth Network, National Youth NetworkVision and Mission, January 1998; availablefrom http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/

getinvolved/8.htm; accessed July 14, 1999.25 Ibid.26 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

National Drug Control Policy and Office of

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,Drug-Free Communities Support Program,September 1998; available from http://www.ncjrs.org/ojjdp/drugfree/support.html;accessed July 14, 1999.

from becoming permanent fixturesin the adult criminal justice system.

By monitoring early childhoodbehavior, remaining aware of con-

tributing factors and warning signsexhibited by delinquents, and dis-cussing crime prevention tech-niques, parents, school officials,and police officers can help de-crease the number of serious juve-nile offenders. It is never too earlyto establish crime prevention pro-grams, and it is never too late tointervene in the life of a troubledyouth.

Endnotes

1 John Dilulio, Jr., and Gary Walker, TheFour Ms of Fighting Crime; available fromhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/

shows/little/readings; accessed July 14, 1999.2 U.S. Department of Justice, Federal

Bureau of Investigation, Uniform CrimeReports: Crime in the United States 1998

(Washington, DC, 1999), 5.3 Ibid., 220.4 Ibid.5 Ibid., 210. The FBI classifies murder and

nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape,robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson as Crime

Index offenses.6 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders,Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention Juvenile Justice Bulletin; available

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FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin

Call For Authors

Why Should You Publish an Article?

Allows you to share your experiences

Provides you with a wider audience

Increases your credibility

Enhances your professional image

What Should You Write About?

Write about topics that interest you. Writeabout problems that you, your department, orcommunity have solved. Possible topicsinclude

administrative/personnel issues;

crime problems and solutions;

domestic violence;

drugs;

equipment;

ethics;

environmental crimes;

firearms;

future of policing;

information resources;

investigative techniques; juveniles;

leadership/management concerns;

negotiation/interviewing skills;

police-community relations;

technology; and

training.

How Do You Write an Article?

Authors should write in third person anduse active voice. They should supply references

when quoting a source exactly, citing orparaphrasing another persons work or ideas, orreferring to information that generally is not

well known. Authors should study severalissues of the magazine to ensure that theirwriting style meets theBulletins require-ments. Most important, authors shouldcontact theBulletin staff for the expandedauthor guidelines, which contain additionalspecifications, detailed examples, and effec-tive writing techniques.

TheBulletin judges articles on relevanceto the audience, factual accuracy, analysis ofthe information, structure and logical flow,style and ease of reading, and length. The staffedits all manuscripts for length, clarity, format,

and style.TheBulletin generally does not publisharticles on similar topics within a 12-monthperiod or accept articles previously publishedor currently under consideration by othermagazines. Because it is a government publi-cation, theBulletin cannot accept articles thatadvertise a product or service.

How Do You Submit an Article?

Send a query letter and short outline or

Submit a completed manuscript toEditor,FBI Law Enforcement BulletinFBI Academy, Quantico, VA 22135Telephone: 703-632-1952E-mail: [email protected].

TheBulletin staff will review queries andarticles and advise the authors of acceptanceor rejection. The magazine cannot guarantee apublication date for accepted articles

Authors should submit three copies oftheir articles typed and double-spaced on8 1/2- by 11-inch white paper with all pagesnumbered. When possible, authors should

include an electronic version of the articlesaved on computer disk. A photograph of theauthor(s) should accompany the article.


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June 2000 / 23

n the past, doctors had closerrelationships with their pa-tients than they do now. They

well-maintained structures, the in-tegral neighborhood shows a highlevel of pride. Law-abiding citizensvisibly interact, indicating a stronginternal support system in theneighborhood. Residents also havea link to outside organizations,which helps them solve problems.

Residents in the parochialneighborhood have homogeneousvalues and cultures. They insulatethemselves and try to take care of

their own without involving thepolice. In the diffuse neighborhood,residents have a great deal in com-mon but rarely interact. This maylimit their ability to quickly per-ceive and react to problems.

As its name implies, the step-ping-stone neighborhood serves

as a stepping stone for many resi-dents. Small single-family resi-dences, townhouses, and apart-ment buildings characterize this

Iknew them all by name, and they

even made house calls. Today, thepractice of medicine has given wayto health maintenance organiza-tions, where doctors may see hun-dreds of patients and may never getto know them on a first-name basis.American policing has evolved inmuch the same manner. The desireto create an ethical and efficient po-lice force moved officers from footbeats to patrol cars. The pendulumhas swung back as police depart-ments adopt community policingprinciples.

Although the small-town doc-tor may have become a relic, policedepartments would do well to taketheir cues from the medical profes-sion.1 Physicians know a great dealabout disease and the nature of inju-ries; they treat patients based on thecollective knowledge and experi-ence in the treatment of illness.They observe the symptoms presentin the patient, diagnose the disease,

prescribe the treatment, then moni-tor the patients progress. At thesame time, they practice preventivemedicine and educate the public. Totreat the causes of illness in thecommunity, the police must do thesame.2

The Anatomy ofa Healthy Community

The police first must under-stand what defines a healthy com-munity in order to learn what

threatens its health. Six types ofneighborhoods exist that exhibitvarious levels of well-being.3 Withits well-manicured lawns and

A Medical Model forCommunity PolicingBy JOSEPH A. HARPOLD, M.S.


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neighborhood. Although residentstend to move out quickly, they getinvolved in community organiza-tions and assume leadership posi-

tions. In transitory neighborhoods,residents either move frequently orhave so little in common that thecommunity lacks consensus and co-hesion. As neighbors isolate them-selves, it becomes more difficult toimprove conditions, which have be-gun to deteriorate. Isolation andalienation characterize the anomicneighborhood, where residentshave accepted criminal victimiza-tion as a way of life. Still, suchcommunities remain susceptible tooutside influences, both bad andgood. A lack of defined leadershipmakes problem solving difficult,but not impossible.

As these neighborhoods illus-trate, the existence of a strongsupport system and high levels ofpride and self-esteem represent thecore of a healthy community.

In their ground-breaking articleBroken Windows, James Q. Wil-son and George Kelling indicatethat broken windows measure the

amount of pride and self-esteem ina community.4 In healthy neighborhoods, residents fix windowsquickly; in deteriorated neighbor-hoods, it takes a little longer. Inthe worst neighborhoods, brokenwindows give way to boarded-upand abandoned buildings. Policeagencies recognize that when broken windows remain unfixed,crime problems left untreated festerand develop into cancer. Its symp-toms manifest in repeat calls forservice.

Yet, just as doctors can detectcancer early and prevent it fromspreading, police can work in com-munities to influence the variablesthat threaten community pride andself-esteem. Early treatment cankeep the community from becom-ing ill. For example, in some

communities, a patrol officer whosees or hears of graffiti pages a pub-lic works employee who immedi-ately paints over the graffiti. This

action sends a message that peoplecare and that a support system existsto ensure community health.

The Patients Medical History

Once they understand how dis-ease attacks the patients anatomyand support system to produce vari-ous symptoms, the police can sys-tematically get to know the patient,just as the family physician collectsa medical history. This involves afour-step process.

First, sociodemographic datafor example, level of income, edu-cation, and community resourcesavailable from the U.S. CensusBureau provide important informa-tion on crime.5 Generally, a declinein sociodemographics creates a risein reported crime, reflecting the on-set of disease in the patient. Whensociodemographics improve, ahealthier patient results.

In addition to a community

analysis, a medical history also re-quires comparative crime analysis.Crime analysis requires collecting,categorizing, analyzing, and dis-seminating to line personnel timelyand useful information that de-scribes crime patterns, crime trends,and potential suspects. Communitysurveys and citizen interviews com-plete the four-step process. How dothe patients themselves say theyfeel?

Based on the knowledge of the

patients medical history and thedoctors expertise in anatomy anddisease symptomology, the doctorcan diagnose illnesses in the

...policedepartmentswould do well totake their cues

from the medicalprofession.

Special Agent Harpold is an instructor in theBehavioral Science Unit at the FBI Academy.


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June 2000 / 25

patient. Other members of the po-lice departmentas well as othergovernmental, public, and privateorganizationsrepresent the spe-

cialists that patrol officers may needto call for particular expertise totreat the patient.

The Prescription

The medical team should con-sider every means available to treat patients, including traditional andnontraditional responses, as well asboth reactive and proactive strate-gies. Just as doctors use seeminglythreatening methods, such asdefibrillation and chemotherapy, tosave lives, the police must performsimilar operations. Their methodsinvolve search and seizure, arrest,use of lethal force, and the like.Oftentimes, however, these meth-ods treat the symptoms of the dis-ease rather than the illness itself.Thus, the police must apply a fullrange of treatments to solve the un-derlying problem and end repeatcalls for service.

At the same time, the doctor

must evaluate the patient to ensurethat the prescribed treatment works.By conducting surveys and inter-views, performing crime analyses,and using other evaluation tools, thepolice can assess the effectivenessof their approaches. A computer-aided dispatch system, for example,can flag repeat calls for service tothe same location. If the police con-stantly scan for problems and lookfor symptomology reflected in repeat calls to particular locations,

they may be better able to restorethe patients to health before neigh-borhoods deteriorate so badly thatthey require intensive care.

Intensive Care

Intensive care involves the application of governmental, public,and private services in one location. Neighborhood Network Centers,sometimes called Community Cen-ters, serve communities with a per-manently assigned police officerand other agencies representativesassigned part time. Police execu-tives should make it clear that oncethe treatment resuscitates the

Preventive Medicine

Doctors know that patients whotake care of themselves will be lessvulnerable to infection, and at thesame time, patients who do get sickcan recover more quickly and com-pletely. So, primary-care physiciansadvocate that their patients eatright, exercise, get enough sleep,take vitamins, and give up harmfulpractices, such as smoking and ex-cessive drinking.

Preventive medicine also con-stitutes an important part of the po-lice treatment methodology. Thepolice should advocate crime pre-

vention practices, such as Neigh-borhood Watch, in the communitiesthey serve. While such programs donot make neighborhoods impervi-ous to crime, they can create an in-ternal support system that makesthe community stronger in the fightagainst disease. They also help edu-cate the public.

Health Education

Community education repre-sents a crucial component in help-

ing patients share responsibility fortheir own health as well as definingthe legal boundaries for their behav-ior. Community policing shouldcreate citizens who are vigilant, notvigilantes.

One of the best vehicles foreducating the community, Neigh-borhood Watch should broaden toinclude problems other than crimeand also may include social eventsand other activities that result in asense of community. The police

must not let anonymity creep be-tween the doctor and the patient andamong the patients themselves. In-teraction among law-abiding

neighborhood, the other agency

representatives will return to theiroffices, where citizens may contactthem on an as-needed basis. Other-wise, residents may become depen-dent on the care instead of strength-ening their support systems so theycan take care of themselves. Ofcourse, the police remain in theneighborhood and can serve as liai-sons between the other agencies andthe residents.

Intensive care represents theextreme, a last resort to save a

neighborhood from death. Beforeimplementing this approach, the po-lice should help residents practicepreventive medicine.

Preventivemedicine alsoconstitutes an

important part ofthe policetreatment

methodology.


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