Fast estimation of pesticide risk potential on groundwater through the use of a dye tracing technique S. SCHUMANN Institute of Geoecology, Department of Hydrology and Landscape Ecology, Technical University Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19c, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany

Abstract

Within the frame of the Research Project on IPMS Nepal (Herrmann, & Schumann 1999) a

series of dye tracing experiments was carried out, in order to identify preferential flow paths

from ponded agricultural fields towards groundwater and to estimate the transport of

pesticides along these paths.

The experiments were performed on the Nepalese governmental Horticulture Farm

Thamaghat in Jhikhu Khola Catchment (JKC), Kabhre District. There, the soil substrate is

loamy. A perched, isolated groundwater table establishes during monsoon time in a depth of

about 2,30 m below surface. This hydrogeologic situation is representative for khet areas

under cultivation in the JKC. As common within the whole area, the experimental fields were

terraced and ponding irrigation was used.

As a tracing substance the food-colour dye Vitasin Blue AE 90 was applied in combination

with a pesticide mix of Malathion, Metalaxyl, Dimethoate und Fenvalerate.

Results of the experiments are shown, and conclusions drawn on the usefulness of this type of

experiments for a first estimation of groundwater contamination risks through pesticide use in

agricultural activities.

Introduction

Application of pesticides in agricultural areas generally comes along with a potential risk of

groundwater contamination through the applied pesticides and their derivatives. In most

developing countries, little is known about the present state of groundwater contamination or

Landschaftsökologie und Umweltforschung 38 p. 178-189 Braunschweig 2002

possible risks. In Nepal, being one of these countries, an interdisciplinary research project on

environmental risks of pesticides (Environmental risks of pesticides and sustainable

development of integrated pesticide management for mountain areas of developing countries

considering socio-economic conditions and taking Middle Mountains, Central Nepal as an

example) was set up under the sponsorship of Volkswagen Stiftung Foundation (Herrmann &

Schumann 2001). Investigating the risk of a groundwater pollution was one aim within the

project's framework.

The project's field site was situated at approximately 50 km east of Kathmandu, at Tinpiple

and Tamaghat in Kabhre district, latter shown in Figure 1. Since the area is linked to

Kathmandu through the Arniko highway market orientated crops are grown, mainly rice,

potatoes and maize on khet (irrigated) land and tomatoes and maize on bari (rainfed) land.

The use of pesticides in Nepal has reached within the last decades a worrying level (Baker &

Gyawali, 1995) and a survey in the project area carried out by CEAPRED has shown high

application rates, more especially in khet, being among the highest in Nepal (CEAPRED

2000).

Fig. 1 Geographical situation of pilot test plots. Tinpiple is situated approximately 4 km from Tamaghat

0 10 20 30 km

Thamaghat:HorticultureFarm Panchkal

Despite high and very frequent pesticides application rates, samples of groundwater taken

during the project duration did not show contamination through recent applications. The

vadose zone showed a quasi non-detectable presence of pesticides. Possible reasons for the

non-detection of pesticides in the groundwater could be: (a) volatilisation of pesticides, (b) all

pesticides accumulate within the first few centimetres of soil, (c) the mean transit times

through the vadose zone are high, or (e) the pesticides are subject to such dilution in the

aquifer that they fall under limit of detection.

Hydrology and formulation of the problem

The hydrological regime of the area is controlled by monsoon with an average precipitation of

1276 mm for 1976-2000 at Tamaghat (Kansakar et al 2002). Monsoon, including pre-

monsoon, lasts roughly from April to September with it’s maximum normally in July.

Irrigation pattern is also controlled by monsoon since reservoirs do not exist.

A simplified hydrological model as valid for water-bound pesticide transport in khet is shown

in Fig. 2. Spraying of pesticides takes place such that amounts of the chemicals reach the soil

surface, i.e. the upper limit of the vadose zone. The soil substrate (at the site under

investigation) is loamy, with 45% sand, 37% silt and 18% clay in the first 20 cm. Organic

carbon amounts to about 1%. With depth soil composition varies between sand fraction by

40-58%, silt by 30-37% and clay by 12-22%, sand always dominating the substrate. When the

lands are irrigated, here always with the system of ponding irrigation, infiltration starts. The

infiltration flux (Q0’) is controlled through matrix flow and flow following preferential flow

paths. Infiltration determined with a double-ring-infiltrometre, shows rates as high as 150

mm/h during the first 5 minutes. It stabilises at 2 mm/h after 3.5 hours and drops finally to 0.6

mm/h after 22.5 hours. The classical sampling methods for pesticides in the vadose zone

consists of sampling with a N-min drill at depths until 90 cm below surface. Results of blank

samples which were taken in the area showed no presence of pesticides; samples taken during

monitoring after known application rates showed often pesticide concentrations close to

determination limit and of unusual distribution pattern (Vinke, 2002 personal

communication). During degradation experiments at the field site uncommon distribution

pattern with soil depth occurred (Interim Report 2001).

The phreatic zone of the area consists firstly of perched, isolated, aquifers which depend in

their thickness and spatial extension mainly on monsoon and irrigation pattern. The perched

aquifers may dry out completely during dry season, and be recharged again during wet season

and/or irrigation (Schumann et al. 2002). Therefore, the flux Q0’ ’ must be active during

Fig. 2 Simplified hydrological model of khet land as relevant for pesticide transport under ponding irrigation

INPUT

INTERCEPTIONVOLATILE LOSSES

QIRR

QIRR (IMP)

QR

ET IL

P PESTICIDE

IS

PONDIRR

EQO

QOI

SSZpor PFP USZpor PFP

QOII

AQUpor(frac) TEMP - FREE

AQUpor(frac) PER - CONF

QOIV

QOIII

PONDINGIRRIGATION WATER

VADOSE ZONESOIL WATER

PHREATIC ZONEtemporary, free GW

PHREATIC ZONEpermanent, confined GW

EXPORT

QIRR

QD

QIRRI

QSSZ

QUSZ

QPFP

QAQU

QAQUI QR

AQUpor(frac) Aquifer, porous (fractured) QAQU Groundwater FlowCONF Confined (AQU) QD Surface RunoffE Evaporation QFP Flux from Preferential Flow PathET Evapotranspiration QIRR Irrigation WaterFREE Free (AQU) QIRR(IMP) Irrigation Water Channel, importedGW Groundwater QM Flow by matric suctionIL Interception Loss QO Infiltration\Seepage FluxIS Interception Storage QR River WaterP Precipitation QSSZ Flux from Saturated Soil ZonePESTICIDE Pesticide Application QUSZ Flux from Unsaturated Soil ZonePER Permanent (AQU) SSZpor Saturated Soil ZonePFP Preferential Flow Paths TEMP Temporary (AQU)PONDIRR Irrigation Water, ponded USZpor Unsaturated Soil Zone

QM

irrigation recharging the aquifer. Below the perched, isolated aquifers a second, permanent

and confined aquifer lies. Classical sampling for pesticides in the phreatic zone is done by

sample withdrawal through wells or piezometres.

Since no pesticides could be detected in the aquifer and results of pesticide detection in the

soil were dissatisfying, a study on the vadose zone was set up, aiming on the quantification of

the infiltration flux into the vadose zone (Q0II) and from the vadose zone into the groundwater

(Q0III), and on the description of transport and transit flow paths and accumulation sites for

water and pesticides within the soil.

Experimental set-up

In principle, the set-up of the experiment aimed on a visualisation of flow pattern in the

ground and a sampling for pesticides along the visualised flow paths as well as in no-flow

sectors.

Visualisation was attained by the use of a dye tracer, Vitasin Blue FCF 90. The colour index

(C.I.) of the substance is 42090, it’s aqueous solubility is greater than 50 kg⋅m-3 (Clariant

Fig. 3 Experimental set-up at tracer experimental site 1 at Tamaghat Horticulture Farm. Section for sampling after 3 and 14 days, and after 3 month respectively

3. Ponding

4. Sampling with Nmin-sampler

2. Application of dissolvedVitasin Blue FCF (blue)

1. Spraying of:Malathion,Meatlaxyl,DimethoateFenvalerate

5. Vertical transection ofthe vadose zone with aimon sampling

PONDIRR

SSZpor PFP USZpor PFP

AQUpor(frac) TEMP - FREE

QOIII

PONDINGIRRIGATION WATER

VADOSE ZONESOIL WATER

PHREATIC ZONE temporary,free GW

1999). According to a study by Flury & Flühler (1995) the adsorption coefficient (K) ranges

from 0.16 to 5.95 dm3⋅kg-1. K varies in the lower values for CaCO3-free soils. The soil found

at the experimental site was carbonate-free.

The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 3, with running-phases indicated. For the

experiment, four experimental plots (2x1 metres) were prepared with Nepalese workers as

common for rice production. Then, in step 1 the four target compounds (Vinke et.al. 2002)

Malathion, Dimethoate, Fenvalerate and Metalaxyl were sprayed onto the top soil, using

common concentrations. They were equal to the concentrations applied during the

degradation experiments mentioned before. Thereafter, dissolved Vitasin Blue was applied

using a watering can aiming on a concentration of 8g⋅l-1 after ponding the plots with 10 cm

water column (step 3).

After a waiting period of three and 14 days and three month respectively steps 4 and 5 were

carried out. Step 4 consisted of conservative sampling for pesticides with the N-min drill at

three places within the test plots, while step 5 included cutting a section at the centre part of

the test plots. This vertical section had a width of 1 m and a depth of up to 2.60 m. Besides

Fig. 4 Application of Vitasin Blue and ponding at experimental site

photographing, samples for pesticides and Vitasin Blue were taken along and besides the

indicated flow pattern.

The experiment was run on the grounds of Horticulture Farm, Thamaghat.

Fig. 4 shows the application of Vitasin Blue and ponding, Fig. 5 the sections after 3 days in

the part of conservative standardised sampling using a N-min drill.

Results and discussion

Here, the results valid for the first experimental plot shall be presented. Sampling for the plot

took place three days after the application of pesticides and Vitasin Blue. Field situation of the

section for the first 1.20 metre below surface is presented in Fig. 6. Here, bold outlined labels

indicate samples for pesticides and Vitasin Blue, and labels without margin samples for

Vitasin Blue only. In Table 1 the results for the pesticide concentrations of Fenvalerate,

Metalaxyl and Dimethoate are shown in µg⋅kg-1. Generally the sample number increases with

depth in the soil profile.

Fig. 5 Sections after 3 days. View of standardised sampling technique holes (N-min drill)

It is remarkable that in great depths (2.20 and 2.40 m below surface) strong Vitasin Blue

concentrations were observed, and come together with concentrations of Metalaxyl and

Dimethoate. At 2.40 m also a non-quantifiable amount of Fenvalerate was detected.

Dimethoate and Metalaxyl appear in quantifiable amounts in the uplifted groundwater. This

Fig. 6 Selective sampling at a section up to a depth of 120 cm, three days after application. Numbers with margins stand for sampling for pesticides and Vitasin Blue, without margin for sampling for Vitasin Blue only. Dark soil parts indicate the presence of Vitasin Blue. Sample 12 (cf. Table 1) was taken at a blue spot in a depth of 2.40 m below surface

O 12: 2,40 m b.s.

groundwater corresponds to the water of the perched, isolated, aquifer which depends on

irrigation pattern. Accordingly, the flux Q0III

must have been active during the experiment

recharging the aquifer and transporting pesticides. Transport pattern do not exactly

correspond to water solubility, since after Vinke et al (2002) Metalaxyl (with 8 mg/l) is less

soluble than Dimethoate (with 25 g/l). However, Metalaxyl has proved to be more persistent

than Dimethoate (28:8 DT50 under laboratory conditions) and it could be, that degradation had

already diminished the amounts of Dimethoate under detection limits (samples 8, 9, 10) or

below quantification limit (sample 12). The lower concentrations of Dimethoate than

Metalaxyl in the upper two samples (1 and 2) support the assumption that degradation had

already started, i.e. especially that directly after spraying the concentration of Metalaxyl was

about 1/6 of the concentration of Dimethoate in the top soil.

The relations between Vitasin Blue and the pesticides in the 12 samples are shown in Fig. 7.

Fits are not too bad and show for Metalaxyl the best correspondence. Dimethoate, since

Tab. 1 Concentrations (µg⋅kg-1) of pesticides in 12 soil samples, three days after application following selective sampling. Residue analysis by Bajrachaya K. & Vinke C.

Sample Fenvalerate Metalaxyl Dimethoateµg/kg µg/kg µg/kg

1 53 62 132 14 29 213 n.q. n.q. n.q.4 n.d. n.q. n.d.5 n.d. n.d. n.d.6 n.d. n.q. n.q.7 n.d. n.q. n.q.8 n.d. n.q. n.d.9 n.d. n.q. n.d.

10 n.d. n.q. n.d.11 n.d. 11 1112 n.q. 14 n.q.

[ng/L] [ng/L] [ng/L]uplifted GW n.d. 1 4

n.d.: not detectablen.q.: not possible to be quantified

Solubility +

already quite degraded shows the worst relation. In the section cut 14 days after application

the correspondence from Vitasin Blue to Metalaxyl is no longer given (not shown) since

degradation had also here too strong influences. Hence, no conclusions should be drawn from

Vitasin Blue concentrations to pesticide concentrations. For this detailed studies on

correspondence under different conditions, and specific for each pesticide would need to be

carried out.

However, selective sampling along flow pattern allows pesticide tracking. This has also been

shown by Reichenberger et al (2001) for pesticide tracking in Brasilian Oxisols using Vitasin

Blue as tracing substance.

Analysis of the samples taken by the N-min drill show for Fenvalerate and Metalaxyl

quantifiable amounts only up to 5 cm below surface and a non-quantifiable amount up to 20

cm. For Dimethoate only a non-quantifiable amount in the first 5 cm. In Fig. 5 can be seen

that the N-min drill did not remarkably hit the blue parts of soil where, according to the

selective sampling technique, the transported pesticides are found. Depths greater than 90 cm,

where high concentrations of pesticides still occur are not captured at all.

Conclusion

The presented experimental set-up discloses a rather fast and easily carried out first indication

for possible pesticide transport through the vadose zone. It furthermore reveals flow pattern,

-100

10203040506070

0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00

Vitasin Blau (mg/l)

Pes

tici

de

con

cen

trat

ion

(µµ µµg

/kg

)Dimethoate

Metalaxyl

Fenvalerate

Linear(Dimethoate)

Linear (Metalaxyl)

Linear(Fenvalerate)

Fig. 7 Relation between Vistasin Blue concentration and pesticide concentrations three days after application. A linear fit was applied

and allows indication for presence and importance of preferential flow in the substrate.

However, repetitions of sections longer than 14 days after application are not useful since

then degradation or leaching of pesticides might prevail. This, of course depends on applied

pesticides. Furthermore, pesticides seem to be transported mainly through preferential flow

paths, which are predominantly active after dry periods, when soils are dry, and become less

active with growing water content (Schumann et al 2002). Also Flury et al. (1995) observed a

slower transport of herbizides with growing soil water content in loamy soils as then matrix

flow outweighs preferential flow.

The method is extremely useful if depth of water table below surface is small. Using the

method might save one from carrying out medium-term observations concerning groundwater

pollution without results. It furthermore could explain pesticide whereabouts if balancing of

pesticides in field trials fails. The easy set-up for the method and the possibility that soil

samples can be deep frozen and then be transported to a pesticide analysis laboratory makes

the method useful for remote areas, developing countries or countries without a pesticide

laboratory.

The method should follow a first sample survey for pesticides in groundwater wells.

The method, at present state, does not allow a quantification of water flux or pesticide

transport. It is not possible to draw from Vitasin Blue concentrations to pesticide

concentrations. Further detailed studies should follow in order to refine the method and hence

enable the quantification of water-bound transport. The use of bromide could be helpful in

this context since it allows a quantification of water flux.

Acknowledgement

Funding of the work by Volkswagen Stiftung is highly appreciated.

Thanks deserve all Nepalese workers for physical strength and K. Bajrachaya and C. Vinke

for analysis of the pesticide samples.

References

Baker, S. L. & Gyawali, B. K. (1994) Promoting Proper Pesticide Use in Nepal. HMG Ministry of Agriculture (Nepal)/Winrock Internat. Report Series, 28, Kathmandu, Nepal

Clariant (1999) Sicherheitsdatenblätter gemäss 91/155/EWG Vitasin Blue AE 90. CEAPRED (2000) Socio-economic survey of the Jhikhu-Khola watershed. Unpublished

report. IPMS-Project Nepal, CEAPRED, Kathmandu Flury, M., Leuenberger, J., Studer B. & Flühler H. (1995) Transport of anions and herbicides

in a loamy and a sandy field soil. Water Resources Research 31 (4), 823-835 Flury, M. & Flühler H. (1995) Tracer Characteristics of Brilliant Blue FCF. Soil Science

Society of America Journal 59 (1), 22-27 Herrmann, A. & Schumann, S. (2002) Collaborative project on environmental risk of

pesticides and development of an Integrated Pesticide Management System (IPMS) in Nepal considering socio-economic conditions: status and perspectives. Proc. Internat. Workshop on Environmental Risk Assessment of pesticides and Integrated Pesticide Management in Developing Countries, Kathmandu Nov. 2001. Landschaftsökologie und Umweltforschung 38, Braunschweig, 38-48

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Kansakar, S., Prajapati, S. & Pokhrel A. (2002) Hydrological and Meteorological Components in the Integrated Pesticide Management Project at Jaisidhi Khola, Tinpiple. Proc. Internat. Workshop on Environmental Risk Assessment of pesticides and Integrated Pesticide Management in Developing Countries, Kathmandu Nov. 2001. Landschaftsökologie und Umweltforschung 38, Braunschweig

Reichenberger, S., Amelung, W., Laabs, V., Pinto, A., Totsche, K.U. & Zech, W. (2001) Pesticide displacement along preferential flow pathways in a Brazilian Oxisol. Geoderma (in print)

Schumann, S., Stichler, W. & Prajapati, S.B. (2002) Underground water passages and runoff formation pattern in an irrigated khet catchment. Proc. Internat. Workshop on Environmental Risk Assessment of pesticides and Integrated Pesticide Management in Developing Countries, Kathmandu Nov. 2001. Landschaftsökologie und Umweltforschung 38, Braunschweig,. 190-204

Vinke, C., Kreuzig, R. & Bahadir, M. (2002) Analytical investigations on the fate of pesticides in soils of the Jhikhu Khola catchment. Proc. Internat. Workshop on Environmental Risk Assessment of pesticides and Integrated Pesticide Management in Developing Countries, Kathmandu Nov. 2001. Landschaftsökologie und Umweltforschung 38, Braunschweig, 265-275

Vinke, C. (2002) Personal communication