BibliographicalNoteThisDoveredition,firstpublishedin2005,isanunabridgedrepublicationofFamousMenofRome,originallypublishedbyAmericanBookCompany,NewYork,1904.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataHaaren,JohnH.(JohnHenry),1855–1916.

[FamousmenofRome]

FamousmenofancientRome:livesofJuliusCaesar,Nero,MarcusAureliusandothers/JohnH.HaarenandA.B.Poland.

p.cm.

“AnunabridgedrepublicationofFamousmenofRome,originallypublishedbyAmericanBookCompany,NewYork,1904.”

9780486174600

1.Rome—Biography—Juvenileliterature.2.Rome—History—Juvenileliterature.1.Poland,AddisonB.II.Title.

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920.037-dc22

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2005045421

ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesbyCourierCorporation44361202www.doverpublications.com

Preface

Thestudyofhistory,likethestudyofalandscape,shouldbeginwiththemostconspicuousfeatures.Notuntilthesehavebeenfixedinmemorywillthelesserfeaturesfallintotheirappropriateplacesandassumetheirrightproportions.

Inordertoattractandholdthechild’sattention,eachconspicuousfeatureofhistorypresentedtohimshouldhaveanindividualforitscenter.Thechildidentifieshimselfwiththepersonagepresented.ItisnotRomulusorHerculesorCæsarorAlexanderthatthechildhasinmindwhenhereads,buthimself,actingundertheprescribedconditions.

Prominenteducators,appreciatingthesetruths,havelongrecognizedthevalueofbiographyasapreparationforthestudyofhistoryandhavegivenitanimportantplaceintheirschools.

TheformerpracticeinmanyelementaryschoolsofbeginningthedetailedstudyofAmericanhistorywithoutanypreviousknowledgeofgeneralhistorylimitedthepupil’srangeofvision,restrictedhissympathies,andlefthimwithoutmaterialforcomparisons.Moreover,itdeniedtohimaknowledgeofhisinheritancefromtheGreekphilosopher,theRomanlawgiver,theTeutonicloveroffreedom.HencetherecommendationsostronglyurgedinthereportoftheCommitteeofTen—andemphasized,also,inthereportoftheCommitteeofFifteen—thatthestudyofGreek,Roman,andmodernEuropeanhistoryintheformofbiographyshouldprecedethestudyofdetailedAmericanhistoryinourelementaryschools.TheCommitteeofTenrecommendsaneightyears’courseinhistory,beginningwiththefifthyearinschoolandcontinuingtotheendofthehighschoolcourse.Thefirsttwoyearsofthiscoursearegivenwhollytothestudyofbiographyandmythology.TheCommitteeofFifteenrecommendsthathistorybetaughtinallthegradesoftheelementaryschoolandemphasizesthevalueofbiographyandofgeneralhistory.

Theseriesofhistoricalstoriestowhichthisvolumebelongswaspreparedinconformitywiththeforegoingrecommendationsandwiththebestpracticeofleadingschools.

Teachersoftenfinditimpracticabletogivetothestudyofmythologyandbiographyaplaceofitsowninanalreadyovercrowdedcurriculum.Insuchcasestheyprefertocorrelatehistorywithreadingandforthispurposethevolumesofthisseriessupplymostdesirabletext-books.Ithasbeentheaimoftheauthorstomakeaninterestingstoryofeachman’slifeandtotellthesestoriesinastylesosimplethatpupilsinthelowergradeswillreadthemwithpleasure,andsodignifiedthattheymaybeusedwithprofitastext-booksforreading.

TableofContents

TitlePageCopyrightPagePreface

ROMULUSNUMAPOMPILIUSTHEHORATIIANDTHECURIATIITHETARQUINSJUNIUSBRUTUSHORATIUSMUCIUSTHELEFT-HANDEDCORIOLANUSTHEFABIICINCINNATUSCAMILLUSMANLIUSTORQUATUSAPPIUSCLAUDIUSCÆCUSREGULUSSCIPIOAFRICANUSCATOTHECENSORTHEGRACCHIMARIUSSULLAPOMPEYTHEGREATJULIUSCÆSARCICEROAUGUSTUSNEROTITUSTRAJANMARCUSAURELIUS

CONSTANTINETHEGREATENDOFTHEWESTERNEMPIRE

ROMULUS

IMany,manyyearsago,inthepleasantlandofItaly,therewasalittlecitycalledAlba.Itstoodonthesunnysideofamountain,neartheRiverTiberandnotfarfromtheMediterraneanSea.Inthiscityandaroundthemountainlivedabrave,intelligentpeopleknownasLatins.Severalothertribesinhabitedtheadjacentmountainsandplains.

TheLatinswereruledbykings,andoneoftheirkingsinveryearlytimeswasnamedÆ-ne’as.HewasafamousTrojanchiefwhohadcomeovertheseastoItalyandsettledtherewithhisfamilyandfriendsafterTroywasdestroyedbytheGreeks.

AgreatmanyyearsafterthedeathofÆneasoneofhisdescendantsnamedPro’caswaskingofAlba.Heruledwiselyandwellforalongtime,andhisrathersmallkingdomonthemountainside,withitswheat-fieIdsandvineyards,wasveryprosperous.Hehadtwosons,onenamedNu’mi-tor,andtheotherA-mu’li-us.AsNumitorwastheelderhewasheirtohisfather’sthrone,butwhenKingProcasdiedAmuliusseizedthekingdombyforceandmadehimselfking.

ThenNumitor,withhistwochildren,aboyandagirl,lefttheking’spalaceatAlbaandwenttoresideonafarmashortdistanceaway.

IIAmuliuswasnowking,buthedidnotfeelquitehappy.HewasmuchtroubledaboutNumitor’ssonanddaughter.Theson,hethought,mightsomedayclaimtherighttobekingasheirofhisfather,orthedaughtermightmarryandhaveasonwhocouldbecomekingasgrandchildofNumitor.

TopreventeitherofthesethingsfromhappeningAmuliushadNumitor’ssonsecretlyputtodeath,andheappointedthedaughterSyl’vi-atobeapriestess,oranattendant,inthetempleofthegoddessVes’ta.Onlyyounggirlswereappointedattendantsinthistemple,andtheyhadtotakeavowthattheywould

notmarryforthirtyyears.TheywerecalledVestalVirgins.Itwastheirdutytokeepafireburningcontinuallyonthealtarofthegoddess.ThiswascalledtheSacredFire,anditwasbelievedthatifitwentoutsomegreatdisasterwouldhappentothecity.

AmuliusnowthoughttherewasnothingtohinderhimfrombeingkingofAlbaallhislife.ButonedaythegodMarscamedowntothecityfromhispalaceonahighmountaintopandsawSylviaasshewentoutofthetempletogetwateratawell.Hefelldeeplyinlovewithher.Shealsofellinlovewiththegod,forhehadtheappearanceofahandsomeyoungman.Theyweremarriedsecretly,andincourseoftimeSylviahadbeautifultwinboys.WhenAmuliusheardofthishegaveordersthatSylviashouldbeputtodeathforbreakinghervowandthatthetwoinfantsshouldbethrownintotheTiber.Thesewickedorderswerecarriedout,fornoonedaredtodisobeytheking.

Fortunately,however,thebabeshadbeenplacedinastoutbasket,whichfloatedalongtheTiberuntilitwascarriedbythewaterstothefootofahillcalledPal’a-tineHill.Herethehugerootsofawildfig-treeupsetthebasket,andthelittleoneswerethrownoutupontheriverbank.

Atthismomentagreatshe-wolfcamestrollingdownthehilltodrinkattheriver’sedge.Sheheardthefeeblecriesoftheinfantsandwenttotheplacewheretheylayhelplessonthewetsands.Shetouchedthemgentlywithherroughpaws,turnedthemoverandlickedtheirfacesandplumpbodies.Perhapsshethoughttheyweresomeofherowncubs.Atanyrate,shecarriedthebabesupthehilltohercaveunderalargerock.Thereshefedthemasshefedherowncubsandseemedpleasedtohavethemnearher.Itissaidthatawoodpeckerflewinandoutofthecavemanytimesaday,bringingberriesfortheboystoeat.

OnemorningasFaus’tu-lus,theherdsmanofKingAmulius,wasgoingoverPalatineHilllookingforcattlethathadgoneastrayhesawtheboysplayingwiththewolfatthemouthofhercave.Hefrightenedthewolfawayandtooktheboystohishome.Hiswifepitiedthelittlefoundlingsandcaredforthemasthoughtheywereherownchildren.

TheherdsmannamedthemRom’u-lusandRe’mus.Theygrewuptobestrong,handsomeyouths,braveandkind.Untiltheyweretwentyyearsoldtheylivedwiththeherdsmanandhelpedhiminhiswork,androamedoverthehillslight-heartedandfree.

DuringalltheseyearsNumitorlivedonhisfarm,andhisbrotherAmuliusremainedkingofAlba.Numitordidnotknowthathistwograndsonshadbeen

savedfromawaterygraveandwereliviingsoneartohim.

ButonedayRemushadaquarrelwithsomeoftheherdsmenofNumitorandtheytookhimprisoner.TheythenbroughthimbeforeNumitor,whowasmuchimpressedwiththenobleappearanceoftheyouthandaskedhimwhohewas.

RemustoldallheknewabouthimselfandRomulus;howtheyhadbeenfoundatthecaveoftheshe-wolfandhadbeenrearedbytheking’sherdsman.JustthenFaustulusandRomuluscamesearchingforRemus,andwerefullofjoywhentheyfoundthatnoharmhadcometohim.Numitorquestionedtheherdsmanaboutthefindingofthetwins,andafterhearinghisstorywasconvincedthatRomulusandRemuswereSylvia’sboys,whohadbeenstrangelysavedfromthewrathoftheircrueluncle.Hewasveryhappyatfindinghisgrandsonsandhethankedtheherdsmanforhisgoodcareofthem.

RomulusandRemuswerealsoveryhappyatfindingagrandfatherandatthesuddenchangeoftheirfortune.WhentheyweretoldaboutAmuliusandhiswickeddeeds,theyresolvedtopunishhimforthemurderoftheirmother.SowithafewfollowerstheyrushedtothepalaceatAlbaandenteredtheking’schamber.

“Behold!weareSylvia’ssonswhomyouthoughtyouhadkilled,”theyshoutedtoAmulius,ashestartedupinalarmattheirentrance.“Youkilledourmotherandyoushalldieforit.”

Beforehecouldutterawordtheysprangonhimwithdrawnswordsandcuthisheadoff.ThentheybroughtNumitortothepalace,andthepeoplewelcomedhimastherightfulkingofAlba.

IIIAfteralittletimethetwobrothersthoughttheywouldbuildacityonPalatineHill,wheretheshe-wolfhadnursedthem.Sotheywenttothehillandselectedasite.Thentheybegantotalkofanamefortheircity.

“Iwillbekingandgivethenewcitymyname,”saidRomulus.

“No,”criedRemus.“Iwillbethekingandnamethecityaftermyself.Ihavejustasmuchrightasyouhave.”

Sothebrothersarguedforawhile,butatlasttheyagreedtosettlethematterinthisway:

AtmidnightRomuluswastostandonPalatineHill,andRemuswastostand

onanotherhillashortdistanceoff.Thentheyweretoaskthegodstoshowthemasignoffavorinthesky,andthefirstwhoshouldseeanythingveryremarkablewastonamethenewcityandbeitsking.Sotheywenttowatch,butnothingappeareduntilsunriseofthesecondday,

whenRemussawsixgreatvulturesflyingacrosstheskyfromnorthtosouth.HeranswiftlytoPalatineHillandtoldRomulusofwhathehadseen.Butjustthentwelvevultures,oneafteranother,flewhighovertheheadofRomulusinanalmostunbrokenlineandweresoonlosttoview.

ThenRomulusclaimedthathehadthefavorofthegods,asmorebirdshadappearedtohim,butRemusclaimedthatthegodsfavoredhim,asthebirdshadappearedtohimfirst.Romulusaskedtheopinionofsomeofhisfriends,andastheyallagreedthathewasrightinhisclaimhepaidnofurtherattentiontoRemus,butbegantolayoutthenewcity.HegaveitthenameofRoma,orRome,afterhimself.WithaplowhemarkedoutthespaceonPalatineHillandalongthebanksoftheTiber,andhebuiltalowwallroundabouttoprotectthecityfrominvaders.

OnedaywhiletheworkwasgoingonRemuscamebyinaverybittermood.HewasstillangrywithRomulus.Helaughedscornfullyatthelittlewallandsaidtohisbrother:

“Shallsuchadefenceasthiskeepyourcity?Itmaypreventchildrenfromgettingin,butnotmen,fortheycanjumpoverit.”

Sosaying,Remusputhishandsonthewallandsprangoverit,toshowthathiswordsweretrue.Romulus,inasuddenoutburstofrage,struckhimontheheadwithaspadeandinstantlykilledhim,atthesametimecryingout:

“Soperishanyonewhoshallhereafterattempttoleapovermywall.”

ThenRomuluscontinuedhiswork.Whilehewasbuildinghiswallhealsobuiltsomehouses.Thefirsthouseswerenothingmorethanwoodhutscoveredwithmudandstraw.ButincourseoftimetheRomanshadhousesofstone,andtheybuiltfinetemplesandtheatresandstreetsandsquares,andatlastRomebecamethegreatestandgrandestcityinthewholeworld.

IVRomulusfoundedRomeintheyear753B.C.Afterhehadbuilthiscityhehadsomedifficultyingettingpeopletoliveinit.Hehadonlyafewfollowersandwasnotabletoobtainanymore.Hedecided,therefore,tomakeRomeaplaceof

refuge,towhichpeoplewhohadgotintotroubleinothercountriesmightcomeforsafety.Andsowhenthosewhohadcommittedcrimeinotherplaces,andhadtoflee

toescapepunishment,foundoutthatRomuluswouldgivethemarefuge,theycameinlargenumberstohiscity.Peoplealsocamewhohadbeendrivenfromhomebyenemies,orhadrunawayforonereasonoranother.Itwasnotlong,therefore,untilRomewasfullofmen.Thereweremenfrommanydifferenttribesandcountries.ThustheRomannationbegan,andforyearsitsteadilygrewandprospered.

ButtheRomansweremuchtroubledaboutonething.Agreatmanyofthemhadnowives,andtheycouldnotgetany,becausethewomenoftheneighboringtribeswouldnotmarrythem,fortheRomanshadabadname.Romuluswasveryanxiousthathispeopleshouldhavegoodwives,buthowtheyshouldgetthemgreatlypuzzledhimforalongtime.Atlasthehituponaplanandbeganatoncetocarryitout.

HesentmessengerstothecitiesallaroundtoannouncethatonacertaindayagreatfestivalinhonorofthegodJu’pi-terwouldbeheldontheplaininfrontofRome.Thereweretobegames,combats,horse-racing,andothersports.Thepeoplewereinvitedtoattendthefestivalandalsototakepartinthecontestsfortheprizes.

WhenthefestivaldaycameamultitudeofmenandwomenfromfarandnearassembledbeforethewallsofRome.Hundredsofprettygirlswerethereinfinedresses.AgreatmanycamefromtheS ’binetribe.ThiswasatribeofwarriorsthatlivedonamountainnearRome.

SuddenlyRomulusblewaloudblastuponahorn.Then,quickasaflash,theRomansseizedthegirlsandborethemofftoRome.

TheSabinesweregreatlyenragedatthis,andtheirking,Ti’tusTa’ti-us,raisedalargearmyandatoncebeganawaragainsttheRomans.Thewarwentonforthreeyears,buttheSabinesweresostrongthatRomuluscouldnotdefeattheminthefield.Hethereforewithdrewhisarmyintothecity.KingTatiusquicklymarchedafterhim,resolvedtotakeRomeorperishintheattempt.

NowRomulushaderectedastrongfortressonahillnearthePalatine,tokeepinvadersfromRome.ThehillwascalledtheSa-tur’ni-anHill,andthefortresswasinchargeofabraveRomancaptain,whohadadaughternamedTar-pe’i-a.

WhentheSabinesreachedthisfortresstheycouldgonofurther.They

marchedupanddownseekingforaspotwheretheymightforceanentrance,buttheycouldfindnone.Therewasasmall,barredgateinthefortress,andthroughthisgateTarpeiacameouttogetwater.KingTatiussawher.Heatoncesteppedforwardandsaid:

“Fairmaiden,openthegateandletusin.Ifyoudoyoushallhaveforyourrewardanythingyouask.”

TarpeiawasgazingwithadmirationatthebraceletsofgoldwhichtheSabinesworeontheirarms.

“Iwillopenthegate,”saidshe,“ifyouwillgivemesomeofthosethingswhichyoursoldierswearupontheirarms.”

KingTatiusagreed,andTarpeiaopenedthegate.AstheSabinesstrodepastthesillymaideneachthrewather,nothisbracelet,buthisshield.

Theshieldthenusedwasroundoroblongandmadeofbronze,orofwicker-workorox-hidecoveredwithmetalplates.Ithadtwohandlesattheback,andthesoldierhelditwithhislefthandandarmsothathecouldmoveitupordowntosavehisheadorbreastfromblows.

Tarpeiastoodinamazementastheheavyshieldsbegantopileuparoundher.Onestruckher,andthenanotherandanother.Atlastshefelltothegroundandwassooncrushedtodeath.

WhenthesoldierssawthatTarpeiawasdead,theytookuptheshieldstheyhadthrownather.Thentheyhurledherbodyfromthetopofagreatrockthatwasnearthegateshehadopened.TherockwasafterwardsknownastheTarpeianRock,andforhundredsofyearsthepunishmentfortraitorsinRomewastobethrownfromthisrock.

AssoonastheypassedthefortresstheSabinesrandowntheSaturnianHilltomakeanattackonRome.ButRomulusandhisbandofwarriorsbravelycameoutofthecitytodrivebacktheenemy.Thetwoforcesmetinthevalley,andthenafiercebattlebegan.

Butwhiletheywerefightingacrowdofexcitedwomencamerunningfromthecity.TheyweretheSabinewomenwhomtheRomanshadcarriedoff.Someofthemhadtheirinfantsintheirarmsandtheyrushedbetweenthelinesofsoldiersandbeggedthatthefightshouldstop.

“Donotfightanymoreforus,”theysaidtotheirfathersandbrothers.“WelovetheRomanswehavemarried.Theyhavebeengoodtous,andwedonot

wishtoleavethem.”

Ofcourse,thissettledthematter.RomulushadatalkwithKingTatius,andtheyagreednottofightanymore.Theyalsoagreedthatthetwonationsshouldbeasone.Theyjoinedtheirgovernmentsandtheirarmies,andeachofthekingshadequalpower.

SoonafterwardsKingTatiusdied.ThenRomulusruledalonefornearlyfortyyears.Hewasawiseandjustkinganddidagreatdealofgoodforhispeople.HeestablishedabodycalledtheSenate,tohelphiminimportantaffairsofgovernment.ltwascalledtheSenatefromsenex,theLatinwordforanoldman.ltwasformedofthechiefsoroldmenoftheearliestsettlersinRome.Thedescendantsofthosesettlerswerecalledpatricians,orfathers,fromtheLatinwordpater,afather.Theywerethenobles,orupperclass,inRome.Theordinarycitizenswerecalledplebeians,fromplebs,theLatinwordforthecommonpeople.

RomulustookcaretotrainuptheyoungRomanstobegoodsoldiers.Outsidethecity,alongthebankoftheTiber,therewasagreatplainwhichinlatertimeswascalledCam’pusMar’ti-us,orFieldofMars.HeretheRomansoldiersweredrilled.Theyweretaughthowtousethespearandthejavelinandtheswordandtheshield.Theywerealsoexercisedinrunningandjumping,andwrestlingandswimming,andcarryingheavyloads.Thustheyoungmenweremadefittobearthehardshipsofwarandtofightandwinbattlesfortheircountry.

ItisrelatedthatinhisoldageRomulussuddenlydisappearedfromtheearth.Hecalledhispeopletogetheronagreatfieldoneday,andwhilehewasspeakingtothemaviolentstormcameon.Therainfellintorrents,andthelightningandthunderweresoterriblethatthepeoplefledtotheirhomes.

Whenthestormwasoverthepeoplewentbacktothefield,butRomuluswasnowheretobefound.Thenitwassaidthathisfather,thegodMars,hadtakenhimuptothecloudsinagoldenchariot.

NextmorningatearlydawnaRomancitizennamedJu’li-ussawafiguredescendingfromtheheavens.IthadtheappearanceofRomulus,anditapproachedJuliusandsaid:

“GoandtellmypeoplethatitisthewillofthegodsthatRomeshallbethegreatestcityoftheworld.Letthembebraveandwarlike,andnohumanpowershallbeabletoconquerthem.”

AfterwardstheRomansworshipedRomulusasagod.Theyworshipedhim

underthenameQuir’i-nus,whichwasoneofthenamesofthegodMars,andtheybuiltatempletohimonahillwhichwascalledtheQuir’i-nalHill.

NUMAPOMPILIUS

IForayearafterthedisappearanceofRomulustherewasnokingofRome.ThecitywasruledbytheSenate.Butthepeoplewerenotsatisfied.Theypreferredtoberuledbyoneman,and,thoughtheyhadtherighttoelectakingthemselves,theyleftthechoicetotheSenate.TheSenatechoseNu’maPom-pil’i-us,averygoodandwiseman,whobelongedtothenationoftheSabines.

ThefirstthingthatNumadidafterlearningthathehadbeenchosenkingwastoconsulttheaugurs,tofindoutifitwasthewillofthegodsthatheshouldbetherulerofRome.

Theaugurswerewhatweshouldcallfortune-tellers.AnumberofthemlivedinRome.Theyweremuchrespectedandoccupiedalargetempleattheexpenseofthepublic.Theypretendedthatbywatchingtheskyandobservinghowbirdsandanimalsactedtheycouldtellwhatwouldhappentopeopleandtonations.Thenwhentheywerealonetheywouldhaveagreatdealoffunoverthetrickstheyplayeduponthefoolishpeople.

Numamademanyimportantchangesattheverybeginningofhisrule.BeforehecametothethroneRomanyoungmenwerebroughtuptonobusinessbutwar.ItwasconsidereddisgracefulforaRomancitizen,whetherrichorpoor,toworkatanytradeormanufacture.Theslaves,whowerepersonstakenprisonersinwars,didallthehardwork.Theymadealltheclothing,tools,arms,andhouseholdarticles.Theycookedandservedthemeals,andweregeneralservantsfortheRomanfamilies.Romancitizensmight,however,withoutbeingdegradedworkonfarmsandvineyards,andmanyofthemmadetheirlivinginthisway.

ShortlyafterKingNumabeganhisreignhedividedsomeofthepubliclandsintosmallfarmsandgaveoneofthesefarmstoeverypoorRoman.Thepubliclandswerelandsthatbelongedtothenationandnottoprivatepersons.

Itwasratherhardatfirstforthenew-madefarmerstobecontentedontheirfarmsandtodogoodwork.Theyweremostlysoldiersandhadverylittleknowledgeofanythingexceptmarchingandfighting.Butitwasnotlongbefore

theybegantounderstandwhatablessingitistobeself-supportingandindependent.Theirlittlefarmswerepleasanthomes.Theybegantolovetheirnewlifeandsoonwereabletoraiseenoughforthesupportofthemselvesandtheirfamilies,withsomethingtospare.

IIKingNumamademanygoodlaws.Theselawswereengravedontabletsofbrassandatcertaintimeswerereadandexplainedtothepeoplebylawyers.

NumawasveryfriendlywiththepeopleofthecountriessurroundingRome.Hegavethemhelpintimesoftroubleandwouldneverlistentoanytalkofwarwiththem.DuringthemanyyearsthathewaskingRomehadnoenemiesandnowars.

Inasacredgrove,justoutsidethewallsofRome,therelivedinahandsomegrotto,orcavern,abeautifulwomannamedE-ge’ri-a.Somepersonscalledheragoddess,whileothersthoughtshewasafairy.Sheseemedtohaveagreatknowledgeofmagicandcoulddowonderfulthings.Whenevershecalledtothesong-birdstheywouldcomeflyingaroundher.Theywouldalsoperchonherheadandshouldersandhands,andsingtheirsweetestsongs.Eventhefierceanimalsofthewoodswereherfriends,andgreatbearsandwolveswouldlieatherfeetforhoursandpurrlikecats.

Thismysteriouswoman-goddess,orfairy,orwhatevershewas,greatlylovedandhonoredgoodKingNuma,andatlasttheyweremarried.Thenshetaughthimmanyofthemagicalsecretsshepossessed.Hecarefullystudiedthelessonsshegavehim,andintimehewasabletodowonderfulthingshimself.

IIITheRomanswereearnestworshipersofthegodsandgoddesses.Theybelievedthatthereweremanysuchbeings,andtheyhadmanygrandtemplesforreligiousservice.

KingNumaalwayspaidgreatattentiontoreligion.Heappointedalargenumberofofficialstotakecareofthetemples,andtoseethatallthesacredceremonieswereproperlycarriedout.Hewasconstantandfaithfulinhisownworshipandthus,byhisexample,graduallyinducedthewholeRomanpeopletobecomeattentivetotheirreligion.

ThegreatestofthegodsthattheRomansbelievedinwasthegodJupiter.He

wassupposedtoruleboththeskyandtheearth.Hewassopowerfulthathecouldsendthunderboltsfromtheheavens,andmaketheearthtremblebyhisnod.HehadawifenamedJu’nowhohadagreatdealtodowithmanagingtheaffairsoftheearth.ItwasatonetimebelievedthatJupiterresidedwithmanyothergodsonthetopofahighmountaininGreece.Thismountainwassothicklycoveredbycloudsthatthegodscouldnotbeseen.Buttheycouldseeeverythingthattookplaceontheearth.

JupiterhadtwobrothersnamedNep’tuneandPlu’to.Neptunewasthegodofthesea.Helivedinagrand,goldenpalaceatthebottomoftheMediterranean.Heruledeverythingunderanduponthewatersoftheworld.Nowandthenhesailedovertheoceaninagrandchariotdrawnbylargefishcalleddolphins.Whenhewasangryhecausedtheseatoriseinhugewaves.

Pluto,theotherbrotherofJupiter,wasthegodofH ’des,orthelandofthedead.Hishomewasfardownintheearth,whereallwasdarkandgloomy.TheRomansbelievedthatwhenpeoplediedtheywereborneawaytothegloomykingdomofPluto.

TheotherprincipalgodswereMars,Mer’cu-ry,Vul’can,A-pol’lo,andJa’nus.

Marswasthegodofwar,andwasespeciallyhonoredinRomebecauseitwasbelievedthathewasthefatherofRomulus.Certaindaysoftheyearweremadefestivaldaysinhishonor,andthenthereweresplendidprocessions,songsofpraise,andreligiousdances.

Mercury,thesonofJupiter,wasthegodofeloquenceandcommerce.Hewasalsothemessengeroftheothergods.Hewasgenerallyrepresentedasflyingswiftlythroughtheair,carryingmessagesfromplacetoplace.Onhisheadandfeetweresmallwings,andinhishandheboreagoldenstaffwithserpentstwinedaroundit.

Vulcanwasaskillfulworkerinmetals.Hehadagreatforgeintheheartofaburningmountain,wherehemadewonderfulthingsofiron,copper,andgold.Helookedafterthewelfareofblacksmiths,coppersmiths,andgoldsmiths,andwastheirspecialgod.

Apollo,alsocalledPhœ’bus,whichmeantthesun,wasthegodofday.Hegavelightandheattotheworld.Hewasalsothegodofmusic,archery,andmedicine.HissisterDi-a’nawasthemoongoddessorgoddessofthenight.Shewasalsothegoddessofhunting.Inpicturessheissometimesrepresentedwithaquiverofarrowsoverhershoulderandholdingastagbythehorns.

ThegodJanuswasverymuchhonoredbytheRomans.Itwasbelievedthatthisgodpresidedoverthebeginningofeveryundertaking,andsowhentheRomansbegananyimportantworkorbusinesstheyprayedfirsttoJanus.ForthisreasonthefirstmonthorbeginningoftheyearwascalledthemonthofJanus,orJanuary.Januswasalsothegodofgatesanddoors.Instatuaryandpicturesheisoftenshownwithtwofaceslookinginoppositedirections,becauseeverydoorfacestwoways—outwardandinward.

NumaPompiliusbuiltatempleinhonorofJanus.Thedoorofthistemplewasalwaysopenintimeofwar,asasignthatthegodhadgoneouttohelptheRomans.Intimeofpeacethedoorwasshut.

TheRomansalsobelievedinVe’nus,thegoddessoflove;Mi-ner’va,thegoddessofwisdom;Flora,thegoddessofflowers,andmanyothers.

TheRomanshadnospecialday,suchasourSunday,forreligiousservice,buttheirtemples(exceptthetempleofJanus)wereopeneveryday.Theyhadprayersandsongs,andsometimeswhattheycalledsacreddances.Theyalsomadeofferingstothegods,suchasfruitsorvegetables,andoxen,lambs,orgoats.Theofferingswentfinallyintothehandsofthepriestsofthetemples.

NumaPompiliusreignedfornearlyhalfacentury,andunderhimtheRomanswereapeaceful,prosperous,andhappypeople.

THEHORATIIANDTHECURIATII

IThethirdkingofRomewasTul’lusHos-til’i-us.InhisreignaremarkablecombattookplacebetweenthreeRomanbrothersandthreeLatinbrothers.Thecombatcameaboutinthisway:

ForyearsthepeopleofRomeandthepeopleofAlba,alsocalledLatins,ashasbeenalreadysaid,werecontinuallyquarreling.Theywouldinvadeandplundereachother’slands.Atlast,aftermanypettycontests,warwasdeclaredbetweenthetwonations.

KingTullusmarchedtheRomanarmytotheborderofAlba,butherehisprogresswasstoppedbyagreatforceofLatins,underthecommandofMet’ti-us,theAlbanking.

TulluslookedatthestronglinesofLatinsoldiers,standingfirmandresolutetoresisttheadvanceoftheRomans,andthoughtthatitmightbewelltohaveatalkwithMettiustoseewhethertheycouldnotagreeonsomewayofsettlingthequarrelwithoutafightbetweenthetwoarmies.SohesentforMettiusandtheytalkedthematterover.Mettiusalsowishedverymuchtoavoidabattle,andhesaidtoTullus:

“Woulditnotbewelltofightinsuchawaythatonlyafewofoursoldierswouldbekilledinsteadofmany?Myplanisthis:YoushallselectthreeofthebestfightingmenintheRomanarmy,andIwillselectthebestthreeinthearmyofAlba.Thesixmenshallfightinthepresenceofthetwoarmies.IftheRomanswinAlbawillsubmittoRome;butiftheLatinswinthenRomemustsubmittoAlba.Whatsayyoutotheplan?”

“Itisagoodone,”saidKingTullus,“andIagreetoit.Maythebestmenwin!”

Withthesewordstheyseparated,andwenttoprepareforthecombatonwhich

wastodependthefateofthetwonations.

IITheRomansselectedastheirchampionsthreebrothersbelongingtoafamilyknownastheHoratiusfamily.ThebrotherswerecalledtheHo-ra’ti-ibecausethiswordisthepluralformofHoratius.TheHoratiibrothersweretall,handsomemen,withwonderfulstrength,endurance,andcourage.

TheAlbansalsoselectedthreebrothersastheirchampions.TheywerecalledtheCu-ri-a’ti-i.Theywerebold,skillfulsoldiers,famousformanlybeautyandstrength,andwerechampionswellworthytofightforanation.

WhenallwasreadytheHoratiiandtheCuriatiiadvancedtothecentreofalargefieldandtooktheirplaces.Theycarriedshort,thickswordsandlarge,roundshieldsmadeofstoutleatherandmetal.Thetwoarmiesgatheredaroundthesixchampions,butatadistance,soastoleavethemplentyofroomtofight.

Therewassilenceforafewmoments,andthentheshrillnotesofatrumpetrangoutasasignalforthebattle.Clash!clang!wenttheswordsupontheshields,andthefightbegan.

Quick,skillfulblowsweregivenforashorttime,butnoonewasseriouslyhurt.SuddenlytheLatinsshoutedinintenseexcitement.Lo!oneoftheHoratii,afterafiercestrugglewithoneoftheCuriatii,wasstrickendowndead!TheRomansgroaned,hungtheirheads,andlookedinanxiousdoubtattheirremainingtwochampions.

BravelytheHoratiistood—twotothree—andfoughtwithalltheirmight.StepbysteptheydrovetheCuriatiibackacrossthefield.CheersrangoutfromtheRomansatthisheroiceffort.Thevictorymightyetbetheirs!

Butalas!oneoftheCuriatii,withaswift,slysword-thrust,killedanotheroftheHoratii.ThentheLatinsshouted:

“Wehavewon!Wehavewon!Wehavewon!HailtothebraveCuriatii!”

TheRomanswerewildwithgriefandrage.Theyhadnowbutonechampionleft—Horatius,thelastoftheheroicHoratii—andhewasrunningfromthefield,asifhehadgivenupthefight.HewasfollowedbytheCuriatii,thoughtheywereallwounded.Oneofthem,runningaheadoftheothers,cameuptoHoratiusandwasraisinghisswordwhentheRomanturneduponhimquicklyandslewhim.

Thecriesofthetwoarmieswerenowhushed,asifbymagic.Alleyeswereuponthechampions,andtherewasapainfulsilence.

AnotheroftheCuriatiinowcameupandbegantofightHoratius.ButtheRomanmettheattackwithgreatcoolnessandskill,andsoonkilledthesecondLatin.Thus,underthepretenceofrunningaway,HoratiusseparatedtheCuriatiiandslewtwoofthem.ThenheadvancedinafuriousmannerontheotherLatinandbeganadesperatefightwithhim.Soonhestruckhimdownwithadeadlyblow.Romewasvictorious!FromthewholeRomanarmynowcamethecry,asiffromoneman:

“HailtothebraveHoratius!Hailtothechampionandsaviorofhiscountry!”

ThentheyseizedHoratiusintheirarmsandborehimintriumphtoKingTullus,whoplacedonhisheadthelaurelwreathofvictory.ThiswasoneofthewaysbywhichtheRomanshonoredanyoftheirsoldierswhohadbeenverybraveinbattle.ButtheyalsohonoredHoratiusbyerectingastatueofhiminoneofthetemplesofthecity.

IIIWithsongsofjoythearmymarchedbacktoRome.Horatiuswalkedbythesideoftheking.Athrongofwomencameforthfromthegatesofthecity,eagertogreetthesoldiersandtorejoicewiththemoverthegreatvictory.ThesisterofHoratiuswasinthethrong.ShehadbeensecretlyengagedtobemarriedtooneoftheCuriatii,fortheRomansandAlbanswerenearneighborsandfrequentlyvisitedoneanotherintimesofpeace.Whenshelearnedthatherbrotherhadslainherlovershebegantoweepbitterly.ThenpointingatHoratiusshecriedout:

“Youhavekilledmylover.Donotcomenearme.Ihateandcurseyou.”

Horatius,inafitofanger,suddenlydrewhisswordandstabbedhertotheheart.Asshefelldeadathisfeethecriedinaloudvoice:

“SoperishtheRomanmaidenwhoweepsforhercountry’senemy!”

ForthisshockingmurderHoratiuswastriedandsentencedtodeath.Butthepeoplewouldnotallowthesentencetobecarriedout.Hewasmadetodoacertainpenanceforthecrimeandafterwardswassetfree.

THETARQUINS

IThenextkingofRomewasAncusMar’ci-us.HewasagrandsonofNumaPompilius,andaverygoodking.HethoughtthatitwouldbeanadvantagetoRometohaveaseaharborforships.SohefoundedacityatoneofthemouthsoftheTiber,onthecoastoftheMediterranean,aboutfifteenmilesfromRome.ThecitywascalledOstia,whichisaLatinwordmeaningmouths.LatinwasthelanguagespokenbytheRomanpeople.

DuringthereignofAncusMarcius,arichmannamedLu’cu-mocametoliveinRome.HecamefromTarquin’i-i,atownsomemilesdistantfromRome,inadistrictorcountrycalledE-tru’ri-a,sotheRomanscalledhimTarquin’i-us,whichinEnglishisTarquin.

AverywonderfulthinghappenedtoTarquinwhilehewasonhiswaytoRome.Hedroveinachariot,withhiswifeTan’a-quilseatedbesidehim,andtheirservantsfollowingbehind.AstheywereapproachingthecityaneaglewhichappearedintheskyabovethemcamegentlydownandsnatchedthecapfromTarquin’sheadwithitsbeak.Afterhoveringaroundforafewmomentstheeaglereplacedthecapandwithloudscreamsflewaway.

Tarquinwasmuchsurprisedatthisstrangeevent.Hedidnotknowwhattothinkofit.ButTanaquilwasmuchpleased.Shesaidtoherhusbandthatitwasasignsentbythegodsandmeantthathewastobeagreatman—perhapsaking.

TarquinwasnotlonginRomebeforehebecameafavoritewitheverybody.Thepeoplelikedhimbecausehespentagreatdealofmoneyindoinggood.Thekingalsolikedhimandoftenaskedhisadviceinaffairsofgovernment,forTarquinwasamanofgreatknowledgeandwisdom.AndwhenKingAncusbecameoldandfeltthathisdeathwasnear,heappointedTarquintheguardianofhistwosonswhowerethenbutboys.

SoonafterwardsAncusdied,andthepeopleelectedTarquinking.Hereignedfornearlyfortyyearsanddidagreatdealforthegoodofthecity.

IIItwasKingTarquinwhobeganthebuildingofthefamoustempleofJupiterontheSaturnianHill—thesamehillonwhichstoodthefortressthatRomulusbuilt.Whiletheworkmenwerediggingforthefoundationsofthetempletheyfoundaman’sheadsowellpreservedthatitlookedasifithadbeenburiedquiterecently.Thiswassostrangeathingthattheaugurswereaskedaboutit,andtheysaiditwasasignthatRomewouldbecometheheadorchiefcityoftheworld.SothenewbuildingwascalledtheCapitol,fromcaput,theLatinwordforhead,andthehillwascalledtheCap’it-o-lineHill.Thishasgivenourlanguageaword.WecallthebuildinginwhichourCongressmeets—aswellasthatinwhichastatelegislaturemeets—theCapitol.

IttookalongtimetofinishtheCapitol,butwhenfinisheditwasagreatandbeautifulbuilding.Itcoveredmorethaneightacres.Itsgatesordoorswereofsolidbrass,thicklyplatedwithgold.Thewallsinsidewereallmarble,ornamentedwithbeautifulfiguresengravedinsilver.

TarquinalsobeganseveralotherworksinRome,whichweretoogreatandcostlytobefinishedinalifetime.Oneofthemwasawallroundthecity.ThewallthatRomulusmadewasonlyroundPalatineHill.Butsincethenthecityhadbeenmuchenlarged.Incourseoftimeitcoveredsevenhills.ThisiswhyRomeisoftencalledtheseven-hilledcity.ThesevenhillswerethePalatine,theCapitoline,theCæ’li-an,theQuirinal,theEs’qui-line,theVim’i-nal,andtheA’ven-tine.

OneoftheotherthingsTarquindidwastoestablishakindofpolicecalledlictors.Thesewereofficerswhoalwayswalkedbeforethekingwheneverheappearedinpublic.Eachlictorboreuponhisshoulderanaxenclosedinabundleofrodstiedwitharedstrap.Thiswascalledthefas’ces.Itwasamarkofthepoweroftheking.Theaxmeantthatthekingmightordercriminalstobebeheaded,andtherodsmeantthathemightpunishoffendersbyflogging.

AnotherworkofTarquinwastheCircus,afterwardscalledtheCircusMax’i-mus(greatcircus).Thiswasaplacewherehorse-racesandgamesandshowsofvariouskindswereheld.TheRomanswereveryfondofsuchamusements.Greatnumbersofthemalwayswenttotheshows,butitwaseasyforthemtogo,fortheydidnothavetopayforadmission.ThecostoftheshowswaspaidoftenbyrichRomanswhowantedtogainthefavorofthepeople,andoftenbythegovernment.

Thecircushadnoroof,buttherewereagreatmanyseatsallroundandinthe

middlewasalargeopenspacefortheperformers.Thisspacewascoveredwithsand,andwascalledthearena,awordwhichisLatinforsand.

Assomanypeopleattendedthecircusithadtobeverylarge.InthetimewhenRomewasanEmpire,aboutwhichyouwillreadlateroninthisbook,theCircusMaximuswassolargethatitcontainedseatsfor250,000people.FromthecircusandarenaoftheRomansthesewordshavecomeintouseinourownlanguage.

IIIBesidesbuildingacircus,KingTarquinalsogreatlyimprovedtheForumbymakingcoveredwalksorporticoesallroundit.TheForumwasalargeopenspaceatthefootoftheCapitolineHill,wherepublicmeetingswereheld,andwherepeoplecametohearthenewsortalkaboutpolitics.Itwasalsousedasamarket-place,andmerchantsshowedtheirgoodsinshopsorstoresalongtheporticoes.IncourseoftimegreatbuildingswereerectedroundtheForum.Therewerecourtsofjusticeandtemplesandstatuesandmonumentsofvariouskinds.TheSenateHouse,wheretheSenatehelditsmeetings,wasalsointheForum.FromtheendoftheForumnexttheCapitolineHilltherewasapassageleadinguptotheCapitol.

ButthemostusefulthingKingTarquindidwasthebuildingofagreatsewerthroughthecityandintotheTiber.BeforehistimetherewerenosewersinRome,thoughtheplacesbetweenthehillswereswampyandwet.Thismademanypartsofthecityveryunhealthy.Tarquin’ssewerdrainedtheswampsandcarriedthewaterintotheriver.Itcrossedtheentirecity.Itwassohighandwidethatmencouldsailintoitinboats,anditwassostronglybuiltthatithaslastedtothepresenttime.Thegreatsewerisstillinuse.

Tarquinwantedverymuchtochangeoneofthelawsaboutthearmy,butanaugurnamedAt’ti-usNa’vi-ustoldhimsuchathingcouldnotbedonewithoutasignfromthegods.Thismadethekingangry,andhethoughthewouldtrytoshowthattheaugurshadnotthepowerorknowledgetheyweresupposedtohave,sohesaidtoAttius:

“Come,now,Iwillgiveyouaquestion.IamthinkingwhetheracertainthingIhaveinmymindcanbedoneornot.Goandfindoutfromyoursignsifitcanbedone.”

Naviuswentaway,andshortlyafterwardsreturnedandtoldthekingthatthethingcouldbedone.ThenTarquinsaid:

“Well,Iwasthinkingwhetherornotyoucouldcutthisstoneintwowiththisrazor.Asyousayitcanbedone,doit.”

Naviustooktherazorandimmediatelycutthestoneintwowiththegreatestease.Thekingneveragaindoubtedthepoweroftheaugurs.

IVOnthedeathofTarquinhisson-in-lawSer’vi-usTul’li-uswasmadeking.Tarquinhadtwoyoungsons,andthesonsofAncusMarciuswerealsoliving;butthepeoplepreferredtohaveServiusTulliusfortheirking.

Serviuswasaverygoodking.Hehadmanygoodlawsmadeand,likeKingNumaPompilius,hedividedsomeofthepubliclandsamongthepoorpeopleofthecity.

OneoftheimportantthingsServiusdidwastofinishthewallroundthecitywhichTarquinhadbegun.Thiswallwasveryhigh.Itwasmadeofstoneandearth,andontheoutsidetherewasaditchahundredfeetwideandthirtyfeetdeep.Therewereseveralgatesinthewall,buttheywereallwellguardednightanddaybysoldiers,sothatnoenemycouldenter.

KingServiuswasthefirsttohaveacensustakeninRome.HemadearuleorlawthatonceeveryfiveyearsallthepeopleshouldassembleintheCampusMartiustobecounted.ThewordcensusisaLatinword,meaningacountingorreckoning,andsoweuseitinourowncountryforthecountingofthepeoplewhichtakesplaceeverytenyears.

ServiusTulliuswaskilledbyKingTarquin’sson,whowasalsocalledTarquinbutgotthenameofSuperbus,orProud,becausehewasaveryhaughtyandcruelman.ThedeadbodyofServiuswasleftlyingonthestreetwherehehadbeenkilled,andTullia,wifeofthewickedTarquinanddaughterofthemurderedking,droveherchariotoverit.

TarquintheProudnowbecameking.ItwasduringhisreignthattheSib’yl-lineBookswerebroughttoRome.Thesebookswerenotlikeourbooks.Theyweremerelythreebundlesofloosepiecesofparchment,havingmoralsentencesonthemwrittenintheGreeklanguage.Thisisthestoryofhowthebookswereobtained:

OnemorninganoldwomancametoKingTarquin,carryingninebooksinherhands.Sheofferedtosellthemtotheking,butwhenshenamedalargesumasthepricehelaughedatherandorderedheraway.Thenextdaythewomancame

again,butwithonlysixbooks.Shehadburnedtheotherthree.Sheofferedtosellthesix,butsheaskedthesamepricethatshehadaskedthedaybeforeforthewholenine.Thekingagainlaughedatheranddroveheraway.ThesamedayTarquinwenttovisittheaugursintheirtemple,andhetold

themabouttheoldwomanandherbooks.TheaugursdeclaredthatshewascertainlyasibylandthatherbooksdoubtlesscontainedimportantpredictionsaboutRome.

Thesibylswerewomenwhopretendedtobeabletoforetellevents.Thereweresibylsinmanycountries,butthemostfamousofthemallwastheSibylofCu’mæ,atowninthesouthofItaly.ThiswasthesibylwhobroughtthebookstoTarquin.

Tarquinwasnowsorryhehadnottakenthebooks,andhehopedthewomanwouldcomeagain.Shedidcomeonthefollowingday,butshehadonlythreebooksinsteadofsix.Shehadburnedtheotherthreethedaybefore.Thekingwasverygladtoseeher,andheboughttheremainingthreebooks,buthehadtopayjustasmuchforthemastheoldwomanhadaskedatfirstforthenine.Thenthesibyldisappeared,andwasneverseenagain.

TheordinarybookstheRomanshadwerenotliketheSibyllineBooks.Theyhadnoprintedbooks,forprintingwasnotknownformanycenturiesafter.Theirbookswerewrittenwithpensmadeofreeds.Theirpaperwasmadeofthepithofaplantcalledthepapyrus,andfromthisnamethewordpaperisderived.Tomakeabooktheycutthepaperintoleavesorpages,andafterwritingonthemtheypastedthepagesonetoanothersidewiseuntilallthepagesofonebookwereputtogether.Thislongstripwasmadeintoacylindricalroll,andwascalledavolume,fromtheLatinwordvolumen,aroll.Whenthevolumewasbeingreaditwasheldinbothhands,thereaderunrollingitwithonehandandrollingitwiththeother.

TheSibyllineBookswereputinthetempleofJupiterontheCapitolineHill.Twoofficerswereappointedtokeepwatchoverthem.WhenevertheRomansweregoingtowar,orhadanyserioustrouble,theywouldconsultthebooks.Thewaytheydiditwasthis:oneoftheofficerswouldopenthestonechestwherethebookswerekeptandtakeoutthefirstpieceofparchmenthelaidhishandon.ThentheGreeksentencefoundonthepiecewouldbetranslatedintoLatin.Itwassometimesveryhardtotellwhatthesentencereallymeant.Oftentheyhadtoguess.Whentheymadesenseoutofittheysaidthatitwasaprophecyofthesibylandwouldsurelycometopass.

JUNIUSBRUTUS

ITarquintheProudhadanephewnamedJuniusBrutus.Heseemedtobeasimpleton,buthewasreallyaverywiseman.Hisbrotherhadbeenmurderedbytheking,andhefearedthesamefatehimself,sohepretendedtobehalf-wittedandwentaboutsayinganddoingsillythings.Tarquinthereforedidhimnoharm,butratherpitiedhim.

TwosonsofTarquinoncewenttoanotedfortune-teller,takingBrutuswiththem.Theyoungmenaskedseveralquestions.Onewas:

“WhoshallruleRomeafterTarquin?”

Thefortune-tellergavethisanswer:

“Youngmen,whicheverofyoushallfirstkissyourmothershallbethenextrulerofRome.”

Theking’ssonsatoncestartedforhome,eacheagertobethefirsttokisshismother.ButBrutusthoughtthatsomethingelsewasreallymeantbytheanswer.Soaftertheyhadleftthefortune-tellerhemanagedtostumbleandfallonhisface.Thenhekissedtheground,saying,“Theearthisthetruemotherofusall.”Andasweshallsee,BrutusbecamethenextrulerofRome.

IITheeldestsonofTarquinwasnamedSextus.Hewasaverybadman.HedeeplyinjuredabeautifulwomannamedLu-cre’ti-a,thewifeofCol-la-ti’nus,hiscousin.LucretiatoldherhusbandandfatherandJuniusBrutusofwhatSextushaddoneandcalleduponthemtopunishhimforhiswickeddeed.Thensheplungedadaggerintoherbreastandfelldead.Brutusdrewthedaggerfromherbleedingbodyand,holdingitupbeforehishorrifiedcompanions,exclaimed:

“IvowbeforethegodstoavengethewrongedLucretia.NotoneoftheTarquinsshalleveragainbekinginRome.Romeshallhavenomorekings.”

TheyallvowedwithBrutusthatLucretiashouldbeavengedandthatthereshouldbenomorekingsinRome.ThentheytookupherbodyandcarriedittotheForum.Theretheyshowedittothepeople,whogatheredaroundinhorroratthesight.Brutusnolongerappeareddullandsimple,butstoodwithheaderectandflashingeyesandspoketothecrowdineloquent,stirringwords.

“SeewhathascomefromtheevildeedsoftheTarquins!”heshouted,pointingtothedeadwoman.“Letusfreeourselvesfromtheruleofthesewickedmen.DownwithTarquinthetyrant!NomorekingsinRome!”

Thepeopleweremuchexcitedbyhisspeech,andtheymadetheForumringwiththeircries:

“DownwithTarquin!DownwithTarquin!Nomorekings!Nomorekings!”

ThentheyresolvedtotakethepowerofkingawayfromTarquinandtobanishhimandhisfamilyfromRome.TheyalsodecidedtoadoptthegoodlawswhichhadbeenmadeyearsbeforebyKingServiusTullius,andtochoosetwomeneachyeartogovernthenation,insteadofaking.Themenweretobecalledconsulsandweretoruleinturn—oneforonemonth,theotherforthenext,andsoonfortwelvemonths.Attheendoftheyeartwonewconsulsweretobeelected.

MeanwhilenewsoftherevoltreachedKingTarquin,whowasatthetimeincampwithhisarmysomedistancefromRome.Heinstantlymountedhishorseandrodeinhastetothecity.Whenhereachedthegateshefoundthemshutagainsthim.Ashestoodimpatientlydemandingtobeadmitted,aRomanofficerappearedonthewallandtoldhimofthesentenceofbanishment.Tarquinrodeaway,andRomewasridofhimforever(510B.C.).

IIIThepeopleelectedJuniusBrutusandLuciusCollatinus,thehusbandofLucretia,tobetheirfirstconsuls;butafterashorttimeCollatinusresigned,becausehewashimselfaTarquin.Pub’li-usVa-le’ri-uswaselectedinhisstead.

TarquinnowsentmessengersforhishouseholdgoodsandotherthingsbelongingtohimwhichwereinRome.Themessengerswhileinthecityhadsecretmeetingswithanumberofyoungmenofnoblefamilies,andaplotwasformedtorestoreTarquintothethrone.

Theyoungnoblesvowedthattheywoulddestroythenewrepublicandbringbacktheking,fortheydidnotlikegovernmentbythecommonpeople.But

whiletheyweremakingtheirplansanintelligentslaveoverheardwhattheyweresaying.ThisslavewenttoBrutusandtoldhimoftheplot.Allengagedinitwereatoncearrestedandputinprison.TwosonsofBrutushimself,TitusandTi-be’ri-us,werefoundamongtheplotters.WhenBrutuslearnedthathisownchildrenweretraitorshewasovercome

withsorrow.Forseveraldaysheshuthimselfupinhishouseandwouldseenoone.Butwhenthedayforthetrialcamehedidhisdutysternlyasjudge—theconsulsbeingjudgesaswellasrulers.TitusandTiberiuswereprovedguiltyoftreason,togetherwiththeothers,andBrutussentencedthemtobewhippedwithrodsandthenbeheaded.Heevenwasawitnessoftheexecutionofthesentence,andwearetoldthathesatunmovedinhischairanddidnotturnawayhiseyeswhilehistwosonswereputtodeath.Itwashisdutytopunishtraitors,andhedidhisdutywithoutsparinghisownfleshandblood.

AfterthelossofhissonsBrutusbecamedullandmelancholyandappearedtocareverylittleforlife.TarquinmadeanattempttotakeRome,withtheaidofthepeopleoftwocitiesofEtruria,andBrutusledtheRomanstothefieldtofightagainsttheirformerking.Duringthefirstpartofthebattle,asonofTarquinrodefuriouslyatBrutustokillhim.Brutussawhimandadvancedrapidlyonhishorsetomeettheattack.Whentheycametogethereachranhisspearthroughthebodyoftheother,andbothwerekilled.

ThedeathofBrutusmaddenedtheRomans,andtheyfoughtfiercelyuntildark.Thenthearmieswenttotheircamps,andnooneknewwhichsidehadwon.ButinthemiddleofthenightaloudvoicecamefromawoodclosebythecampoftheEtruscans,asthepeopleofEtruriawerecalled.Thevoicesaid:

“OnemanmorehasfallenonthesideoftheEtruscansthanonthesideoftheRomans;theRomanswillconquerinthiswar.”

TheEtruscansbelievedthatthiswasthevoiceofthegodJupiter,andtheyweresofrightenedthattheybrokeuptheircampandquicklymarchedbacktotheirownland.

HORATIUS

ForatimeRomewasruledbyPubliusValerius.Hewasagoodman.HecausedlawstobepassedforthebenefitofthepeopleandwasthereforecalledPub-lic’o-la,whichmeansthepeople’sfriend.HehadtofightTarquinfrequently.ThebanishedkingwasconstantlytryingtocaptureRomeandgetbackhisthrone.Hegothelpfromvariousnationsandfoughtveryhard,butwasneversuccessfulinhisefforts.AtonetimehewasaidedbyLarsPor’se-na,kingofClu’si-um,acityofEtruria,whogatheredalargearmyandsetouttoattackRome.

ButPorsenacouldnotenterthecitywithoutcrossingtheTiber,andtherewasonlyonebridge.ThiswascalledtheSublicianBridge.ItwassocalledfromtheLatinwordsublicœ,whichmeanswoodenbeams.WhentheRomanssawthegreatarmyofEtruscansinthedistance,theyweremuchalarmed.Theywerenotpreparedtofightsopowerfulaforce.Theconsulthoughtforawhile,andthenheresolvedtocutdownthebridgeastheonlymeansofsavingRome.Soanumberofmenwereatoncesettoworkwithaxesandhammers.

Itwashardwork,forthebridgewasverystronglybuilt.BeforethebeamssupportingitwereallcutawaythearmyofPorsenawasseenapproachingtheriver.Whatwastobedone?Itwouldtakeafewminutesmoretofinishthework,andifthefartherendofthebridgecouldbeheldagainsttheEtruscansforthosefewminutesallwouldbewellforRome.Buthowwasittobeheld,andwhowouldholdit?SuddenlyfromtheranksoftheRomansoldiersthebraveHo-ra’ti-usCo’clessteppedoutandcriedtotheconsul:

“Givemetwogoodmentohelpme,andIwillholdthebridgeandstoptheenemyfromcomingover.”

Immediatelytwobravemen,Spu’ri-usLar’ti-usandTitusHer-min’i-us,rantohisside.Thenthethreehurriedovertotheotherendofthebridge,andstoodreadytokeepofftheenemy.

WhenthearmyofEtruscanssawthethreemenstandingtokeepthembackashoutoflaughterwentupamongthem.Threementokeepbackthousands!How

ridiculous!TherethethreebraveRomansstood,however,attheentranceofthebridge,withdeterminedfacesandfearlesseyes.

VeryquicklythreeEtruscans—stout,ablefighters—cameforthfromthearmytogivebattletothethreeRomans.AfterasharpcombattheEtruscanswerekilled.Threemorecameoutandcontinuedthefight,buttheytoowerebeatenbyHoratiusandhiscompanions.

Butnowthebridgebegantoshakeandcrack.Horatiusfeltthatitwasabouttofall,andhecriedtoSpuriusandTitustorunbacktotheotherside.WhiletheydidsohestoodaloneanddefiedthewholeEtruscanarmy,whichwasnowrushinguponhim.Awholearmyagainstoneman!Javelinswerehurledathim,butheskillfullywardedthemoffwithhisshield.

JustastheEtruscansreachedhimthelastbeamwascutaway,andthebridgefellwithatremendouscrash.AsitwasfallingHoratiusplungedintotheTiber,andprayingtothegodsforhelp,heswamtotheothersideinsafety.TheRomansreceivedhimwithshoutsofjoy,andeventheEtruscanscouldnothelpraisingacheerinadmirationofhisbravery.

ThethreeRomanswerewellrewarded.AfinestatueofHoratiuswasbuiltinoneofthesquaresofthecity.Onthebaseofthestatuewasplacedabrasstablet,withanaccountoftheheroicdeedengravedonit.TheSenatealsogaveHoratiusasmuchlandashecouldplowaroundinaday.

MUCIUSTHELEFT-HANDED

ButPorsenastillremainedwithhisarmyontheothersideoftheriver.Hethoughtthatbypreventingfoodfrombeingsentintothecityhecouldforcetheinhabitantstosurrender.SohegotshipsandstationedthemontheTibertodriveawayorseizeanyvesselsthatshouldattempttocometoRomewithfood.

NowtherewasinRomeatthistimeaverybraveyoungmannamedCa’i-usMu’ci-us,andhethoughtofaplantosavethecity.Hisplanwastomarchboldlyintotheenemy’scampandkillKingPorsena.SoheconcealedaswordunderhistunicandwentacrosstherivertotheEtruscancamp.Thenhemadehiswaytotheplacewherethekingwassitting.

Ithappenedthatitwaspaydayinthearmyandthesoldiersweregettingtheirmoney.Asecretary,whosatbesidethekingandwasdressedverymuchlikehim,wastalkingtothemenandgivingthemorders.MuciusmistookthesecretaryforPorsenaandrushedforwardandstabbedhimtodeath.InstantlythedaringRomanwasseizedbytheguards.Heheardthesoldierscryingoutthatthesecretarywaskilled.Thenheknewwhatamistakehehadmade.

Porsenawasgreatlyenragedatseeinghissecretarykilled,andinaloudandangryvoicehecommandedMuciustotellwhohewasandwhyhehadcommittedsuchadeed.WithoutshowinganysignoffeartheboldMuciusanswered:

“IamaRomancitizen.Icameheretokillyou,becauseyouareanenemyofmycountry.Ihavefailed,butthereareotherstocomeaftermewhowillnotfail.Yourlifewillbeconstantlyindanger,andyouwillbekilledwhenyouleastexpectit.”

OnhearingthesewordsPorsenajumpedfromhisseatinagreatfuryandthreatenedtoburnMuciustodeathifhedidnotatoncetellallabouttheotherswhowerecomingtokillhim.ButMuciuswasnotfrightened,andtoshowhowlittlehecaredabouttheking’sthreathethrusthisrighthandintotheflameofafirewhichhadbeenlightedclosebyandheldittherewithoutflinching.Atthesametimehecriedouttotheking:

“BeholdhowlittleweRomanscareforpainwhenitistodefendourcountry.”

Porsenawasastonishedatthissight,andhesomuchadmiredthecourageandpatriotismoftheRomanthatheorderedtheguardstosethimfree.ThenMuciussaidtotheking:

“InreturnforyourkindnessInowtellyouofmyownfreewillwhatIwouldnottellyouwhenyouthreatenedmewithpunishment.KnowthenthatthreehundredRomanyouthshaveboundthemselvesbyoathtokillyou,eachtomaketheattemptinhisturn.Thelotfellfirstonme.Ihavefailed,buttheattemptwillbemadeagainandagainuntilsomeonesucceeds.”

KingPorsenawassoterrifiedonhearingthisthatheresolvedtomakepeaceatoncewithRome.SoheimmediatelysentmessengerstotheSenate,andtermsofpeacewerequicklyagreedupon.

TheSenaterewardedMuciusbygivinghimatractoflandonthebanksoftheTiber.ThislandwasafterwardscalledtheMucianMeadows.MuciushimselfgotthenameofSçæv’o-la,aLatinwordwhichmeansleft-handed.Hehadlosttheuseofhisrighthandbyburningitinthefire.

CORIOLANUS

IOneofthegreatmenofRomenotlongafterthebanishmentoftheTarquinswasCaiusMarcius.Hewasamemberofanoblefamily,andfromhisyouthhehadbeennotedforhisbravery.

InhistimetherewasawarbetweentheRomansandtheVol’sci-ans,apeopleofadistrictinLatium.TheRomansmadeanattackonCo-ri’o-li,thecapitalcityoftheVolscians,butweredefeatedanddrivenback.CaiusMarciusreproachedtheRomansoldiersforrunningfromtheenemy.Hiswordsmadethemashamedandtheyturnedagaintothefight.WithCaiusattheirheadtheysenttheVolsciansflyingbackintothecity.Caiusfollowedtheenemytothegates,whichwerepartlyopen.WhenhesawthisheshoutedtotheRomans:

“Thegatesareopenforus;letusnotbeafraidtoenter!”

CaiushimselfspranginandkeptthegatesopenfortheRomans.Afterashortfightthecitywastaken.

TheneverybodysaidthatitwasCaiuswhohadtakenCorioli,andthatheshouldbecalledafterthenameofthecityhehadwon.SoeverafterwardshewasknownasCo’ri-o-la’nus.

IIButthoughCoriolanuswasabravesoldierandalwaysreadytofightforRome,hehadsomequalitiesthatwerenotsogood.Hehadgreatcontemptforthecommonpeople,andhetookpartwiththosewhotriedtooppressthem.

OnlyalittlewhilebeforethetakingofCorioli,therewasaserioustroublebetweenthepeopleandthepatricians.Agreatmanyofthepeopleearnedtheirlivingbyfarming.Butwhentherewasawarthestrongmenhadtobecomesoldiers,andasRomewasalmostconstantlyatwarthemenwerenearlyalwaysawayfromtheirfarms.Veryoften,therefore,theyhadtoborrowmoneytosupporttheirfamilieswhiletheythemselveswereawayfighting,foratthistime

Romansoldiersgotnoregularpay.

Nowitwastherichpatricianswholoanedthemoney,andifitwasnotpaidbackatthetimeagreedupontheycouldputthepeoplewhooweditinjail,ortheycouldselltheirwivesandchildrenasslaves.

Inthiswaytheplebeiansoftensufferedmuchhardship.AtlastagreatnumberofthemresolvedtoleaveRomeandmakeasettlementforthemselvessomewhereelseinItaly.Thepatriciansdidnotlikethisverymuch,forifthecommonpeoplewentawaytherewouldbeascarcityofsoldiersforthearmy.SotheSenate,afterthinkingthematterover,proposedthattheplebeiansshouldelectofficersoftheirown,tobecalledtrib’unes,whoshouldhavepowertovetolawstheydidnotlike,thatis,preventthemfrombeingpassed.Thewordveto,whichisLatinforIforbid,isusedinthesamewayinourowncountry.ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesandthegovernorsofsomestateshave,withincertainlimits,powertopreventthepassingoflawstheydonotapprove.Thisiscalledthevetopower.

Theplebeianswerepleasedwiththeproposalthattheyweretohavetribunes,sotheyreturnedtoRome,andforatimetherewaspeacebetweenthemandthepatricians.

ButCoriolanusandotherpatricianswereopposedtotheelectionoftribunes,becausetheythoughtitgavethecommonpeopletoomuchpower.OncewhentherewasafamineinRome,andthepoorweresufferinggreatlyfromwantoffood,theGreekslivinginSicilysentseveralshipsladenwithcorntoRometorelievethepeopleindistress.WhenthecornarrivedtheSenatewasabouttoorderthatitshouldbedividedamongthepeoplewhoneededit,butCoriolanusinterfered.

“No,no,”hesaid,“ifthepeoplewantcornletthemfirstgiveuptheirtribunes.Itmustbeeithernocornornotribunes.”

ThepeopleweresoangrywhentheyheardofthisspeechthattheytalkedaboutkillingCoriolanus.Andtheywouldhavedonesobutforthewiseadviceofthetribunes.

“No,no,”saidthetribunes,“youmustnotkillhim;thatwouldbeagainstthelaw.Butyoucanhavehimtriedfortreasonagainstthepeopleandwewillbehisaccusers.”

Coriolanuswasthenorderedtoappearbeforetheassemblyofthepeopletobetried,forthepeoplehadpowertotryintheirassembliespersonschargedwith

suchoffences.ButCoriolanuswasafraidtheassemblywouldcondemnhim,sohesecretlyfledfromthecity,leavinghisfamilybehind,andwenttoatownoftheVolscians.

ThechiefoftheVolsciansreceivedCoriolanusinafriendlymanner.CoriolanusthentoldhimwhyhehadleftRome.TheVolscianchiefwasgladtohearit.HehadlongwantedtofighttheRomans,buthadbeenafraidtomaketheattempt.WiththeaidofsuchasoldierasCoriolanus,however,hewassurethatRomemightbetaken.SoheraisedalargearmyandputitunderthecommandofthegreatRoman.

IIITheVolscianarmy,ledbyCoriolanus,capturedmanycitiesbelongingtotheRomanRepublic.AtlastCoriolanusresolvedtoattackRomeitself,andhemarchedhisarmytowardsthecity.TheRomansjustthenwerenotverywellpreparedforabattle,sotheSenatedecidedtosendmessengerstoCoriolanustobeghimtosparehisnativecityandmaketermsofpeace.

Themessengerschosenwerefiveoftheleadingnobles,andtheyatoncesetoutfortheVolsciancamp.Coriolanusreceivedthemcordially,fortheywereoldfriends;buthesaidthathewouldnotspareRomeunlesstheRomanswouldgiveupallthelandsandcitieswhichtheyhadtakenfromtheVolsciansinformerwars.

TothistheSenatewouldnotagree,andCoriolanusrefusedtolistentoanyotherterms.TheRomansthenbegantoprepareforbattle,thoughtheyfearedverymuchthattheywouldbedefeated.

Butwhilethemenwerethusinfearanddoubt,thewomenofRomesavedthecity!Va-le’ri-a,anobleRomanlady,rememberedthatCoriolanushadalwaysdearlylovedhismother.

“Perhaps,”thoughtshe,“hemaylistentoherthoughhewillhearnooneelse.”

SoValeria,withalargenumberofnobleladies,wenttothehouseofVe-tu’ri-a,themotherofCoriolanus,andsaidtoher:

“Thegodshaveputitintoourheartstocomeandaskyoutojoinwithustosaveourcountryfromruin.Comethenwithustothecampofyoursonandprayhimtoshowmercy.”

Theagedmotheratonceagreedtogo,soshegotreadyimmediatelyandsetoutforthecampoftheVolscians,accompaniedbyagreatnumberofladiesand

herson’swifeandlittlechildren.Itwasastrangesight,thislonglineofRomanladies,alldressedinmourning,andeventheVolsciansoldiersshowedthemrespectastheypassedalong.CoriolanushappenedtobesittinginfrontofhistentintheVolsciancamp

withanumberofofficersaroundhimastheprocessioncameinview.“Whoarethesewomen?”heasked.Beforeananswercouldbegivenhesawthatamongthemwerehismotherandwifeandchildren,andhestoodupandhastenedforwardtomeetthem.Theyfellontheirkneesandbeggedhimtosparehisnativecity.

Coriolanusseemeddeeplydistressed.Hemadenoanswer,butbenthishead,pressedhishandtohisbreastandgazeddownuponthedearoneswhokneltathisfeet.Thenhismothersaid:

“IfIhadnosonRomewouldnotbeinthisdanger.Iamtoooldtobearmuchlongeryourshameandmyownmisery.Looktoyourwifeandchildren;ifyoucontinueinyourpresentcourseyouwillsendthemtoanearlydeath.”

Coriolanuswassogrievedthatforsomeminuteshecouldnotspeak.Atlasthecriedout:

“Oh,mother,whathaveyoudonetome?YouhavesavedRome,butyouhaveruinedyourson.”

Thenheembracedhismotherandlookedathersadlyforamoment.HealsoembracedandkissedhiswifeandchildrenandtoldthemtogobacktoRome,fortheywouldbesafethere.ThewomenthenreturnedtothecityandCoriolanusmarchedawaywiththeVolscianarmy.Romewassaved!

CoriolanuslivedtherestofhislifewiththeVolscians,butheneveragainmadewaragainsthisnativecity.ItissupposedthathediedaboutthemiddleofthefifthcenturybeforeChrist.

THEFABII

AtaboutthetimeinwhichCoriolanuslivedthefamilyoftheFa’bi-iwereverypowerfulinRome.AmongtheleadersorchiefmenofthefamilyatthatperiodwereQuin’tusFa’bi-us,MarcusFabius,andCæ’soFabius.

InthosetimestheRomannobleswereveryrichandpowerful.Theyheldallthehighofficesofgovernmentandcaredverylittleaboutthewelfareoftheplebeians.Oftentheytreatedthemveryharshly.

TheFabiialsotreatedtheplebeiansharshly.OncewhenQuintusFabiusdefeatedtheVolsciansinabattle,hesoldallthevaluablethingshetookfromtheenemyandputthemoneyintothepublictreasury.Suchthingswerecalledspoils.TheRomangeneralsusuallydividedthespoilsamongthesoldiers.Thiswasthewaythesoldierswerepaidinthosedays.ButQuintusFabiuswouldnotdividethespoils.Sothesoldierswereverybitteragainsthim.

ButsometimeafterwardsMarcusFabiuswaselectedconsul,andonceafteragreatbattlewiththeVe’i-en-ti-ans,apeopleofEtruria,hetooktheentirecareofthepoorwoundedsoldiersandsuppliedalltheirwantsathisownexpense.

ThenextyearhisbrotherCæsoFabiuswasconsul,andhetriedtogettheSenatetodivideamongthepoorcitizensthelandsthathadbeentakenfromtheVeientiansandotherpeoplewhomtheRomanshaddefeatedinwar.OftenafterwardsintheSenatethevoiceofaFabiuswasheardspeakingforjusticetotheplebeians.Thecommonpeople,therefore,soonlovedthewholefamilyoftheFabiiinsteadofhatingthemastheyhadbefore.

ThenobleswereveryangrybecausetheFabiitookthesideoftheplebeians,andtheythreatenedtodoalltheycouldagainstthem.NowtheFabiisawclearlythatitwouldbeuselesstoattempttofightthenobles,becausethenobleshadagreatdealofpowerandcoulddoalmostwhatevertheypleasedinRome.Therefore,theFabiithoughtthatitwouldbebetterforthemtoremovefromthecityandmakeanewhomeforthemselvessomewhereelse.Sotheyresolvedtodothis,andtheplacetheyselectedwasonthebanksoftheRiverCrem’e-ra,afewmilesfromRome.

AtthistimetheRomanswereagainatwarwiththeVeientians.ThesepeoplelivedinVe’i-i,acityontheCremeraRiver.Oneday,whentherewasadiscussionintheRomanSenateaboutthiswar,CæsoFabiussaid:

“Asyouknow,weofthehouseoftheFabiiaregoingtoleaveRomeandsettleonthebordersofthecountryoftheVeientians.IfyougiveuspermissionwewillfightthosepeopleandtrytodefeatthemforthehonorofRomeandthegloryofourhouse.WewillaskneithermoneynormenfromtheSenate.Wewillcarryonthewarwithourownmenandatourowncost.”

ThesenatorsweregladofthechancetogetridoftheFabii,andsotheyatoncegavethemthepermissiontheyaskedfor.TheFabiithenbegantomakepreparationsfortheirdeparture.Therewereoverthreehundredmeninadditiontowomen-folk,children,andservants,andwhenallwerereadytheymarchedoutofthecitytotheirnewhomewithCæsoFabiusattheirhead.

AtfirsttheFabiihadonlyacampontheCremeraRiver,butafterwardstheybuiltasmallcity,withastrongfortress.ManygoodRomansoldierscameandjoinedthem,andsoontheyhadafinearmyofearnest,devotedmen.

TheVeientiansweresoonconquered.Fabiusandhisbravemendefeatedtheminseveralbattles,andatlasttheVeientiansmadeuptheirmindsthattheyhadgotenoughofwar.ThentheyreturnedtotheirowncityofVeiiandremainedquietforalongtime.ButtheydeclaredthattheywoulddestroytheFabiiwhenevertheycouldgetthechance.

NowitwasanoldcustomoftheFabiitohaveaspecialworshipofthegodsonacertaindayofeveryyear.EarlyinthemorningofthatdayallthemenofthefamilywouldgoinabodytoafamoustempleonahillnearRomeandhavereligiousservicesforseveralhours.Thementooknoarmswiththem,asitwasthoughtimpropertogoarmedtoreligiousworship.

TheVeientiansheardofthisannualreligiousserviceoftheFabiiandsawinitachanceforrevenge.SotheyresolvedtokilltheFabiithenexttimetheywenttothetemplefortheirspecialservice.WhenthedaycametheFabiisetoutasusual.Ontheirwaytothetempletheyhadtogooveraroadwhichhadhigh,steeprocksoneachside.TherealargenumberofVeientiansoldiershidthemselves,andwhentheunsuspectingFabiicamealongafuriousattackwasmadeonthemfromfrontandrear.Withoutarmstheycouldnotfightverywell.Theymadethebestdefencetheycould,butitwasuseless.TheywereallkilledexceptoneyoungmanwhoescapedtoRome.ThusthecowardlyVeientianshadtheirrevenge.

CINCINNATUS

IInthemountainseastofLatiumtherelivedaratherwildpeoplecalledÆ’qui-ans,whowereveryoftenatwarwithRome.AftersometimeofpeaceandgoodconductthesepeoplesuddenlybegantoplundertherichfarmsoftheRomans.ThiswasaboutfourhundredandfiftyyearsbeforethebirthofChristandnotlongaftertheVeientianshaddestroyedtheFabianfamily.AssoonastheRomanSenateheardwhattheÆquiansweredoingitsentmessengerstotheÆquiankingtocomplainofthewrong.Themessengersfoundthekinginhiscamp,sittingnearahugeoaktree.Butwhentheyspoketohimheansweredthemrudely,saying:

“Iamtoobusynowwithothermatters.Gotellyourmessagetotheoakyonder!”

Thismadethemessengersveryangry,andoneofthethemsaid:

“Weshalltellittotheoak,butweshalltellitalsotothegodsandcallthemtowitnesshowyouhavebrokenthepeace!Andtheyshallbeonoursidewhenwecometopunishyouandyourpeopleforthecrimesyouhavecommittedagainstus.”

Anditissaidthattheangrymessengersdidtellthemessagetotheoak,andtoalltheothertreesaround,andboldlyshoutedthatwarwouldcomefromthisinsulttoRome.

ThenthemessengersreturnedtoRomeandtoldtheSenatehowtheyhadbeeninsultedbytheÆquianking.TheSenateatoncedeclaredwaragainsttheÆquiansandorderedtheConsulMinu’ci-ustoleadanarmyagainstthem.

TheRomanseasilywonafewbattlesatfirst.ThentheÆquiansbegantoretreatasiftheydidnotmeantofightanymore.TheRomansfollowedswiftly,untiltheyweredrawnintoanarrowvalleyoneachsideofwhichwerehigh,rockyhills.Itwasatrap,andtheRomansknewitbeforetheyhadmarchedveryfarfromtheentrance.

TheÆquiankingthenclosedupthevalleywithstrongbarricadesandplacedhistroopsattheentranceandalongthehills,sothattheRomanscouldnotgetout.

Inthevalleytherewasverylittlegrassforthehorsesandnofoodforthemen,sothatiftheRomanswerenotsoonrelievedboththeyandtheirhorseswoulddieofhunger.

IIButluckilyfortheRomansafewoftheirhorsemenhadmanagedtogetoutofthevalleybeforetheÆquiansclosedit.ThesehorsemenrodeasfastastheycouldtoRomeandtoldtheSenatehowMinuciusandhissoldierswereplaced.Whatwastobedone?Nooneseemedtoknowatfirst,butafteragooddealofdiscussion,asenatorsaid:

“LetusmakeLuciusQuinc’ti-usdictator.Heistheonlymanwhocansaveus.”

TheSenateagreedtothis,andsoLuciusQuinctiuswaschosendictator.AdictatorhadmorepowerthantheSenateortheconsuls.Allhiscommandshadtobeobeyedjustasifhewereaking.Buttherewasnotadictatoralways.Adictatorwasappointedonlywhentherewassomegreatdanger,andheheldofficeonlyforsixmonths.

LuciusQuinctiusbelongedtoanoblefamily.Hewasagreatsoldierandhadwonmanybattlesforhiscountry.Hehadsuchbeautiful,long,curlyhairthatthepeoplecalledhimCin’cin-na’tus,whichmeanscurly-haired,andthisisthenamebywhichheisknowninhistory.

AtthetimeCincinnatuswasappointeddictatorhelivedonasmallfarmoutsideofRome.Heworkedonthefarmhimself,andwhenthemessengersfromtheSenatecametotellhimthathehadbeenchosendictatortheyfoundhimploughinginoneofhisfields.HelefthisploughwhereitstoodandhastenedtoRome,wherehewaswelcomedbyallthepeople.

Thefirstthinghedidwastoraiseanewarmy.HegaveordersthateverymanofsuitableageshouldbuckleonhisswordandbereadyinafewhourstomarchtothehelpofMinuciusandhissoldiers.

BeforeeveningCincinnatusandhisarmymarchedoutofthecityfortheAlbanHills,wheretheRomanswereshutup.Theyreachedtheplaceintheearlymorningandformedinalineallaroundthehills.TheÆquiansthenfound

themselveshemmedinoneverysidebetweentwoRomanarmies—thearmyofMinuciusandthearmyofCincinnatus.Theyfoughtaswellastheycould,buttheywerequicklyoverpowered,sothattheycoulddonothingbutcrytotheRomancommandertosparetheirlives.Cincinnatussparedtheirlives,buthemadethempassundertheyoke.The

yokewasformedoftwospears,fixeduprightintheground,andathirdfastenedacrossnearthetopfromonetotheother.CincinnatusmadetheÆquianslaydowntheirarmsandpassout,everymanofthem,undertheyokeofspears.Theyhadtobendtheirheadsastheydidso,forthespearswerenotverylong,andtheoneonthetopwasonlyafewfeetfromtheground.TheyokewassetupbetweentwolinesofRomansoldiers,andastheÆquianspassedunderittheRomansjeeredatthemandtauntedthem.

Havingtopassundertheyokewasregardedasthegreatestdisgracethatcouldhappentosoldiers.Manymuchpreferredtosufferdeath.Thepracticehasgiventoourlanguagethewordsubjugate,meaningtosubdueorconquer,fromtheLatinwordssub,under,andjugum,ayoke.

WhenthesoldiersofConsulMinuciuscameoutofthevalleytheyshoutedforjoyandcrowdedaroundCincinnatus,thankinghimastheirdelivererandprotector.“LetusgiveCincinnatusagoldencrown!”theycried;butthegreatgeneralonlysmiled,shookhishead,andgavetheorderforthehomewardmarch.

GreatwastherejoicinginRomewhenthenewsofthevictorywasreceived.TheSenateorderedthatthereshouldbeageneralholidayandagrandparadethroughthecity.AndsothevictoriousarmymarchedintoRomeamidtheshoutsandcheersofthepeople.

Cincinnatusrodeinasplendidchariotdrawnbysixhandsomeblackhorses.HeworethedressofdictatorofRome,andonhisheadwasalaurelwreath.BehindhischariottheÆquiankingandhischiefswalked,lookingveryhumbleandforlorn.Followingthemwereslavesladenwiththearmsandothervaluablethingstakenfromtheenemy’scamp.Withbuglesandtrumpetsgaylysounding,theparadewentthroughthecity.ThechariotofCincinnatuswasfollowedbyathrongofpeoplecheeringandcrying,“HailtotheDictator!HailtotheConqueror!”Flowerswereshowereduponhimandthrownbeforehischariotwheels.

AfewdaysafterwardCincinnatusgaveuptheofficeofdictatorandwentbacktohislittlefarm.

CAMILLUS

IAboutthreehundredandeightyyearsbeforethebirthofChristtheRomanshadanotherwarwiththeVeientians.DuringthiswartheytriedtotaketherichcityofVeii,whichwasabouttwelvemilesfromRome.Buttherewasagreatwallofstoneallaroundthecity,andthegates,whichwereofbrass,wereveryhighandverystrong.SotheRomans,thoughtheytriedashardastheycouldforsevenyears,werenotabletotakeVeii.

AndtomakemattersworseforthemitwasreportedthattwelveEtruscancitiesweregoingtosendarmiestohelptheVeientians.ItwasalsosaidthatassoonasthetwelvearmieshaddriventheRomansawayfromthewallsofVeii,theywouldmarchtoRomeanddestroythecity.

TheRomansweremuchalarmedbythesereports,andtheyresolvedthatthereshouldbeadictator.SotheSenateappointedadictator,andthemanappointedwasMarcusFu’ri-usCa-mil’lus.

CamilluswasoneofthegreatestmenofRome.Hebelongedtoaveryrichandpowerfulfamily,andhewasagreatsoldier.WhenhewasmadedictatorheraisedalargearmyandmarchedatoncetoVeii.Hetriedalongtimetobreakdownthewallsorgates,buthecouldnotdoit.Thenhethoughtoftheplanofdiggingatunnelunderthewalls.

Thisseemedagoodidea,soCamillussetagreatnumberofhismentowork.SoontheyhadatunneldugunderthewallsandsofarunderthecitythattheythoughttheywereasfarasthegreattempleofJuno,whichwasinthefortorstrongestpartofVeii.Heretheystoppedtoconsiderwhatnexttodo.Suddenlythesoundofvoices,asofpeopletalkinginthetempleabovethem,reachedtheirears.SotheysentforCamillus,andwhenhecamehelistenedtothevoices.

NowithappenedthatatthatmomentthekingofVeiiwasinthetemplepreparingtoofferanoxasasacrificetoJunoandprayingtothegoddesstosavethecityfromtheRomans.Theoxwaskilledanditscarcasswasreadytobelaidonthealtar.Afterthekinghadprayedoneofthepriests,pretendingthathehad

receivedananswerfromJuno,criedout:

“Thegoddessdeclaresshewillgivevictorytohimwhooffersthisasasacrificeuponthealtar.”

AssoonasCamillus,whowaslisteningallthetime,heardthesewordsofthepriest,heorderedhismentobreakanopeningintheearthovertheirheads.Thiswasquicklydone,andtheRomanssprangthroughintothemidstoftheworshipers.Theyatonceseizedthecarcassoftheox,andCamillushimselfofferedituponthealtartoJuno.Thenheandhiscompanionsrushedoutofthetempleandopenedthegatesofthecitybeforetheastonishedandfrightenedpeopleknewwhatwasbeingdone.

AssoonasthegateswereopenedtheRomansoldierspouredinbythousands.TheVeientiansfoughtbravely,buttheywerequicklydefeated,andtheirgreatandrichcitywasatlastinthehandsoftheRomans.

Inthosetimes,ashasalreadybeensaid,itwasthecustomtodivideamongthevictorioussoldiersthevaluablethingstakenfromadefeatedenemy.TherichesofVeiiwere,therefore,dividedamongtheRomansoldiers,andthereweresomanypreciousthings—goldandsilverandjewelry—thatthemenwerequiterichwheneachgothisshare.

IISometimeafterthetakingofVeiitheRomanswereatwarwiththeFa-lis’ci-ans,anotherpeopleofEtruria,andCamilluswentwithanarmytobesiegetheirchieftown,whichwascalledFa-le’ri-i.Hemadehiscampinfrontofthewalls,stationedsoldiersallroundandtriedhardtotakethetown.ButtheFaliscianswereverystrongandbrave,andtheydefendedtheirtownsowellthatCamillusbegantobeafraidhewouldnotbeabletotakeitatall.

NowtherewasatthattimeinFaleriiaschoolmasterwhotaughtthesonsofthechiefcitizensofthetown.Thisschoolmasterusedtotakehisboyseverydayforawalkoutsidethewalls.OnedayheledthemwithinthelinesoftheRomanarmyandbroughtthemintothecampofCamillus.

Camilluswassurprisedatseeingtheboys.Heaskedtheschoolmasterwhotheywereandwhyhehadbroughtthemthere.Theschoolmastertoldwhotheboyswereandthensaid:

“Ibringthemheretogivethemuptoyou.IndoingthisIgiveyouupthecity,fortheirfatherswillsurrenderthecitytoyouinordertogetbacktheirchildren.”

Camillusstoodforamomentinsilence,gazingatthetraitorwithalookofdisgust.Theninanangryvoicehecriedout:

“Villain,weRomansarenotsobaseasyouare.Wedonotmakewaruponchildren,butuponmenwhodouswrong.”

Hethenorderedsomeofhissoldierstotietheschoolmaster’shandsbehindhisbackandtogiveeachoftheboysarod,tellingthemtoscourgethetraitorbeforethemintothecity.Thistheboysdidwithaheartygood-will.TheywhippedtheunworthyschoolmasterintoFalerii,andwhenthepeoplesawthesightandheardofthenobleconductofCamillus,theyresolvednottofightanymoreagainstsogoodaman.SotheysentambassadorstoRometomakepeace,andtheRomansandFalisciansbecamegoodfriends.

IIINotlongafterthistimeoneofthetribunesbroughtachargeagainstCamillusthathehadkeptforhisownusemorethanhisfairshareofthespoilsofVeii.Somevaluablethingswerenoticedinhishouse,anditwassaidthathehadnotgotthemaspartofhisshare.Itwasbelieved,therefore,thathehadtakenthemsecretlyfromVeii.

TheRomanswereveryparticularuponthispoint.Theyhadstrictlawsforthedivisionofspoilsobtainedinwar,andnoonewaspermittedtotakemorethanhewasentitledto,accordingtohisrankinthearmy.

Camilluswassummonedtoappearinthepeople’scourttoanswerthechargemadeagainsthim.Buthewouldnothumblehimselfsomuchastogobeforetheplebeianstobetried.HepreferredrathertoleaveRomeforever.SothegreatCamillusdepartedfromhisnativecity,intendingnevertoreturn.AshepassedoutofthegatesheprayedtothegodsthatsomedreadfulthingmighthappentotheRomans,sothattheywouldbeforcedtocallhimbackagaintoRometosavethecity.

AndverysoonsomethingdidhappenwhichcompelledtheRomanstoaskforthehelpofCamillus.ForalongtimeapeoplecalledtheGaulshadbeendoingagreatdealofmischiefinsomepartsofItaly.ThesepeoplecamefromthecountrynowknownasFrance,whichinancienttimeswascalledGaul.ThousandsofthemmadetheirwayacrossthehighmountainscalledtheAlpsandsettledontheplainsofnorthernItaly.Formanyyearstheylivedinthisregion.Thentheyheardthatfurthersouththecountrywasverybeautifulandwasrichincornandcattle,sotheystartedoutingreatnumberstoconquerit.

Theywereastrange,savagepeople,verydifferentfromtheRomansortheEtruscans.Theywereverytallandstrongandhadlong,shaggyblackhairanddark,fiercefaces,sothattheyappearedveryterribletotheItalians.Inbattletheyshowedalltheirsavagenature.Theyrushedfuriouslyattheirenemies,yellingatthetopoftheirvoices,flourishingenormousswords,andblowingtrumpets.

ThechieforkingoftheGaulsatthistimewascalledBren’nus.Hewasamanofgreatstrengthandsize.Heworeagoldencollararoundhisneck,andonhisarms,whichwerebare,hesometimesworebraceletsofgold.

TheGaulsfoundthesouthernlandsverymuchtotheirliking.Theyrobbedfarms,attackedsomeoftheEtruscancities,andthen,afterashorttime,theymarchedforRome.AgreatRomanarmywentouttofightthem,andthetwoarmiesmetonthebanksofarivercalledtheAl’li-a.

TheRomansoldiershadneverbeforeseenthedreadfulGauls.Theywere,therefore,greatlyterrifiedwhenthetall,fierce-lookingsavagescamerunningovertheplainsinvastnumbers,shoutingfuriouslyandblowingtheirtrumpets.AndthoughtheRomangeneral,MarcusMan’lius,triedtomakehismengoforwardbravelytomeettheGaulsitwasuseless.Theyfoughtbadlyandwerekilledbythousands.AtlasttheyranfromthefieldandfledtowardRome.

IVWhenthedefeatedsoldiersreachedRomeandtoldwhathadhappened,therewasgreatterrorinthecity.Mostofthepeoplebundleduptheirhouseholdgoodsandfledtohiding-placesinthemountainscloseby,wheretheythoughttheywouldbesafefromtheGauls.

Butmanyofthesenatorsandotherbravemen,bothnoblesandplebeians,insteadofrunningawayfromthecitywentuptotheCapitol,fastenedthegates,andmadereadyforasiege.TheCapitolwasthemostsacredpartofthecity.ItcontainedsplendidstatuesofJupiter,Juno,andMinerva,and,asyouknow,thefamousSibyllineBooks.

SomeoldmenwhohadbeenconsulsresolvedtoremaininthecityandwaitfortheGaulstocome.TheythoughtthatiftheGaulsshouldkillthemtheywouldthenbesatisfiedandwouldsparethecity.SothepatrioticoldmendressedthemselvesintheirfinestrobesandsatinchairsintheForum,eachwithanivorystaffinhisrighthand.

WhentheGaulsreachedthecitytherewasnoonetoopposethem.They

marchedontotheForumandfoundtheoldmen,withlongwhitebeards,sittingintheirchairs,sostillthattheylookedlikestatues.AGaulwentuptooneofthemandpulledhisbeardtoseeifhewerealivingperson.Instantlytheoldmanraisedhisstaffandstruckthebarbarianintheface.TheGaulsthenfelluponthepatriotsandkilledthem.Thentheybegantoplunder.AfterdestroyingthegreaterpartofthecitytheGaulsturnedtheirattentionto

theCapitol.Therockonwhichitwasbuiltwashighandsteep.

Brennusledhissoldiersupthehill,buttheRomansintheCapitolrusheddownthenarrowroadandafterafewminutesofbravefightingdrovethemback.TheGaulsmadeanotherattempt,butitwasnomoresuccessfulthanthefirst.

BrennussawthattheRomanscouldnotbedrivenfromtheCapitol.Hethereforedecidedtostarvethemout.Heputastrongguardattheentrance,sothattheRomanscouldnotcomeouttogetfood.ForweekstheCapitolwasthusbesieged,butitsfaithfuldefendersheldoutmanfully.

MeanwhilethepeoplewhohadfledfromRometookcourageagain.TheygatheredatthecityofVeiiandorganizedastrongarmytofighttheGauls.Buttheywantedacommander,andthentheythoughtofCamillus.Allagreedthathewouldbetherightmantobetheirgeneral.Sotheyresolvedtosendforhim,butfirsttheythoughttheymusthavetheapprovaloftheSenate.Herewasadifficulty.HowcouldamessengergettotheSenatewhiletheGaulswerearoundtheCapitol?Thispuzzledthemforagoodwhile,butatlastayoungmannamedPon’ti-usCom-in’i-usvolunteeredtocarryamessagetotheCapitol.

SoonaverydarknightPontiusleftVeiiandswamdowntheTiberuntilhereachedtheCapitolineHill.Thenhewentonshoreandcreptupthehillasfarasthegreatrock.TheGaulshadputnoguardthere,fortheythoughtnoonecouldclimbtherockbecauseitwassosteep.

BygreateffortsPontiusmanagedtoclimbup.Severaltimeshewasnearfalling.Butbyclingingtothevinesandbushesthatgrewontherockhecametothetopatlast.HiscountrymenintheCapitolweredelightedtoseehim.TheywerealsoverygladwhentheyheardaboutthearmyatVeii,andtheSenateatonceapprovedoftheproposalaboutCamillus.Itwasagreednotonlytomakehimgeneral,buttomakehimdictator.ThenCominiuswentdowntherockandthehillbythewayhehadcomeupandhastenedofftoVeii.

V

ThenextdaysomeoftheGauls,whilewalkingalongthissideofthehill,noticedfootmarksinthesoil.Theyalsonoticedthatbushes,growinghighupontherock,werecrushedandtorn.Thentheyknewthatsomeonehadgoneuporcomedownthecliff,andtheyresolvedtotrytogoupthemselvesthatnight.

Soshortlyaftermidnight,whentheythoughtthattheRomanswouldbefastasleep,apartyofGaulsbegancautiouslyandsilentlytoclamberupthesteeprock.Someplacedtheirshieldsacrosstheirshouldersforotherstostandupon,andinthiswaytheysupportedoneanother,untilatlastsomeofthemmadetheirwayveryneartothetopandonegotjusttotheedgeofabalconyoftheCapitol.Noonewithinthebuildingheardthem,noteventhewatch-dogs.

Butatthatmomenttherewasaloudcacklingofgeese.ThesebirdswerethoughttobefavoritebirdsofthegoddessJuno.ManywerekeptintheCapitol,andsomeofthemhappenedjustthentobeatthesidetheGaulswereclimbingup.Themovementsoftheclimbers,quietthoughtheywere,disturbedthegeeseandtheybegantocackleandflaptheirwings.

ThenoisearousedMarcusManliusfromhissleep.Hesprangfromhisbed,seizedhisswordandshield,andrantothebalcony.TherehesawaGaulclimbingontotheparapetandothersscramblingupbehind.Marcusrusheduponhim,struckhiminthefacewithhisshield,andtumbledhimheadlongdowntherock.

AstheGaulfellheknockeddownsomeofhiscompanionswhowereclimbingbehindhim.Thegeesestillkeptuptheirloudcackling,andsoonalltheRomanswereawakenedandcamequicklytotheassistanceofMarcus.TheGaulswerehurledbackastheymountedtherock,andinafewminutesallwhohadcomeupweredasheddownthesteepcliffandkilled.ThustheCapitolwassavedbythecacklingofgeese.ForhisbraveactiononthisoccasionMarcusManliuswashonoredbybeingcalledMarcusCap’i-to-li’nus.

VIBrennusnowsawthathecouldnottaketheCapitol,sohethoughtitwouldbeuselesstoremainanylongerinRome.HethereforeofferedtogoawayiftheSenatewouldgivehimathousandpoundsofgold.TheSenatethoughtitbettertodothis.FoodwasveryscarceintheCapitolandinafewdaysthebravementherewouldhavenoneatall.TheyhadheardnothingfurtherfromthearmyatVeiiandtheywerenotsurethathelpcouldcomeintimetosavethem.

SotheSenateresolvedtogivethethousandpoundsofgoldtotheGauls,and

anofficernamedQuin’tusSul-pit’i-uswassentwithsomelictorstodeliverittoBrennus.ButthegoldhadtobeweighedandtheGaulsattemptedtocheattheRomansbyusingfalseweights.WhenSulpitiuscomplainedofthis,Brennustookoffhisswordandthrewit,beltandall,intooneofthescales,andwhenSulpitiusaskedwhatthatmeantBrennusanswered:“Whatshoulditmeanbutwoetotheconquered?”

AtthatmomentCamillusappearedatthegateswithhisarmy.Hesoonlearnedwhatwasgoingon.QuicklyhemarchedtothespotandorderedthelictorstotakethegoldoutofthescaleandcarryitbacktotheRomantreasury.ThenheturnedtoBrennusandaddressinghiminasternvoicesaid:

“WeRomansdefendourcountry,notwithgold,butwithsteel.”

Immediatelytherewasabattle,andtheGaulsweredefeatedanddrivenoutofthecity.NextdaytherewasanotherbattleafewmilesfromRome,andtheGaulswereagaindefeatedandthousandsofthemslain.

CamillusthenreturnedtoRomeattheheadofhisvictoriousarmy.Thepeoplereceivedhimwithshoutsofjoyandforseveraldaystheyhadcelebrationsinhishonor.TheycalledhimthesecondRomulus,meaningthathewasthesecondfounderofthecity.TheyalsocalledhimtheFATHEROFHISCOUNTRY.

VIIItwasinthetimeofCamillusthatagreatholeorchasm,causedperhapsbyanearthquake,suddenlyappearedinthegroundinthemiddleoftheForum.Workmenweresenttofillitup,butnomatterhowmuchearththeythrewintoittheholeseemedtobeaslargeanddeepasbefore.TheSenatethenconsultedtheaugursandtheysaidtheholecouldnotbefilledupuntilwhatwasmostvaluableinRomewascastintoit.Thenthepeoplebegantothrowingoldandsilverandjewelry,butstilltheholewasasdeepasever.AtlastayoungmannamedCurtiussaidthatthemostvaluablethingstheRomanshadweretheirarmsandtheircourage.ThenheputonhisarmorandhisswordandmountinghishorserodeintotheForumandleapedintothegreathole.Immediatelyitclosedupbehindhim,andneitherhenorhishorsewaseverseenagain.

IntheoldRomanstoriesCurtiusismuchpraisedasapatriotandhero.Thepeoplethoughthehadsavedhiscountryfromsomegreatevil,whichtheybelievedwouldhavehappenedtoitiftheholeintheForumhadnotbeenclosedup.

MANLIUSTORQUATUS

MarcusManlius,whocommandedtheRomanarmyatthebattleofAlliaandwhosowelldefendedtheCapitolagainsttheGauls,belongedtoafamilyknownastheMan’li-i.ThisfamilygavemanybravegeneralstotheRepublic.OneofthemwasnamedTitusManlius.

SomeyearsafterthesiegeoftheCapitolTitushadaremarkablefightwithahugeGaul.TheGaulshadcomebacktomakewaragainuponRome.TheirarmywasencampednearabridgeontheA’ni-o,asmallriverafewmilesfromthecity,andtheRomanarmysenttoopposethemwasontheothersideoftheriver,waitingforagoodopportunityforbattle.

EverydayaGaulofgiganticsize,whoworeroundhisneckacollarorchainoftwistedgoldthreads,usedtocometothebridgetoinsulttheRomans.Hewouldcallthemcowardswhowereafraidtofight.Onedayhedaredthemtosendsomeoneouttofightwithhim.Manliusatonceacceptedthechallenge,andthetwoimmediatelytooktheirplacesinanopenspacewithinsightofbotharmies.

TheGaulwassotallandstrongthattheRomanappearedlikeaboybesidehim,andeverybodythoughtthebigwarriorwouldhaveaneasyvictory.ButTituswasveryquickinhismovements.Forafewmomentsafterthefightbeganheskillfullydodgedthefuriousblowsofhisopponent.Thenhesuddenlyrancloseuptohim,sprangunderhisgreatshieldandplungedhissworddeepintotheGaul’sbody.

TheGaulfelltothegrounddead.ThenTitustookthegoldencollarfromthedeadman’sneckandputitonhisown.SoafterwardshewascalledManliusTor-qua’tus,fromthewordtorques,whichisLatinforatwistedcollar.

ManliusTorquatusbecameconsul,buthewasnotmuchlikedbythepeople,forhewasaverysternandsevereruler.DuringawarwhichtheRomanshadwiththeLatinsandsometribesofSouthItaly,ManliuswasincommandoftheRomanarmy.Hemarchedtomeettheenemy,whowereassembledinforceatthefootofMountVesuvius.

Whilethetwoarmieswereencampedoppositetoeachother,ManliusorderedthatnoneofhismenshouldfightwithanyoftheLatinsuntilthewordforbattlewasgiven.SoonafteraLatinofficermetyoungManlius,theconsul’sson,ridinginfrontofthelineswithatroopofhiscomrades.Theyenteredintoconversationaboutthecomingbattle,andeachboastedofthevalorofthesoldiersonhisownside.AtlasttheLatinofficerchallengedtheyoungRomantosinglecombat.

“Wiltthou,”hecried,“measurethystrengthwithmine?ItwillthenbeseenhowmuchtheLatinhorsemanexcelstheRoman.”

Manliusacceptedthechallenge,andinthefightwhichimmediatelytookplacehewasthevictor.HekilledtheLatinand,accordingtothecustomofthosetimes,strippedhimofhisarmorandcarriedittotheRomancamp.Thenhewenttotellhisfatherwhathehaddone.

“Father,”saidhe,“Ipresentyouthisarmor,whichIhavetakenfromtheenemy.IhopeyouwillacceptitasaproofthatIamreadyandabletodomydutyasaRomansoldier.”

Torquatuslookedathissonsadlyandthensaid:

“Myson,yousayyouarewillingtodoyourdutyasasoldier.Butthefirstdutyofasoldierisobedience.Thisdutyyouhavenotperformed,foryouhavejustnowdisobeyedme,yourcommander.Youhavefoughtwiththeenemywithoutreceivingorderstodoso.Butyoushallnotescapepunishmentbecauseyouaremyson.”

Thenturningtohislictorshesaid:

“Go,bindhimtoastakeandcutoffhishead.”

Atthiscruelorderloudcriesofhorrorcamefromthesoldiers.YoungManliusthrewhimselfathisfather’sfeetandbeggedformercy.Butthesternconsulturnedawayfromhimandorderedthelictorstoperformtheirduty.SothebraveyoungManliuswasledtoastakeandbound,andwithonestrokeofthelictor’saxehisheadwascutfromhisbody.

Soonafterwardstherewasabattlebetweenthetwoarmies,andtheRomansgainedagreatvictory.Butthewarcontinuedforsometimelonger.Itended,however,inthedefeatoftheLatins.Manliustookpossessionofoneoftheirtowns—thetownofAn’ti-um,ontheMediterraneancoast—andcompelledtheinhabitantstogiveuptheirwarships.

Warvesselsandgalleysinthosetimeshadsharpprowsmadeforthepurpose

ofrunningintoandbreakingthroughthesidesofothervessels.Theprowwasabeam,withpointedironsfastenedtoit,andametalfigureresemblingthebeakorheadofabirdorotheranimal.Thisbeakwascalledarostrum.

WhentheRomanscapturedthewarshipsofAntiumtheybrokeoffthebeaksandcarriedthemtoRome.TheretheyfastenedthemasornamentstotheplatformintheForum,fromwhichoratorsaddressedthepeople.Hencethewordrostrumcametomeanaplatformorpulpitforpublicspeaking,andinthissenseitisnowusedinourownlanguage.

APPIUSCLAUDIUSCÆCUS

ISoonafterthedefeatoftheGaulstherelivedinRomeagreatmannamedAp’pi-usClau’di-us.Hebelongedtooneofthehighestfamiliesofthecity.Hewasconsulfortwoyears,andforseveralyearsheheldtheofficeofcensor(312–308B.C.).

Thecensorwasaveryhighandimportantofficer.Hewasnotonlyheadofthedepartmentfortakingthecensus,buthehadchargeofthecollectingofthetaxes,theerectingofpublicbuildings,andthemakingofroadsandstreets.

AppiusClaudiuswasagreatsoldier.EveryRomancitizenhadtobeasoldier,andeverymanwhowasconsulhadtobeabletoleadarmiesandtofightandwinbattles.ButAppiusClaudiuswaschieflyfamousforthegreatpublicworksheplannedanddirectedinRome,whichatthattimewasacitywithapopulationofaboutthreehundredthousand.Oneoftheseworkswasanaqueductwhichbroughtwatertothecityfromalakeeightmilesdistant.TheRomanaqueductswerethebestintheworld.Someofthemthatwerebuiltovertwothousandyearsagoarestillinuse.

ButthegreatestworkofAppiusClaudiuswasthemakingofaroadfromRometoCap’u-a,adistanceofonehundredandtwentymiles.ThisroadwascalledtheAppianWayinhonorofAppius.Itwasalsocalledthe“queenofroads”becauseitwassowellbuilt.Partsofitarestillinexistence.TheRomanshadgoodroadsaswellasgoodaqueducts.Theywerethebestroad-buildersintheworld.

WhilehewascensorAppiusClaudiusverymuchimprovedRome.Hewascalled“thegreatestofhiscountrymenintheworksofpeace.”Evenafterheretiredfromofficehehadgreatinfluenceinpublicaffairs.Hisadvicewasaskedbybothplebeiansandnobles.

OnceduringthefirstwarwhichtheRomanshadwiththeGreekstheadviceofAppiuswasofgreatbenefittoRome.AtthattimethereweremanyGreeksettlementsinthesouthofItaly.OneoftheGreektownswascalledTaren’tum.It

wasbuiltclosetotheseaandhadaverygoodharbor.

Manyofthepeopleofthistownwerewelleducated.InthosedaystheGreeksweremostlyaneducatedpeople.Theywerefondoflearningandofart.TheycalledtheRomansbarbariansandwerenotfriendlytothem.

OncewhenaRomanfleetenteredthebayofTarentum,thepeopleofthetownattackeditandaftertakingfiveoftheshipsputthecrewstodeath.WhenthenewsofthisoutragereachedRometheSenatesentambassadorstodemandsatisfaction.OneoftheambassadorswasamannamedLu’ci-usPos-thu’mi-us.WhentheyarrivedatTarentumtheyweremetbyanoisycrowdofpeopleofthetown,whomadefunoftheirdress.

TheRomansworeanouterdresscalledatoga.Itwasalargewhitewoollencloth,intheshapeofahalfcircle,fourorfiveyardslongandofnearlythesamewidth.Inputtingonthisgarmenttheydoubleditlengthwise,thenpassedoneendovertheleftshoulderandundertheoppositearmandagainovertheleftshoulder,theotherendreachingnearlytothegroundinfront.TheTarentineslaughedatthetogaoftheRomanambassadors.Theysaiditwasadressfitonlyforsavages.

Inashorttimetheambassadorsweretakentothepublictheatre,wherethepeoplehadassembledtohearthemessagefromRome.PosthumiusspoketotheminGreek,butasthiswasnothisownlanguagehepronouncedmanyofthewordsinapeculiarway,andtheTarentineslaughed.TheRomanwenton,however,inadignifiedmannerandfinishedhisspeechasifhehadnotnoticedtheinsult.

JustthenaTarentinemovedforwardtotheplacewherePosthumiusstoodandthrewsomedirtonhiswhitetoga.TheambassadorheldupthesoiledgarmentwithhishandandsaidthatTarentumwouldbemadetosufferfortheoutrage.Thenthetheatrerangwithlaughterandoffensivecries.

“Laughon,”saidPosthumius,“youmaylaughnowbutyoushallweephereafter.Thestainonthistogashallbewashedoutinyourblood!”

ThentheambassadorsleftthetheatreandatoncesetoutforRome.WhentheyappearedbeforetheSenatePosthumiusshowedthestainonhistogaasproofoftheinsultofferedtoRomebytheTarentines.TheSenateatoncedeclaredwaronTarentumandsentapowerfularmytoattackit.

II

AtthistimetheTarentineshadnogeneraltheythoughtwouldbeabletofighttheRomans.SotheysentacrosstheseatoE-pi’rus,inGreece,forthekingofthatcountrytocomeandhelpthem.ThenameofthiskingwasPyr’rhus.Hewasagreatsoldierandcommanderandwasnearlyalwaysengagedinwar.HeconsentedtohelptheTarentinesandcrossedovertoItalywithagreatarmyinwhichtherewasanumberoffightingelephants.

WhenPyrrhusenteredTarentumhemadehimselfmasterofthecity.TheTarentineswereveryfondofplaysandamusementsofallkinds.Pyrrhusclosedthetheatres,stoppedalltheamusementsandmadethepeopledrillassoldiersalldaylong.

AssoonashewasreadytofighthemarchedoutwithhisarmyofGreeksandTarentinesagainsttheRomans,andtherewasagreatbattlenearthecityofHer’a-cle’a.Bothsidesfoughtwellforhours,buttheGreeksatlastbegantofallback.Theycouldnotstandagainstthesteady,fierceattacksmadebytheRomans.

ThenPyrrhusbroughthiselephantsuponthefield.Hehadseventyofthem,andtheywerethoroughlytrainedtofight.Theywouldrunintotheranksoftheenemy,knockthesoldiersdownandtramplethemtodeath,orlayholdofthemwiththeirtrunksandthrowthemhighintotheair.

Astheelephantsstoodinlinewaitingfortheordertocharge,theRomanslookedatthemwithwonderandfear.Theyknewnothingaboutelephants,fortheyhadneverseenanybefore.Andwhenthehugebeastscamechargingfuriouslyacrossthefield,makingstrangenoises,manyoftheRomansoldierswereterriblyfrightenedandbegantorunaway.Theelephantskilledhundredsofthem,andinafewminutestheRomanarmywasputtoflight.

Itwassavedfromentiredestructionbyonlyonething.ARomansoldierwasbraveenoughtorushatanelephantwhileitwaschargingandcutoffapartofitstrunkwithhissword.Theanimal,wildwithpain,turnedandranbacktotheGreeklines,tramplingdownthesoldiersandcausingagreatdealofconfusion.IntheexcitementtheRomansmanagedtoescapeacrossarivertoafriendlycitywheretheyweresafe.

Pyrrhuswonthevictory,buthelostthousandsofmen.Whenhesawthegreatnumberofhissoldiersthatlaydeadonthefield,heexclaimed:

“AfewmoresuchvictoriesandImustreturntoEpirusalone!”

IIIShortlyafterthebattlePyrrhussenthisfriendandfavoriteminister,Cin’e-as,toRometooffertermsofpeacetotheSenate.Cineaswasaveryeloquentman.OftenwhenPyrrhuscouldnotconquerpeopleinbattle,Cineasbyhiscleverspeechesinducedthemtosubmittothekingandbehisfriends.ThiswaswhytheGreeksusedtosay,“ThetongueofCineaswinsmorecitiesthantheswordofPyrrhus.”

CineasproposedtotheRomanSenatethattheRomansshouldnotmakewaranylongerontheTarentines,noronanyoftheItaliantribesthathadhelpedthem,andthatallthelandsRomehadtakenfromthesetribesinpastyearsshouldbegivenback.IftheRomanswouldagreetotheseterms,thenPyrrhuswouldbetheirtruefriend.

ThetermswerenotgoodforRome,butCineaswassosmooth-spokenandsopleasantinproposingthemthatmanyofthesenatorswereinclinedtoacceptthem.OnedaywhiletheywerediscussingthematterintheSenateathrillingsceneoccurred.

AppiusClaudiuswasstilllivinginRome.Hewasveryoldandhadbecomeblind.ForthisreasonhegotthenameCœ’cus,awordwhichisLatinforblind.Buthismindwasremarkablyclear,andhehadnotlostinterestinpublicaffairs.WhenheheardthattheSenatewasgoingtoacceptthetermsofferedbyPyrrhusherosefromhisbeddeclaringthathewouldgoandspeakagainsttheproposal.

SohewascarriedbyhisslavestotheSenatehouse,andhissonsledtheagedmantohisseat.Hebeganhisspeechamidstthedeepestsilence.Hisyouthseemedtocomebacktohim.Oncemorehewastheboldcensorofthirtyyearsbefore.Infierywordshespokeagainsttheplanforpeace,sayingitwouldbebaseandcowardlytoyieldtotheGreekking.

“Letusfighton,”hesaid,“aslongaswehavesoldiers.ShallwesubmittothisGreekinvadermerelybecausewehavelostonebattle?Never!Never!Isay.Bettertoloseallthatwehavethantodisgraceourselvesbysubmitting!”

Thepatrioticoldmanwentonspeakinginthiswayuntilhisstrengthfailedhimandhesankexhaustedintohisseat.HisspeechhadsomucheffectonthesenatorsthattheyimmediatelyvotedagainsttheproposalofPyrrhusandorderedCineastodepartfromRome.

Thenthewarwascarriedonvigorously.AgreatbattlewasfoughtatAs’cu-lum,andagaintheRomansweredefeatedbytheGreeks.Buttheywerenot

discouraged.TheConsulCu’ri-usDen-ta’tusfoughtanotherbattleagainstPyrrhusatBen’e-ven’tum,andwonagloriousvictory.TheGreekswereutterlydefeated,andPyrrhussoonafterwardsleftItalyandreturnedtohisowncountry.

ThentheRomansspeedilytookpossessionofTarentumandmadeitspeoplepaywellfortheirinsulttotheRomanambassadors.

REGULUS

IThenextgreatwartheRomansengagedinwaswithCarthage.ItwasaboutthepossessionoftheislandofSicily,intheMediterraneanSea.ItbegannotlongafterPyrrhusleftItalyandwasthefirstofthreewarscalledthePu’nicWars.PunicmeansPhœ-ni’ci-anandthepeoplewhofoundedCarthagecamefromPhœ-ni’ci-a,soCarthagewascalledaPunicorPhœniciancolony.

WhenthefirstPunicWarbeganbothRomeandCarthagewereveryrichandpowerful.Romehadgreatarmiesandgreatgenerals.Itscommonsoldiers,too,wereremarkablybraveandpatriotic.Itwasverysuccessfulinitswars.BeforeitbegantofightCarthageithadconquerednearlyallItaly.

Carthage,also,hadfinearmies,butitsgreateststrengthwasinitsnavy.Noothercountryintheworldatthattimehadsomanyshipsofwarandtradingships.TheshipsoftheCarthaginianswenteverywhereintheMediterranean.SomeofthemevenwentpastthePillarsofHercules,astherockycapesattheStraitofGibraltarwerethencalled,andsailedforsomedistanceontheAtlanticOcean.

TheCarthaginianshipsweresmall,buttheywereverystrong.Thewarshipswerebuilttocarryagoodmanysoldiers,aswellassailorsandoarsmen.Theyhadgreatroundedironprows,whichcoulddomuchdamagetoanenemy’sshipswhenrunupagainstthem.Eachshiphadamastandlargesail,butitwasalsorowedwithoarsbymanyoarsmenwhosatonlongbenches,placedoneabovetheother.Withthesailandtheoarstheshipcouldbemadetogoveryfastthroughthewater.

CarthagewasinNorthAfrica,inthecountrynowcalledTunisia.ItstoodattheheadofabeautifulbayoftheMediterranean.Itwasalargeandhandsomecityandhadagreatcommerce.

II

ManyyearsbeforethebeginningofthefirstPunicWarCathageconqueredagreatpartofSicilyandmadeitaCarthaginiancolony.ButtheRomanswantedtheisland,andsounderthepretenceofprotectinganItaliantribethathadsettledtheretheysentanarmyintoSicily.ThiswashowthefirstPunicWarbegan.

BothRomeandCarthagefoughtfiercely,andforalongtimeneitherhadmuchadvantageovertheother.AtfirsttheRomanshadnowarships.Uptothattimetheydidnotneedany,foralltheirfightingwasonland.ButwhentheybeganwarwiththeCarthaginianstheyfoundthattheymusthaveshipstocarrytheirsoldierstoSicilyandtofighttheCarthaginiansatsea.SotheRomanssettoworktobuildshipsandtotrainmentorowthem,andinashorttimetheyhadagreatnavy.

IntheninthyearofthewarthearmiesandfleetsofRomewereputunderthecommandofageneralnamedMarcusA-til’i-usReg’u-lus.Hewasagreatheroandpatriot.HehadbeenageneralbeforethePunicWarandhadoftenledtheRomanstovictory.Afteryearsofgoodservice,fightingandwinningbattlesforhiscountry,hewenttoliveonhislittlefarmand,likeCincinnatus,hecultivateditwithhisownhands.AstoryistoldofhimwhichwellillustratesancientRomanhonorandpatriotism.

UntilRegulustookcommandthePunicWarwascarriedononlyinSicilyandontheMediterranean.ButhethoughtthatRomeshouldfighttheCarthaginiansintheirowncountry,andsoheorganizedanimmensearmyandnavytoinvadeCarthage.Hehadthreehundredandthirtywarshipsofthelargestsizeandaboutsixtythousandsoldiers.

Inthosetimes,infightsatsea,theyhadanenginecalledaboardingbridge.Oneendofitwasfixedtothedeckoftheship.Theotherend,whichwasfree,couldbeswungroundandontoanenemy’sship,andithadaheavyironspikeunderneath,sothatwhenitfellonthedeckitwouldsinkintoitandthusholdtheenemy’svesselfortheattackingpartytoboardit.

WheneverythingwasreadyRegulussetsailforAfrica.SoonafterstartinghemetalargeCarthaginianfleet,andinashortbattlehedestroyedit.ThenhesailedonandafterlandinginAfricabeganamarchtowardsCarthage.Onhiswayhecapturedseveraltowns,andhemetanddefeatedaCarthaginianarmy.HethencontinuedhismarchuntilhemetanotherarmyofCarthaginians.ThisarmywascommandedbyXan-thip’pus,afamousgeneralofSparta,inGreece,whohappenedtobeinCarthageatthattime.InthebattlethatfollowedtheRomansweredefeated,andReguluswasmadeprisonerandtakenofftoCarthage.

IIIButtheRomanshadothergeneralsandotherarmies,andtheycarriedonthewaranddefeatedtheCarthaginiansinmanybattles.

AtlasttheCarthaginiansthoughtitbettertotrytomakepeace,andsotheysentambassadorstoRometoproposethatthewarshouldbestoppedoncertainterms,whichtheywerereadytooffer.TheysentReguluswiththeambassadors,buttheymadehimswearthathewouldreturntoCarthageiftheRomanSenateshouldrefusetoagreetotheirterms.TheythoughtthatinordertogainhisownfreedomReguluswouldtrytogettheSenatetoaccepttheirproposals.Regulusagreedtogoandmadethepromiserequired.

“Igiveyoumywordofhonor,”saidhe,“thatIwillreturnifyourtermsarenotaccepted.”

ThenhesetoutforRomewiththeambassadors.Asheapproachedthegatesofthecity,thousandsofpeoplecameforthtowelcomehimandtoescorthimthroughthestreets.Butherefusedtoenter.

“IcannotenterRome,”saidhe.“IamnolongeraRomanofficer,butaprisonerofCarthage.Donoturgemetoenterthegates.IamnotevenworthexchangingforaCarthaginianprisoner.”

Thepeople,however,insistedthatheshouldenterthecity,andsoamidshoutsandcheershewasescortedtotheSenatehouse.

InalittlewhiletheCarthaginianambassadorspresentedtheirproposals,andtheSenatebegantoconsiderthem.AftersomediscussionReguluswasaskedtogivehisopinionwhetherthetermsoughttobeacceptedornot.

RegulusatfirstwasunwillingtospeakintheSenate.Hesaidthatbybecomingaprisonerhehadlostthehonorofbeingasenator.

“IamnolongeraRomansenator,”saidhe.“IamaprisonerofCarthage.”

TheSenate,however,insistedthatheshouldspeak.ThenRegulussaidthattheSenateoughtnottoacceptthetermsofpeaceofferedbyCarthage.HethoughtthattheywerenotgoodtermsforRome,andheadvisedtheSenatenottoagreetothem.

ButtheSenatewasinclinedtoacceptthetermsforthesakeofRegulushimself.IfpeacewerenotmadehewouldhavetogobackandremainaprisonerinCarthage,orperhapshewouldbeputtodeath.ThereforetheSenatewasforagreeingtotheCarthaginianterms.ButRegulusagainspokestronglyagainst

them,andatlasttheSenatedecidedtorejecttheCarthaginianproposals.

IVRegulusnowpreparedtoreturntoCarthage,buthisfamilyandfriendsclungtohim,saying:

“Youmustnotgo!Youmustnotgo!”

Toalltheirappealshemadebutoneanswer:

“Ihavegivenmywordofhonortoreturn,andIcannotbreakit.”

SoRegulusreturnedtoCarthagewiththeambassadors.Whenthepeopleofthatcityheardthatbyhisadvicetheirtermshadbeenrejectedtheywereveryangry.TheyhadwishedverymuchtomakepeacewithRome,forthelongwarhadcostthemagreatmanylivesandagreatdealofmoney,andtheywantedtostopit.ThereforetheywereenragedagainstRegulusandtheyputhimtodeathinaverycruelway.

ThewarbetweenRomeandCarthagecontinuedforsomeyearsmore,butatlasttheCarthaginiansweredefeatedinagreatseabattlenearthecoastofSicily.TheywerethenobligedtogiveupSicilyandpayalargesumofmoneytotheRomansasafine.ThiswastheendofthefirstPunicWar(241B.C.).

SCIPIOAFRICANUS

IButpeacedidnotlastlongbetweenRomeandCarthage.SomeyearsaftertheendofthefirstPunicWartheCarthaginiansattackedandtookpossessionofatowninSpain,thepeopleofwhichwerefriendsandalliesofRome.ThiscausedthesecondPunicWar,whichbegan218B.C.

OneofthegreatsoldiersofthiswarwasPub’li-usCorneliusScip’i-o.InthelatterpartofhislifehewascalledScipioAf-ri-ca’nus,onaccountofthegreatvictorieswhichhewoninAfrica.

Scipiowasabravesoldierfromhisyouth.Whenonlyseventeenyearsoldhefoughtinabattleandsavedhisfather’slife.Hewasalwaysgallantandheroicinwar,sohesoonbecamenotedintheRomanarmyandrosetohighrank.Andalthoughhewasamemberofanoblefamily,hewaswelllikedbytheplebeiansandtheyelectedhim“ædile.”

Theædilesweremagistratesorjudges.TheywerealsosuperintendentsofpublicbuildingsandofthegamesandshowsofwhichtheRomanpeopleweresofond.

WhenScipiowasabouttwenty-sevenyearsofage,hewasappointedtocommandtheRomanarmythatwasfightingtheCarthaginiansinSpain.CarthagehadconqueredsomepartsofSpain,andRomehadconqueredotherparts,andthetwonationswereoftenatwaraboutplacesinthatcountry.

WhenScipiowenttoSpainmanyofthepeopletherewereagainsthim,buttheysoonbecamehisfriends.Wheneverhetookacityheallowedthechiefswhowerecapturedtogofree,andhegavepresentstomanyofthem.Healwaysshowedgreatrespecttowomenandchildrenwhoweretakenprisoners.Inthosetimesitwasthecruelcustomtomakeslavesofwomenwhowerefoundintownsthathadbeentakeninwar.ButScipioneverdidthisinSpain.Healwaysletthewomengofree.

OnedayabeautifulSpanishgirlwhohadbeentakenprisonerwasbrought

beforehim.Sheseemedverymuchfrightened,butScipiospokekindlytoherandtoldherthatnooneshouldharmher.WhilespeakingwithherhelearnedthatayoungmanwhowasherloverhadalsobeentakenprisonerbytheRomansoldiers.Hesentfortheyoungmanandsaidtohim:

“Takeyoursweetheartandgo.Isetyoubothfree.GoandbehappyandinfuturebefriendsofRome.”

AndsobymanyactsofkindnessScipiogainedthefriendshipoftheSpaniards.AfterawhiletheybegantojointheRomansandgavethemgreathelpintheirwaragainsttheCarthaginians.

IIWhenhisserviceswerenolongerneededinSpain,ScipioreturnedtoRome.Hegotagreatreceptioninthecity.Therewasagrandparadeinhishonor.Hebroughthomeanimmensequantityofsilver,whichheobtainedfromtherichSpanishminesandfromthecitieshehadtaken.ThesilverwasputintotheRomantreasurytopaytheexpensesofthewar.

SoonafterhereturnedfromSpainScipiowaselectedconsul.TheCarthaginiangeneral,Han’ni-bal,wastheninItalywithalargearmy.ThisHannibalwasoneofthegreatestgeneralsofancienttimes.Whenhewasbutnineyearsoldhisfather,whowasalsoagreatgeneral,madehimtakeanoaththathewouldhateRomeandtheRomansforever.ThenhetooktheboywithhimtoSpainandgavehimathoroughtrainingasasoldier.

WhenhisfatherdiedHannibalbecamecommanderoftheCarthaginianarmyinSpain.Hewasthenlittlemorethantwenty-oneyearsold.HefoughtwellinSpainforsometimeandwaswelllikedbyhissoldiers.SuddenlyheresolvedtomakewarontheRomansintheirowncountryandtogobylandtoItaly.Sohegotreadyanimmensearmyandsetoutonhismarch.InpassingthroughFrancehehadtocrossthebroadRiverRhone.Thiswasnoteasytodo,fortherewasnobridge.Hegothismenoverinboats,buthehadanumberofelephantsinhisarmyandtheyweretoobigandheavytobetakenacrossinthatway.Theboatsweresmallandtheelephantswereafraidtogointothem.Hannibalthereforegotraftsorfloats,madeoftrunksoftreestiedtogether,andinthesetheelephantswerecarriedover.

AftercrossingtheRhoneHannibalmarchedovertheAlpsintoItaly.Heandhisarmysufferedmanyhardshipsinmakingtheirwayoverthosesnow-coveredmountains.Hehadoftentofightfiercetribesthatcametoopposehim,buthe

defeatedthemall,andafterbeingdefeatedmanyofthemjoinedhisarmyandbroughthimprovisionsforhissoldiers.VerysoonRomanarmiesweresentagainstHannibal,buthedefeatedthemin

manybattles.Oncehisarmygotintoaplacenearhighhillswherehecouldnotmarchfurtherexceptthroughonenarrowpassbetweenthehills.TheRomangeneral,QuintusFabius,sentfourthousandofhistroopstotakepossessionofthispass,andhepostedtherestofhisarmyonthehillscloseby.

Hannibalsawthathewasinatrap,buthefoundawayofescaping.Hecausedvinebranchestobetiedtothehornsofalargenumberoftheoxenthatwerewithhisarmy.Thenheorderedhismentosetthebranchesonfireinthemiddleofthenightandtodrivetheoxenupthehills.

Assoonastheanimalsfeltthepaintheyrushedmadlyaboutandsetfiretotheshrubsandbushestheymetontheway.TheRomansatthepassthoughtthattheCarthaginianswereescapingbytorchlight.Sotheyhastilyquittheirpostsandhurriedtowardsthehillstohelptheircomrades.ThenHannibal,seeingthepassfree,marchedhisarmyoutandsoescapedfromthetrap.

QuintusFabiuswasveryslowandcautiousinhismovements.TheRomanshadbeendefeatedsooftenthathethoughtthebestplanwastoharassHannibalineverypossibleway,butnottoventuretofighthiminagreatbattleuntilheshouldbesureofwinning.ForthisreasontheRomansgaveFabiusthenameofCunc-ta’tor,whichmeansdelayer,andsotheplanofextremedelayorcautioninanyundertakingisoftencalledaFabianpolicy.

ButinspiteofthecautionofFabiusHannibalgainedmanygreatvictories.HisgreatestvictorywasatthebattleofCan’næ,inthesouthofItaly.HerehedefeatedanddestroyedaRomanarmyofseventythousandmen.AndforseveralyearsafterthisbattleHannibalremainedinItalydoingtheRomansalltheharmhecould.

AtlastScipiothoughtitwastimetofollowtheplanofRegulus.SohesaidtotheSenate:

“WehaveactedtoolongasifwewereafraidofHannibalandCarthage.Wedefendourselvesbravelywhenweareattacked,andsofarwehavesavedRomefromdestruction;butwedonotmakeanyattacksonourenemies.Wecertainlyoughttodothis,forourarmiesarestrongandfullyreadytomeettheCarthaginians.”

ScipiothenproposedthatanarmyledbyhimselfshouldgotoAfricaand

carryonwarthere.HebelievedthatifthisweredoneHannibalwouldhavetogotoAfricatodefendCarthage.

PerhapsonaccountofwhathadhappenedtoRegulus,theSenatedidnotlikeScipio’splan.Nevertheless,itgavehimpermissiontogotoAfrica,butwouldnotgivehimanarmy.ScipiothenraisedasplendidarmyofvolunteersandsailedacrosstheMediterraneanSeatoAfrica.

IIIScipiotriedforsometimetoobtaintheaidofSy’phax,apowerfulkingofNu-mid’i-a,inAfrica.ButSyphaxdecidedtojointheCarthaginians.SoScipiofoundtwogreatarmiesreadytofighthim.OnewasthearmyofCarthage,withthirty-threethousandmen,commandedbyHas’dru-balGis’co,andtheotherwasthearmyofNumidia,withsixtythousandmen,commandedbyKingSyphax.

ButScipiofoundinAfricaonestrongfriend,andthatwasaNumidianprincenamedMas’i-nis’sa.ThisprincehadahostofsupportersamonghiscountrymenandwasthereforeabletobringalargeforceofgoodsoldierstotheaidoftheRomans.HewasofgreatservicetoScipioinmanyways.

WheneverythingwasreadytheRomanarmy,withMasinissa’sforce,encampedaboutsixmilesfromthecampsoftheenemy.ScipiosentspiesamongtheCarthaginiansandthesoldiersofKingSyphax,andfromthemhelearnedthatbotharmieswerelodgedinhutsmadeofstakesandcoveredwithreedsanddriedleaves.Heresolvedtosetthosehutsonfire.

SooneverydarknighttheRomanarmyleftitscampandmarchedsilentlytotheplainoccupiedbytheenemy.ThenadivisionoftheRomanswenttotheencampmentoftheNumidiansandasoldiercreptcautiouslyfromtheRomanlinesandsetoneofthehutsonfire.Thefirespreadrapidly,andinafewminutesthewholecampwasinflames.

TheNumidiansoldiers,suddenlyawakenedbythefire,fledfromtheburninghutswithouttheirweaponsandmadefranticeffortstoescapefromthecamp.Hundredsofthemwereknockeddownandtrampledtodeathintherushandconfusion;hundredsmorelosttheirlivesinthefire.ThosewhogottotheopencountrywereattackedbytheRomansandkilled.Thegroundwascoveredwiththebodiesoftheslain.KingSyphaxandafewhorsemenmanagedtoescape,buttherestofthevastNumidianarmywasdestroyed.

InthemeantimetheCarthaginianshadbeenarousedbythenoiseinthecamp

oftheNumidians.Theythoughtthatthefirehadbeencausedbyanaccident,andsomeofthemranforwardtoassisttheNumidians.Butthegreaternumberstoodinaconfusedthrong,withouttheirarms,outsidetheircamp,lookingatthefirewithterror.WhiletheywereinthishelplessstatetheCarthaginiansweresuddenly

attackedbytheRomanswithScipioattheirhead.Manywerekilled,andtheothersweredrivenbackintotheircamp,whichwasimmediatelysetonfireinanumberofplaces.Thentherewasafrightfulscene.ThousandsofCarthaginians,strugglingtoescapethefire,wereslainbytheRomans,whilethousandsmoreperishedintheflames.HasdrubalGisco,thecommander,andsomeofhisofficersescaped,butonlyafewoftheothers.InlessthananhourtherewaslittleleftoftheCarthaginianarmy.

IVScipionowbegantomarchtowardsthegreat,richcityofCarthage.Hecapturedanumberoftownsandagreatdealoftreasure.Inafewweeks,however,theCarthaginianswereabletoformanotherarmyofthirtythousandmen,andthentheycameboldlyforthtomeetScipio.

Afiercebattlefollowed.TheRomansweredrivenbackforatime,butwithwonderfulcouragetheychargedtheCarthaginiansagainandagainandatlasttotallydefeatedthem.

TheCarthaginiansnowsentamessagetoItalyrequestingHannibaltocometothereliefofhiscountry.TherenownedgeneraldidnotwanttoleaveItaly,forhehopedtobeabletotakeRome;buthethoughtitbesttoobeythecallofCarthage,sohesailedforAfricawithhisarmy.

AfterarrivinginAfricaHanniballedhisarmytoawideplainnearZa’ma,atownnotfarfromCarthage.HereheawaitedtheRomans.

HannibalhadgreatadmirationforScipio,andhedesiredtoseehimbeforeengaginginbattle.SohesentamessengertoScipiorequestinganinterview.Therequestwasgranted,andthetwogeneralsmet.

Theygreetedeachothercordially,andeachcomplimentedtheotheronhisvictoriesandgreatnessasasoldier.ThenHannibalproposedtermsofpeacetoScipio.

“WewillgiveSpainandtheislandsofSicilyandSardiniatoRome.Thenwewilldividetheseawithyou.Whatmorewouldyouhave?RomeandCarthage

wouldthenbethetwogreatnationsoftheworld.”

Scipiothoughtitwastoolatetomaketerms.

“Wemustfightitout,”saidhe,“untilonesideortheotherisvanquished.”

Thegeneralsthenparted,andthenextdaythetwoarmiesweredrawnupinbattlearray.Oneachsidetherewereaboutthirtythousandmen,butHannibalhadaherdoffightingelephants.

Thebattlewaslongandsevere.Botharmiesfoughtheroically,andtherewasterribleslaughter.ButHannibal’selephantswereoflittleusetohim,astheRomansfrightenedthembyblowingtrumpetsandhurlingballsoffireatthem.AtamomentwhenthelinesoftheCarthaginianswerebreaking,astrongforceofRomanhorsemencameupsuddenlyintherearandoverpoweredallbeforeit.ThiswonthebattlefortheRomans.WhenHannibalsawthatthebattlewaslosthefledfromthefieldwithafewfriends(202B.C.).

ScipiowasnowmasterofCarthage.HecompelledtheCarthaginianstopayhimavastamountingoldandsilverandtogiveupsomeoftheirtownsandlands.HealsocompelledthemtodestroytheirgreatfleetofwarshipsandtopromisenottomakewarinfutureuponanypeoplewithoutthepermissionoftheRomans.

WhenScipioreturnedtoRomeheenteredthecityattheheadofagrandprocession.Thegreatesthonorswerepaidtohim,andhewascalledScipioAfricanus.

SomeyearsafterwardsScipiometHannibalatthecourtofthekingofSyria.ThetwogeneralshadafriendlyconversationandScipioaskedHannibalwhohethoughtwasthegreatestgeneralthateverlived.Hannibalanswered:

“AlexandertheGreat.”

“Whowasthesecond?”askedScipio.

“Pyrrhus,”repliedHannibal.

“Whothethird?”

“Myself,”answeredHannibal.

“Butwhatwouldyouhavesaid,”askedScipio,“ifyouhadconqueredme?”

“Ishouldthenhavesaid,”repliedHannibal,“thatIwasgreaterthanAlexander,greaterthanPyrrhus,andgreaterthanallothergenerals.”

CATOTHECENSOR

IOnafarmnearTusculum,alittletownaboutfifteenmilesfromRome,thereoncelivedaboynamedMar’cusPor’ci-usCa’to.Hisfatherandhisgrandfatherbeforehimhadbeenfarmersandhe,too,expectedtobeone.

WhenhewasaboutseventeenHannibal’sarmycrossedtheAlpsintoItaly,andyoungCatobecameaRomansoldier.Whenthewarendedthecountryboyhadbecomeaman,sternandforceful.Heattractedtheattentionofaneighbor,arichman,whopersuadedhimtogotoRomeandpracticelaw.

Intimehewaselectedtooffice,andhedidhisdutysowellthatherosehigherandhigher,untilhebecameoneoftheconsuls.ThatsameyeararebellionaroseinSpain,andCatoledanarmyagainsttheSpaniards.Itissaidthatinfourhundreddayshecapturedfourhundredvillages.OnhisreturntoRomehewashonoredwithatriumph.

ShortlyafterthishewassenttoGreece,whereAn-ti’o-chuswasattackingGreekcitiesthatwerefriendlytoRome.HedefeatedAntiochusinthePassofThermopylaeandwongreatfameasasoldier.

Catowasaveryhardman;hardonhimself,hardonhisfriends.Andalthoughhewasrichandheldofficeinagreatcity,helivedahardlife,takingnopleasuresandsavinghismoney.Heatetheplainestfoodanddrankthesamecheapwinethatheboughtforhisslaves.

HethoughtthattheluxuryandextravaganceoftherichweretakingawaythestrengthofRome.InordertoputastoptothesethingsCatoaskedthepeopleofRometoelecthimcensor.Thepatriciansopposedhimbitterly,buthewaselectedbyalargemajority.OneofthefirstthingshedidwastoexpelfromtheSenateseveralsenatorswhowereleadingimproperlives.Hehadaheavytaxputoncarriagessoastocompelpeopletowalk.Healsoplacedataxonjewels,handsomedresses,carpets,andfinefurniture.SowelldidhedohisworkthatheisalwaysknowninhistoryasCatotheCensor,justasifheweretheonlymanwhoeverheldtheoffice.Astatueerectedinhishonorsaysnothingabouthis

victoriesinSpainoratThermopylae,butonlythat,“WhentheRomanRepublicwasdegenerating,Catorestoreditbystrictdiscipline.”

IIInthelateryearsofhislifeCatowassenttoCarthagetolookintoacertainmatterforRome.Thetroublewasthis:YouwillrememberthatCarthagehadagreedtomakewaruponnonationwithouttheconsentoftheRomanSenate.Afewyearslater,Masinissa,whowasafriendofRome,attackedtheCarthaginians,andtheyappealedtoRomeforprotection.Thiswasrefused,andthepeopleofCarthagetookuparmstodefendthemselvesagainstMasinissa.

CatowassenttoCarthagetofindoutwhowastoblame.Whenhearrivedinthecityhewassurprisedtofinditlargeandstrongandflourishing.Onlytwenty-sixyearshadpassedsinceScipioAfricanushadconqueredCarthage,andyetCatosawcrowdsofyoungmenonthestreet,stacksofarmsinthearsenals,andaforestofmastsintheharbor.Thecityitselfwasrichandprosperous.

CatoreturnedtoRomeandwarnedhiscountrymenthatCarthagemustbedestroyed.FromthattimeforwardwheneverhemadeaspeechintheSenate,nomatteruponwhatsubject,healwaysendeditbysaying,“AndmyopinionisthatCarthagemustbedestroyed.”Intime,thewordsofCatohadtheireffect,andwarwasdeclaredagainstCarthage.

ThetroopshadalreadyembarkedwhenenvoysfromCarthagereachedRomeandofferedtodowhatevermightbeasked.TheRomanSenatepromisedthatthelawsandlibertiesofCarthageshouldnotbetouched,butdemandedhostages.SothreehundredchildrenoftheleadingfamiliesofCarthageweresenttoRome.WhentheRomanarmyreachedCarthagetheconsulsinsistedthattheCarthaginiansshouldgiveuptheirarms.ThiswasdoneandtheCarthaginiansaskediftheRomansrequiredanythingmore.

Thenoneoftheconsulssaid,“Yourcitymustbedestroyed,andyoumustmovetenmilesinlandfromthesea.”TheCarthaginiansnowsawthattheyhadbeendeceived.Theyclosedtheirgatesanddeterminedtodefendthemselvestothelast.Theyaskedanarmisticeofthirtydays,sothatanembassymightgotoRome.Itwasgranted,andthusamonthoftimewasgained.Duringthistimemen,women,andchildrenwenttoworktomakearmstodefendtheirhomes.Thewomenevencutofftheirhairtofurnishstringsforthebowsofthewarmachineswithwhichstoneswerehurledattheenemy.

TheembassyfailedinitsmissiontoRomeandthesiegeofCarthagebegan.It

lastedthreeyears.

ThesonofPaulusÆ-mil’i-ushadbeenadoptedbythesonofScipioAfricanusandhadtakenthenameScipio.HewassenttoCarthageandaboutayearafterhisarrivalforcedanentranceintothecityandcapturedit(146B.C.).Thewallsweretorndownandthebuildingssetonfire.Catowhowassolargelyresponsibleforthewardidnotlivetoseeitsend.Hediedalmosttwoyearsbeforethecitywasdestroyed.

TheSenatehonoredScipiowiththetitleAfricanus,whichtheolderconquerorofCarthagehadborne.

TheyoungScipiowonfamenotonlyinAfricabutalsoinSpain,wherehewassentagainsttheNumantians.ThesebravepeoplehaddefeatedtwoRomanarmies,butScipiosoonsucceededinshuttingthemwithinthewallsofNumantia.Arounditswallshebuiltwallsofhisownbehindwhichhissoldiersweresafefromattack.FoodsoonbecamescarceinNumantia.Attheendoffifteenmonthsthecitizenswerestarving.Theywerewillingtolosetheirlives,butScipiostayedbehindhisownwallsandrefusedtofight.RatherthantrusttothemercyofRometheNumantianskilledthemselves.

IntimeallSpainwasforcedtosubmitandbecomeaRomanprovince.

THEGRACCHI

IBetweenthesecondandthirdPunicWarstherelivedinRometwobrothersnamedTi-be’ri-usandCaiusGrac’chus,commonlycalledtheGracchi.Theywereverygoodmenandgreatfriendsofthecommonpeople.

ThemotheroftheGracchiwasCor-ne’li-a,adaughterofScipioAfricanus.Shewasanexcellentwoman,andshewasveryproudofhertwosons.Shetaughtthemtobebraveandmanlyandalwaystostandupforthepeople.

Onedayarichlady,whileonavisittoCornelia,showedhersomemagnificentjewels.Whentheyhadlookedthemovertheladysaid:

“Thesearemyjewels;nowletmeseeyours.”

JustatthatmomentTiberiusandCaius,whowerethenboys,cameintotheroom.AssoonasshesawthemCorneliacalledthemtoherand,puttingherarmsaroundthem,said:

“Thesearemyjewels.”

WhenTiberiusandCaiusgrewuptobementheytookthesideofthepeopleinaquarrelthathadbeengoingonforalongtimebetweentheplebeiansandthenobles.Thequarrelwasaboutland.WhenevertheRomansconqueredacountryinwartheytookpossessionofaportionofthelandoftheconqueredcountry.Suchlandwascalledpublicland,andformanyyearsafterthefoundingofthecitythecustomofdividingpartsofthepubliclandsamongallthecitizenswasstrictlyobserved.

Butinlatertimesthiscustomwaschanged.Insteadofpartofthepubliclandsbeingdividedamongallthecitizens,itwasdividedamongonlythenobles,andtheplebeiansgotnoneatall.Thelandsweretilledbyslaves,andallthatwasraisedwenttothenobles.Sothepoorsoldierswhowonthelandsbyhardfightingwerewithoutfarmstotill,andsomeofthemevenwithouthomes.Theycontinuallydemandedthattheoldlaw,forafairdivisionofthelandsamongallthecitizens,shouldbecarriedout.Thenobleslaughedatthedemand.

ButTiberiusGracchuscameforwardboldlyasthechampionofthepoor.Hedeclaredthatthenoblesshouldgiveupthelandstheyhadunjustlytaken,andthatthepeopleshouldhavetheirfairshare.Hiswordsmadethenoblesveryangry,andtheybecamehisbitterenemies.

IIButthepeoplehonoredTiberiusandmadehimoneoftheirtribunes.Thetribunesweresupposedtolookafterthepeople’sinterests,butsometimestheywerenotfaithfultotheirduty.Aswehavealreadysaid,theyhadagreatdealofpower.TheycouldsitatthedooroftheRomanSenate,andwhenalawwasproposedthattheydidnotliketheycouldsay,“Wevetoit!”andthenthelawcouldnotbepassed.

WheneverthetribuneswantedalawpassedtheyproposeditatthemeetingofallthepeopleinwhatwascalledtheAssemblyofTribes.ThecommonpeoplehadagreatdealofpowerinthisAssembly,andanylawproposedbythetribunewasgenerallypassed.Thenthetribuneshadthepowertocompeltheconsulstocarryoutthelaw.

NotlongafterTiberiusGracchusbecametribuneheproposedalawthateachnoblemighthavefivehundredacresofthepubliclandforhisownuseandtwohundredandfiftymoreforeachson,andthattheremainderofthelandsshouldbeequallydividedamongthepoorcitizens.

Thislawwaspassed,andthenthenobleshadtogiveupalargepartofthelandstheyhadseized.Sothepoorcitizensgotgoodfarms.

AboutthistimeAt’ta-lus,thekingofPer’ga-mus,acountryofAsia,died,leavingallhismoneytotheRomans.Thenoblestriedtogetthismoneyforthemselves,butTiberiushaditdividedamongthepoorcitizens.

OfcoursethismadethenoblesstillmoreangrywithTiberius,andtheyresolvedtogetridofhimiftheycould.Soonelectionday,whenthepeoplewerevotingtomakeTiberiustribuneforasecondterm,somenobleswenttothevoting-placeandraisedadisturbance.ButthefriendsofTiberiusdrovethemaway.ThenthenoblesstartedareportthatTiberiuswastryingtoinducethepeopletomakehimking.

Afterwardstheygatheredtheirfriendsandslavesandbeganfightingwiththepeople.Noarmswereused,butstoneswerethrown,andsticks,brokenbenches,andotherthingshastilycaughtup,servedasweapons.Therewasadreadful

tumultforawhile,andmanypersonswerekilled.

Tiberiuswasinthemidstofhisfriendsbravelydefendinghimselfagainstanattackbyapartyofnobles,whensuddenlyhestumbledandfelltotheground.Inamomentthenoblesrusheduponhim.Oneofthemstruckhimontheheadwithapieceofwoodandkilledhim.ThentheytookhisbodyandthrewitintotheTiber.

IIITiberiuswasnowoutoftheway,andthenoblesbegantoseizethelandsthathadbeendividedamongthepeople.ButCaiusGracchussuddenlyappearedinRomeanddeclaredthathehadcometotakehisbrother’splaceasthefriendofthepeople.HehadbeenwithaRomanarmyinSpainwhenTiberiuswaskilled.

Thepeoplenowelectedhimtribuneandhebegantocarryouthisbrother’splans.Forthisreasonthenobleshatedhimasmuchastheyhadhatedhisbrother.Theysaidthathewasadangerousmanandwasplanningtomakehimselfking.OnedayashewaspassingthroughtheForumastrangemansaidtohim:

“IhopeyouwillsparetheRepublic!”

ThefriendsofCaiuswereangryatthesewords,andtheyfellonthemanandkilledhim.

Thenoblesandtheirfollowersthenarmedthemselves.Theplebeiansalsogatheredingreatnumbersreadyforafight.Caiuswasaskedtoleadthem,butrefused.Hedidnotwantthemtofightwiththenobles.Heknewthatthenobleswouldbesatisfiedwithhisowndeath,soheorderedaslavetostabhimtotheheart.Theorderwasobeyed,andthusperishedthelastoftheGracchi(121B.C.).

MARIUS

IAtthetimeofthedeathofCaiusGracchustherewasinRomeagreatmannamedCaiusMa’ri-us.Thismancameforwardandsaidtothepeoplethatiftheywouldelecthimtribunehewouldgetthemtheirrights.

Thepeopleelectedhimtribuneand,truetohisword,hedideverythinghecouldtoimprovetheircondition.Hewasafterwardselectedconsulseventimes,andforalongwhilehewasthegreatestmaninRome.

Mariuswasatallandverypowerfulmanandhadastrongwill.Whenhesaidhewoulddoanythinghewoulddoitinspiteofalldifficulties.Hewasaverygreatsoldier.ManypeoplethoughthimthebestoftheRomangenerals.

HesucceededinawaragainstJu-gur’tha,kingofNumidia,afterothergeneralshadfailed.HetookmanycitiesfromJugurthaandatlastcapturedthekinghimselfandallhistreasure.

JugurthawasbroughttoRomeandcompelledtowalkbehindthechariotofMariusinagrandtriumphalprocession.Hewasafterwardsputintoafouldungeonandlefttheretodie.

ThenoblesdidnotlikeMarius.Hewasthesonofplebeianparentsandhehadtakenthesideoftheplebeiansagainstthenobles.Thereforethenobleshatedhim,andtheywouldhavedoneeverythingtheycouldagainsthim,onlythattheyneededhishelptoprotectRomefromverydangerousenemies.

Ahostofbarbarianpeople,calledCim’bri,Teu’to-nes,andAm-bro’nes,hadlefttheirhomesontheshoresoftheBalticSeaandinvadedthesouthernlands.Theywerestrong,fiercemen,andtheylaidwasteeverycountrytheypassedthrough.TheydefeatedseveralRomanarmiesthatweresentagainstthem.SomeofthetribesofHelve’ti-a(thecountrynowcalledSwitzerland)joinedthemandoneofthosetribesdefeatedandkilledaRomanconsulandmadehisarmypassundertheyoke.

TheRomanswere,therefore,verymuchfrightened.Theythoughtthatthe

barbarianswouldsoonbeinItaly.SoMariuswasappointedtogoagainstthemwithagreatarmy.HecrossedtheMediterraneanintoGaulandmettheTeutonesandAmbronesnearthecityofArlesontheRiverRhone.TheCimbrihadalreadygonetoItaly.

Mariusfirstmadeastrongentrenchedcamp.Hewantedtogivehismentimetogetaccustomedtothemannersofthestrangeenemybeforeattemptingtofightthem.TheRomansoldiershadshownfearatsightofthebarbarians.Theyhadneverbeforeseensuchpeople.

TheTeutoneswerelikegiants.Theyhadlarge,wild,staringeyesandlonghair,andtheymadeterriblewar-cries.TheAmbronesandtheCimbriwereassavageinappearance.ThekingoftheTeutoneswasverytallandsoactivethathecouldleapoversixhorsesplacedabreast.

WhenthebarbarianssawthattheRomanswouldnotfight,theybegantotauntandinsultthem.TheywalkedupanddowninfrontoftheRomancampdayafterday,callingthesoldierscowards.

“Whydon’tyoucomeoutandfightuslikemen?”theycried.“Areyouafraid?Comeout,comeout;weareinahurry!WearegoingtoRomeafterwekillyou!”

Mariushadhardworktokeephismenfromrushingoutuponthebarbarians.Hedidnotyetwanttofight,buthesaidtohissoldiers:

“Whenthepropertimecomeswewillgivethesesavagesallthefightingtheywant.”

OnedayagiganticTeutonchief,withalongshieldandspear,cameuptotheveryentranceoftheRomancampandcalledloudlyforMariushimselftocomeoutandfight.Thegreatgenerallaughedheartilyattheimpudenceofthebarbarian,andhesentoutagladiatortofightwithhiminordertogivesporttotheRomans.

GladiatorsweremenwhofoughtoneanotherintheshowsatRomefortheamusementofthepeople.Theywereusuallyslavesandwereverystrong,active,andwell-trainedfighters.

ItdidnottakethegladiatorlongtodefeattheTeuton.Inafewminuteshelaidthesavagegiantlow,andtheRomansshoutedwithjoyatthesight.

AftertheTeutonwaskilledtheRomansstillremainedintheircamp.Mariuswasnotyetpreparedtofight.Atlastthebarbariansgottiredofwaitingandthey

startedofftomarchtoItaly.

IISogreatwasthenumberofthebarbariansthatittookthemsixwholedaystomarchpasttheRomancamp.WhenallhadpassedMariuslefthiscampandfollowedthembyslowmarches.BeforelongthetwoarmiesarrivedatthecityofAixonthesouthcoastofGaul.

Mariusthoughtitwasnowtimetofight,soheledouthisfinearmyagainsttheenemy.ThefirstbattlewasfoughtwiththeAmbrones.TheyastonishedtheRomanswiththeirwar-cry.Theyheldtheirshieldsuprightandatalittledistancefromtheirmouthsandshouted:“Ambrones!Ambrones!”asiftoterrifytheRomansbylettingthemknowwhotheywere.Thentheyrushedfuriouslyacrossthefield.

TheRomansmetthechargewithwonderfulcourage.Theirlineswerescarcelybroken.Threetimestheydrovebacktheenemy,andthentheythemselvesmovedsteadilyforwardwiththeirwholeforce.TheycutdowntheAmbronesbythousands,tookmanyprisoners,andsenttheothersfleeingawayinterror.

Nextdaytherewasanotherbattle.TheTeutonesandAmbronestogetherattackedtheRomans,buttheRomanswereagainvictorious.Whenthebattlewasoveritwasfoundthatmorethanahundredthousandbarbarianshadbeenkilledortakenprisoner.

MariusnowturnedhisattentiontotheCimbri,whohadgonetoItaly.Theyhadencampedonabeautiful,fertileplainneartheRiverPo,andwereenjoyingthewarmItaliansunandthesweetfruitsofthecountry.

ButMariuswasnotverylonginreachingthesameplacewithhisvictoriousarmy.WhentheCimbrisawtheRomansmarchingontotheplainwheretheywereencamped,theywereastonished.TogaintimetheysentamessengertoMariustoaskhimtogivethemlandstoliveoninItaly.

“Giveus,”saidthemessenger,“landsinItalyforourselvesandforourfriends,theTeutonesandAmbrones,andwewillallliveatpeace.”

“NevermindtheTeutonesandtheAmbrones,”saidMarius,“theyhavelandsalready.Wehavegiventhemsomewhichtheywillkeepforever.Wewillgiveyouthesame.”

Thenabattlebeganbetweenthetwogreatarmies.Thefootsoldiersofthe

Cimbriwereformedintoanimmensesquare,andthemeninthefrontrankswerechainedtooneanotherbyironchainssothattheycouldnotrunaway.Therewerefifteenthousandhorsemen,wearingontheirhelmetstheheadsofwildbeasts.Thebattlewasahardoneforawhile,butitdidnotcontinuelong.Timeafter

timetheCimbriweredrivenback,andatlasttheywereputtoflight.Thousandsofthemwerekilled,andthousandsmadeprisoners.

WhenMariusandhissoldiersreturnedtoRometheygotasplendidreception.Therewasaparadethroughthestreets,andagreatfeastwasgiventothepeople.Alargesumofmoneywasdividedamongthesoldierstorewardthemfortheirbraveconduct.

MariuswasnowinhighfavoratRome.Thenoblesdidnotdaretospeakawordagainsthim.Hewaselectedconsulseventimes,sothathewasmasteroftheRepublicforalongtime.

InthesixthyearthatMariuswasconsulthewarcalledtheSocialWarbrokeout.Itlastedforthreeyears.ItwasawarwithsomeofthenationsofItalywhichRomehadformerlyconquered.ThepeopleofthosenationsdidnotwanttoseparatefromRome,buttheywantedtohavetherightofvotingastheRomansthemselveshad.Romerefusedtogivethemthisright,andatlasttheyresolvedtogotowar.

AllthegreatestRomangeneralsofthetimetookpartinthiswar.OneofthemwasayoungnoblenamedSul’la.Hewasaverysuccessfulsoldierandwonanumberofgreatvictories.Thenationsweredefeatedinthewar,butRomesoongrantedthemmostoftherightstheyhadaskedfor.

ThenoblesgavegreatpraisetoSullaforhisvictoriesintheSocialWar.TheydeclaredthathewasabettergeneralthanMarius.SomanyfinethingsweresaidabouttheyoungnoblethatMariusbecamejealousanddidaveryfoolishthing.HesuddenlylefthisarmyinthefieldandcamebacktoRome.Hecomplainedthathewasnervousandheshuthimselfupinhishouseandrefusedtoseeanyofhisfriendsforweeks.

ThenoblesthenstartedastorythatMariuswasgettingsillyandweak-mindedfromoldage.Hewasaboutseventyatthistime,andthenoblessaidheoughttoretirefromthearmy.ThismadetheoldheroangryandhedeclaredhewasasstronginmindandbodyasanyoftheyoungRomans.

OnemorninghewenttotheplacewheretheyoungmenofRomeusedto

practiseathleticsports,andfortwoorthreehourshewrestledandranandleapedwithasmuchskillandstrengthasanyone.Someofthenobleswhohappenedtopassbysawhimandwereverymuchamused.

AboutthistimeSullawaselectedconsulonaccountofhisvictoriesintheSocialWar.ShortlyafterwardsRomedeclaredwaragainstMith’ri-da’tes,KingofPontusinAsiaMinor,whohadcruellyputtodeathanumberofthecitizensofaRomanprovinceinAsia.

TheSenateappointedSullatocommandtheRomanarmyinthiswar.ButassoonasheleftRomewithhisarmyoneofthetribunesproposedatanAssemblyofthepeoplethatthecommandshouldbetakenfromhimandgiventoMarius.TheAssemblyagreedtothisandMariusacceptedtheappointment.Hesentwordtothearmy,whichwasnotfarfromRome,thathewouldcomeinashorttimetotakecommand.

WhenSullaheardthishebecameveryangry.Hecalledhissoldiersaroundhim,toldthemwhathadbeendone,andaskedthemiftheywouldsubmittobetheslavesofMariusandhisparty.

“No,no!”criedthesoldiers,“wewillnotsubmit.Wewantyouforourgeneral.”

“ThenfollowmetoRome,”saidSulla,“wewillteachMariusandhisfriendsthattheymustnotinsultus.”

SothesoldiersmarchedquicklybacktoRomewithSullaattheirhead.Theydeclaredthattheywouldtakethecityoutofthehandsofrebels,astheycalledthefriendsofMarius.WhentheyenteredthecitytheyweremetbyMariusandhisfollowersandtherewasabattle,inwhichMariuswasdefeated.ThenalawwaspasseddeclaringMariusatraitorandthatheshouldbeputtodeath.

ButMariusfledfromRomewithsomefriendsandwentdowntheTiberinaboattotheMediterranean.Hesailedalongthecoastandthenheandhiscompanionswentashoretoseekforfood.Theywanderedthroughthecountryforsometimewithoutseeinganyone.Atlasttheymetafarmer,whogavethemsomethingtoeat.HetoldthemthathorsemenfromRomewereridingthroughtheplacesearchingforMarius.

Theywerefrightenedatthisandtheyranintoathickwoodwheretheystoppedallnight.ButwhilehiscompanionsweredowncastMariuswascheerfulandhopeful.

“Thisbadstateofthings,”hesaid,“willlastonlyashorttime.Iknowit,

becausethegodshaverevealedtomethatIshallbeoncemoreconsulofRome!”

ButnextdayMariuswastakenbythehorsemen.Hesawthemcomingandwadedfarintoagreatmarshandhidhimselfamongsomehigh,thickreeds.Thehorsemenrodeintothemarshandfoundhim,andtheyputaroperoundhisneckanddraggedhimtotheshore.Thentheyshuthimupinahutandbegantothinkwhattheyshoulddowithhim.

Atlasttheydecidedtoputhimtodeathatonce.TheythoughtthiswouldpleaseSulla,andthatperhapshewouldrewardthemforit.SotheygaveaswordtoaslaveandsenthimtokillMarius.Theslaveenteredthehutandstoodforafewmomentslookingatthegreatgeneral.Mariusglaredathimlikeawildbeastandsaidinasternvoice:

“Slave,willyoudaretokillCaiusMarius?”

Theslavestartedbackinterrorandranoutofthehut.ThenhethrewdownhisswordatthefeetofthesoldiersandcriedoutthathecouldneverhavethecouragetoslayMarius.

ItwasnowdecidedtosendMariusoutofthecountry.SohewastakentoashipandcarriedtoAfrica.AftergoingashorehewanderedthroughthecountryuntilhecametotheplacewhereCarthageoncestood.Nothingnowremainedofthefamouscitybutamassofgloomyruins,fortheRomanshadentirelydestroyeditafewyearsbeforeinthethirdPunicWar.IntheseruinsMariuslivedforashorttime.OnedayasoldiercametotellhimthatthegovernorofAfricawantedhimtoleavethecountry.

“Gotoyourgovernor,”answeredMarius,“andtellhimthatyousawCaiusMariussittingontheruinsofCarthage.”

Notlongafterwards,whenSullawasawayfightingKingMithridates,therewasgreattroubleatRome.OneoftheconsulsnamedCin’na,aidedbymanyoftheplebeians,attemptedtogetthecontrolofpublicaffairs,butwasdefeatedbythenobles.ThenCinnaandhisfollowerswereforcedtoleavethecity.TheyorganizedanarmyamongtheItalianswhohadbeencomplainingofnotgettingtheirrightsfromRome,andtheysenttoAfricaforMariustocomeandbetheircommander.

WhenMariusarrivedhemadeanattackonRomeandsooncapturedit.Thenhemarchedinthroughthegatesattheheadofhisarmyandtookpossessionofthecity.Atthenextelectionthepeopleelectedhimconsul.

MariusnowresolvedtohavevengeanceonthenobleswhohaddrivenhimfromRome.AndforseveraldaystheoldRoman,surroundedbyaguardoffreedslaves,wentthroughthecityseekingthenoblesintheirhouses,inthetemples,intheForum,andeverywherethattheycouldbefound,andkillingthemwithoutmercy.

Theseweredreadfuldays.SomeofthenoblestmenofRomewereputtodeath.NoneofSulla’sfriendswasspared.Evenhiswifeandchildrenwereharshlytreatedandforcedtoleavethecity.

Mariusdidnotstopthebloodyworkuntilhehadkilledallhisenemiesthathecouldfind.Buthistriumphwasshort.Hediedinalittlemorethantwoweeksafterhehadbecomeconsulfortheseventhtime.

SULLA

IWehavesaidsomethingofSulla,butthereismuchmoretobetoldabouthim,forhewasaveryremarkableman,andhedidremarkablethingsinRome.HisfullnamewasLu’ci-usCorneliusSulla.Hebelongedtoaverynoblefamily.Whenhewasayoungmanhewasveryfondofstudyandbecameanexcellentscholar.HewasalsoagoodspeakerandoftenmadeeloquentspeechesintheForumonpublicaffairs.

Hewasalarge,strongman,withredhairandaruddyface.HewasaverygreatsoldierandoneofthegreatestofRomangenerals.Theycalledhim“theLion,”hewassobraveinbattle,andhewassosuccessfulinwarthathealsogotthenameofFelix,aLatinwordwhichmeanshappyorfortunate.

IIOneofthegreatestwarsthatSullawasinwasawaragainsttheGreeks.RomehadconqueredGreecesometimebefore,andthegovernorsofmanyoftheGreekcitieswereRomans.ThesegovernorswereverycrueltotheGreeks;thereforethepeoplehatedthem.Mithridates,KingofPontus,knewthis,andheofferedtosendarmiestoGreecetohelptodrivetheRomansoutofthecountry.TheGreekswereverygladofthis,andtheypreparedforwaragainsttheRomans.

SullaarrivedinGreecewithastrongarmyandbeganamarchthroughthecountry.HecapturedseveralofthecitiesandcompelledthemtosubmittotheRomangovernors.ThenhemarchedontoAthens,thecapitalcityofGreece.ButhefoundthatitwasoccupiedbyAr-che-la’us,oneofthegeneralsofKingMithridates,whohadbroughtfromAsiaMinoranarmytohelptheGreeks.

Athensatthistimewasoneofthemoststronglyfortifiedcitiesintheworld.Itswallswereseventyfeethigh,andtheyweremadeofhuge,thickblocksofhard,smoothstone.Ittookthousandsofmenmanyyearstobuildthesemassivewalls.Thecitywasalsowellsuppliedwithfood,sothatitcouldholdoutagainst

asiegeforalongtime.

ForseveralweeksSullaattackedAthensfuriouslydaybyday,butitwasallinvain.Hecouldnottakethecity.Hissoldierstriedmanytimestomountthehighwalls,buttheycouldnotdoit.

AtlastSullahadbattering-ramsmade.Thesewereenginesforbreakingdownthewallsoftowns.Theywerelong,heavybeamsofwood,withironatoneend,formedliketheheadofaram.Thiswaswhytheywerecalledbattering-rams.Atfirsttheywereworkedbymenwiththeirhandsandbodilystrength.Inlatertimestheywerehungfromacrossbeam,soastoswingbackandforward,andtheironendwasmadetostrikeagainstthewallwithgreatforce.

Whenanumberofbattering-ramswereready,SullabegananotherattackonAthens.ButatdeadofnightapartyofAthenianscameoutofthecityandburnedallthebattering-rams.Sullaquicklyhadnewonesmade,andaftermonthsofhardlabortheRomansatlastsucceededinbreakingdownthewallsandtakingAthens.Theyplunderedthebeautifulcityanddestroyedmanyfineworksofart.Itissaidthattheycarriedoffmorethansixhundredpoundsofgoldandsilver.

SullaremainedinAthensonlylongenoughtoestablishRomanauthoritythereoncemore.ThenhedepartedwithhisarmyandmarchedtoChær’o-ne’a,anothertownofGreece,wheretherewasaforceofonehundredandtwentythousandmen,whichKingMithridateshadsenttohelptheGreeks.

TheRomansnumberedonlyaboutfortythousandmen,butSullawasnotafraidtofighttheimmensearmyofMithridates.Byplacinghistroopsingoodpositionsatthebeginningofthebattle,andafterwardsbymovingthemskillfullyfromonepointtoanother,hewasabletowinagreatvictory.

Thiswasaremarkablebattleinonerespect.Althoughtherewerefuriouschargesandhand-to-handcombats,inwhichthousandsuponthousandsofthesoldiersofMithridateswereslain,theRomanslostonlyafewmen.Wearetoldthatwhentheroll-calloftheRomanarmytookplaceafterthebattleonlytwelvemenfailedtoanswertotheirnames!ThearmyofMithridateshadlostonehundredandtenthousandmen;theRomansonlytwelvemen!

ButperhapsweoughtnottobelievethatsoveryfewRomanswerekilled,foritseemshardlypossiblethatitcouldhavebeenso.Itiscertain,however,thatSullagainedagreatvictory.HealsodefeatedanotherarmysentbyMithridatessoonafterwards.

ThenArchelaus,thegeneralofthearmyofMithridates,beggedforpeace.SullamadetermsthatwereverygoodforRome,andArchelausandMithridateshadtoacceptthem.MithridateshadtogivetheRomansalargesumofmoneyandseventyshipsofwarandtopromisetobethefriendofRomeinfuture.ThusthewarwithGreeceended.

IIISullanowpreparedtoreturntoItaly.HehadheardhowhisfriendsinRomeandhiswifeandchildrenhadbeentreatedbyMarius.Hewasgreatlyenraged,andinhislettertotheSenate,tellingthemofhisvictoriesinGreece,hesaid:

“Inreturnformyservices,whichhavebroughthonorandglorytoRome,mywifeandchildrenhavebeendrivenfromtheirhome,myhousehasbeenburned,andmyfriendshavebeenputtodeath.Iamnowgoingbacktopunishthosewhodidthesethings.”

Whentheletterwasreadtothesenators,theywereverymuchalarmed,fortheyknewthatifSulladidashethreateneditwouldcauseadreadfulcivilwarinRome.InreplytoSullatheybeggedhimnottomakewaronhisowncountrymen,andtheypromisedtodotheirbesttobringaboutafriendlyunderstandingbetweenhimandthefollowersofMarius.Sullaansweredthathedidnotwantanyunderstandingwiththem.

“Iwantnofriendshipwithmyenemies,”hesaid.“Iamabletotakecareofmyself.Itwillbewellforthemiftheycantakecareofthemselves.”

SoonafterwardshesetoutforItalywithhisarmy.RomewasthenunderthepoweroftheMarianparty.ThispartywasledbyCinnaandbyMariustheYounger,thesonofthegreatMarius.WhentheyheardthatSullawascomingtheyraisedanarmyandwentforthtodrivehimback.YoungMariussaid:

“NowitwillbedecidedwhoshallbethemasterofRome!”

Abattlewasfoughtbetweenthetwoarmies.Itwaslongandsevere,andforatimeitseemedasiftheMarianswouldwin.EvenSullahimselfhadnohopeofvictory.ButsoonverybadblundersmadebytheMariansturnedthetideofbattleinhisfavor,andhewasvictorious.Hetooksixthousandprisoners.

IVSullanowenteredRomeasitsmaster,andacruelmasterheprovedtobe.Hefirstgothimselfappointeddictatorforaslongatimeashewishedtoholdthe

office.ThenhecommandedthatallthefollowersofMariusshouldbeslain.Sotheywerehuntedoutoftheirhidingplacesandallputtodeathwithoutmercy.

WheneverypersonthatwasknowntohavebeenconnectedwiththeMarianpartywaskilled,thepeoplethoughtSullawouldceasehismurderouswork,buthedidnot.Hewentonkillingthisoneandthatone—nowapoormanandthenarichman—untilatlasttheRomansbecamedreadfullyfrightened.“Whenwillhestop?”theysaidtooneanotherintremblingtones.

OnedayasenatorhadthecouragetoaskSullaifhewouldpleasetosaywhomheintendedtosparefromdeath.Sullacoollyanswered:

“Ihavenotyetmadeupmymind,butifitisthewishoftheSenateIwillshortlymakeoutalistofpersonswhomustdie!”

AndSullareallydidmakeoutalistofpersonsheintendedtokill.ItwascalledaPROSCRIPTIONLISTandwashungupintheForum.Oh,howanxiouslythepoor,terror-strickenRomanswenttothatlisttoreadthenames!Andifamansawthathisnamewasnottherehewentawaywithjoyinhisheart.Butifhisnamewastherehecoveredhisfacewithhistogaandranofftohidehimself.

Thenextdayanotherandalongerlistofproscribedpersonswashungup,andthedayafterstillanotherlist.Anyonewhokilledaproscribedpersongotalargerewardinmoney,butifanybodyhelpedaproscribedpersontoescapehewaspunishedbydeath.ThisdreadfulworkwascontinueduntilmanythousandsofpeopleinRomeandthroughoutItalywereslain.

ThenSullahadhisTriumphinthestreetsofRome.Itwasthemostmagnificentprocessionthathadyetbeenseeninthecity.Therewerehundredsofbeautifulhorsesdrawingbright,goldenchariots;therewerelonglinesofsoldiersinglitteringarmor;therewerenumbersofslaves,andtherewerehugewagonscontaininggoldandsilverandotherpreciousthings,whichSullahadgotinGreeceafterhisvictoriesoverMithridates.Thedictatorhimselfrodeinthemostsplendidchariotofall.Heseemedlikeaking,andindeedwasakinginpower,thoughnotinname.ThiswaswhatwascalledaTriumph.

Sulla,forhisownprotection,hadabodyguardformedofslaveswhohadbelongedtothepeoplehehadproscribedandputtodeath.Thisbodyguardissaidtohavenumberedtenthousandmen,andtheywerecalledCornelii,afterSulla’sfamilyname.

UndertheruleofSullahisownwillwaslaw.Hecoulddowhateverhe

pleased.Buthedidnotremaindictatoralongtime.InaboutayearafterhisTriumphheseemedtohavegottiredofrulingandresignedtheoffice.ThenheleftRomeandwenttoresideinhiscountryhouseonthebeautifulBayofNaples.Herehespenttherestofhislife,passinghistimepartlyinfeastingandmerrimentandpartlyinstudy.Hedied78B.C.

POMPEYTHEGREAT

INotlongafterthedeathofSulla,anewenemytoRomeappearedupontheMediterraneanSea.AlargenumberofpeoplewholivedonthecoastsofAsiaMinorbuiltandarmedfleetsofships,sailedalongtheshoresofItaly,andattackedandplunderedRomanvessels.

Thesea-rovers,orpirates,astheRomanscalledthem,hadmorethanathousandwell-built,fast-sailingships.Manyofthemwereadornedwithrichlygildedbowsandsterns,purplesails,andsilver-mountedoars.Theyseizedtrading-vessels,robbedthem,andkilledeverypersononboard.

Often,too,thepiratescommittedrobberiesonland.Aboat’screwfromapirateshipwouldgoashore,puttodeathallthefarmersintheneighborhood,andlaywastetheirfarms.SoinashorttimethepiratesmadethemselvesmastersoftheItaliancoasts,andkeptthepeopleinconstantexcitementandterror.

ButatlasttheRomansresolvedtomakewarupontherobbers,andselectedaverypopularyoungmannamedCne’i-usPompeytobethegeneral.ThepeoplehadgreatconfidenceinPompey.TheysaidthathewastheonlyonewhocouldputdowntheMediterraneanpirates,anddemandedthatheshouldbesenttodothework.

Pompeywasafine-lookingman,withverypleasantmanners.HehadmadehimselffamousasasoldierbybravedeedsinwarsinSpainandAfrica,andwasgenerallycalledPompeytheGreat.Hisfatherhadbeenagreatcommander,andtheboyhadlivedincampsandtakenpartinwarsalmostfromchildhood.Hehadhadmanyadventuresduringhisarmylifeandhadalwaysshownthequalitiesofahero.HefoughtonthesideofSullainmanybattlesagainsttheMarians,andhewasthoughttobeoneofSulla’sgreatestgenerals.

TheRomanSenate,therefore,yieldedtothedemandofthepeopleandappointedPompeytogoforthagainstthepirates.Heacceptedthecommandandpromptlysettoworktocarryouttheimportantundertaking.

Hegatheredfourteenpowerfulfleets.Hekeptoneofthemforhimselfandputtheothersunderthecommandofgoodofficers.ThenhedividedtheMediterraneanintothirteendistricts,andsentafleettoeachdistricttohuntthepirates.

WithhisownfleethesailedasfarastheStraitofGibraltarandthenturnedbacktowardsItaly.Onthewayhechasedthepiratevesselsbeforehimashemetthem,untiltheywerestoppedandseizedbysomeofthethirteenfleetsstationedhereandthereallovertheMediterranean.Thepirateswerethuscaughtinatrap.Thousandsofthemwerekilledinbattleswiththedifferentfleets,andtheirvesselswereburned.TheremaindersoonsurrenderedtotheRomans,andinthreemonthstheseawasclearedofpirates.

Pompeywasmuchpraisedforthisgreatwork,andthepeoplesaidhewasjustthemantotakechargeofthewaragainstMithridates.ThiskinghadagainattackedaRomanprovinceinAsia,andtheRomansresolvedtopunishhim.ButMithridateswasaverypowerfulman.Hehadgreatarmies;hewasaskillfulgeneral,andhedefeatedtheRomansinmanybattles.TheRomanpeople,therefore,resolvedtosendPompeyagainsthim.Pompeywasmuchpleasedtobeplacedincommandofagreatarmy,andheproudlystartedoffwithhissoldiersfortheeasternlands.

IIPompeyremainedinAsiaseveralyearsandwonmanygreatvictories.HeconqueredanumberofcountriesandputRomangovernorsoverthem.ThenhecamebacktoRome,bringingkingsandprincesasprisoners,andanenormousamountofgoldandsilverandothervaluablethingstoenrichtheRepublicandhimself.HewaswelcomedinamagnificentmannerandhehadaTriumphsuchaswasgiventogreatandvictoriousgenerals.

ButPompeynowbegantothinkofmakinghimselfmasterofRomeduringhislife-time.Hehadgreatlypleasedthepeoplebyhisvictoriesinwar,andtheywerepraisinghimoneveryside.Howtokeeptheirfavor,andbyittogetpowerwaswhatnowoccupiedhismind.Hehadbeenconsulbefore,buthewasnowelectedagain,andthenhesetaboutprovidingvarioussortsofamusementsforthepeople.Hebelievedthatifthepeoplewereamusedtheywouldbelesslikelytoobjecttohistakingthepowersofthegovernmententirelyintohisownhands.

Hebuiltatheatrelargeenoughtoseatfortythousandpersons.ThiswasthefirstgreattheatreerectedinRome.Itwasofstoneandverystronglymade.Ithad

noroof,andtherowsofseatsroseoneaboveanotherinahalfcircle.Atoneendtherewasanimmensestageonwhichalltheperformancestookplace.InthisgrandtheatrePompeygavesomeverywonderfulexhibitionsfromtime

totime.Hehadlions,elephants,andotherwildanimalsbroughtfromAsiaandAfricaatagreatexpense.Theseanimalswereletlooseuponthestageandgladiatorsfoughttheminfullviewofthepeopleinthetheatre.

Therewerealsothrillingcombatsinthetheatresbetweenthegladiatorsthemselves.Theyfoughteachothersavagelyuntilonewaswoundedandfelluponthestage.Thenthevictorwouldturntowardstheaudiencetofindwhethertheywishedhimtokillthewoundedman.Ifthepeoplewantedthistheywouldstretchouttheirhandswiththethumbsdown;iftheydidnotwanthimkilledtheywouldholdtheirthumbsupward.Ifhehadshownskillandcourageandfoughtwelltheywouldgivethesigntolethimlive,butifhehadnotmadeabravefighttheywouldturndowntheirthumbsandtheunfortunatemanwouldbeinstantlykilled.

Slavesandprisonerstakeninwarweretaughttobegladiatorsinschoolsestablishedforthepurpose.Therewerehundredsofthesetrainedfightersalwaysreadyforthecombats.TheRomanswereveryfondofsuchamusements,andgreatcrowdsofmen,andwomentoo,attendedthetheatrewhenevertherewasafightofgladiators.

Bygivingthepeopleagreatdealofamusementofthiskindonagrandscale,PompeybecamethegreatpopularfavoriteinRome,andwhilethepeoplewereentertainedathistheatrehemanagedthegovernmenttosuithimself.

IIIAtthistimetheRomansruledavastterritory,whichincludednotonlyallItaly,butGreece,Spain,Syria,Egypt,Turkey,Switzerland,andpartsofFranceandGermany.Countryaftercountryhadbeenconqueredduringalongseriesofyears,andmillionsofpeopleofdifferentracesandlanguagesweresubjectsofRome.

Romeitselfwasacitywithapopulationofabouthalfamillion.Itcoveredaverylargearea,includingthefamoussevenhills.Itsstreetswerenarrowandcrooked,butwell-pavedandclean.Inthecentreofthecitywereanumberoflargesquaresinwhichtherewerehandsomebuildings.Thereweremagnificenttemplesandbaths,andthehousesofthenoblesandwealthyplebeianswereverylargeandsplendid.Manyofthefinehouseswerebuiltofmarble,withgreat

pillarsinfront.Elegantfurnitureandhandsomecarpetsandrugsfilledtherooms.ThereweremanyrichmeninRomeatthistime.Mostofthemhadobtained

thegreaterpartoftheirwealthbyplunderingtheconqueredcountries.Theylivedinaverymagnificentmanner,gavesplendiddinnersandentertainments,andhadhundredsofslavestoattenduponthem.

TheslaveswerealargeclasswhowerebroughttoRomefrommanynationsconqueredinwar.Manyofthembelongedtohighfamiliesintheirowncountry,andwerewelleducated.Someofthemwerephysicians,andothersweregoodscholarsandcouldreadandwritefortheirmasters.Thebestcooks,builders,tailors,andfarmerswereslaves.InfactitwasbyslavesthatnearlyalltheskilledworkinRomewasdone.

ThereweremarketsinRomewhereslavesweresold.Theslavestobesoldwereplacedonaplatform.Labelshungfromtheirnecks,showingtheirageandwhattheywereabletodo.

TheRomanchildrenweretaughttoreadandwriteLatin,whichwastheirownlanguage.Theywerealsotaughtarithmeticandhistory.Mostoftheteacherswerewell-educatedslaves.

Rome,then,wasveryrichandverypowerfulinthetimeofPompey,andformanyyearsPompeywasverypopular.AtonetimehebecamedangerouslyillwhilevisitingNaples.Thenthepeopleshowedtheirgreatloveforhiminmanyways,andwhenherecoveredtherewerepublicthanksgivingsthroughoutItaly.Onhisjourneyhomegreatcrowdscameouttogreethimashepassedthroughthetowns,andwhenhearrivedatRomehewasreceivedwithunboundedjoy.

Pompeyhadnowaverystrongholdontheaffectionsofthepeople,sohecaredlittlefortheeffortsmadebyaveryambitiousRomannamedJu’li-usCæ’sartowinpublicfavor.ButCæsarwasamanofstrongwillandgreatenergy.HehadresolvedtobetherulerofRome,andhesparednolabortoaccomplishhispurpose.PompeyatlastbecamealarmedatCæsar’sefforts,butitwasthentoolate.HewasdefeatedbyCæsarinagreatbattleandsoonafterlosthislife.Howthesethingscameaboutweshalllearninthenextstory.

JULIUSCÆSAR

IOfalltheRomanheroesthegreatestwasCaiusJuliusCæsar.Hewasaveryremarkablemaninmanyways.Hewasremarkableasasoldier,statesman,scholar,andasanorator.Hewroteahistoryofhisownwarswhichisoneofthebestancienthistoriesthathavecomedowntous.ItiscalledCœsar’sCommentaries,anditisusedasatextbookinallschoolswhereLatinistaught.

ThisfamousRomanwastall,handsome,agreeableinhismanners,andofagaydisposition.Helikedsongsandstories,andevenwhenhewasagreatgeneralheoftenwasasmerryandfrolicsomeasaboy.Sometimes,however,hewassternandcruelinsteadofkindandforgiving.

CæsarwasamemberoftheJulianfamily,whichwasoneofthefirstfamiliesinRome.FourCæsarsofthisfamilyhadbeenconsulsofRomeinonecentury.

TheauntofJuliusCæsarwasthewifeofthegreatleader,Marius.Naturally,SullawasCæsar’sbitterenemyanddidallhecouldagainsthim.“InthatyoungmanthereismanyaMarius,”Sullaisreportedtohavesaid.However,bykeepingoutofRome,CæsarwasabletoescapethetrapslaidforhimatSulla’sorders.AssoonasSulladiedCæsarreturnedtoRome.

Althoughhewasarichnoble,hebecameafriendoftheplebeiansandalwayssupportedtheircause.HespokeagreatdealintheForumuponpoliticalquestions,andthepeoplelookeduponhimastheirchampion.Theyelectedhimtoseveralpublicoffices,oneaftertheother,andthushisinfluenceandpowerweremuchincreased.AtlasthewasappointedgovernorofSpain,whichwasthenruledbytheRomans.

OnhiswaytoSpainhestoppedforanightatalittlevillageamongthemountains.Oneofhiscompanionsremarkedthatperhapsinthatsmallplacethepeoplehadtheircontestsandtheirjealousies,aswellaspeopleinlargecities.

“Poorasthisvillageis,IwouldratherbefirstherethansecondinRome!”saidCæsar.

CæsarwasverysuccessfulinSpain,andtheRomansweresopleasedwithhisconductthatwhenhecamehometheymadehimconsul.Duringhisconsulshiphehadmanygoodlawspassed.Whenaboutfortyyearsoldhewasgivencommandofanarmy,andforsomeyearsfollowedthelifeofasoldierwithwonderfulsuccess.

TheRomanarmieswereformedofregimentscalledlegions.Eachlegioncontainedoverthreethousandmen,whoweresometimescalledlegionaries.Theweaponsofthelegionarywereashortswordandalongspearcalledapilum.

BesidesspearsandswordstheRomansoldiersusedslingsforhurlingstonesagainsttheenemy.Theyalsohadamachinecalledaballistaforthrowingstonestooheavyforhandslings.

ThemilitarystandardoftheRomanswasafigureofaneagleborneonthetopofapole.Eachlegionhadoneoftheseandthesoldierwhocarrieditwascalledtheeagle-bearer.Otherstandardsalsowereusedbythecohortsorcompaniesintowhichthelegionsweredivided.

Cæsar’sfirstgreatbattleswereinGaul.TheRomanscalledalltheinhabitantsofthatcountryGauls,althoughtheywereofmanynationsandspokedifferentlanguages.TheGaulswerebrave,butCæsarprovedtobeagreatgeneral,andinafewyearsheconqueredallGaul.

TheRomansoldiershadgreatconfidenceinCæsar.Whenheledthemtheybelievedvictorywascertain.Hewasstrictinhisdiscipline,butveryfriendlyandpleasantwiththemen,andheoftengavethempraise.Hehimselfsharedintheirhardships.Dayafterdayhemarchedonfootattheirheadthroughheatandrainandsnow,andfoughtwiththeminthefrontranks.

OnoneoccasionCæsarbuiltaveryremarkablebridge.HewantedtogetacrosstheRiverRhinewithhisarmy,topunishsomeGermantribeswhowereinthehabitofattackingthefriendsofRomeinGaul.Therewasnobridge.TheGermansusedtogetoverinsmallpartiesbyswimming,orinsmallboats.Butalargearmycouldnotcrossinthiswaywithoutagreatdealoftroubleandlossoftime,soCæsarresolvedtobuildabridge.Hequicklysethismentoworkandtheyfinishedthebridgeintendays,thoughallthewoodhadtobecutdownintheforestsandcarriedtotheriverside.

OneofCæsar’sgreatestvictoriesinGaulwasthetakingofthetownofA-le’si-a.ThistownhadverystrongwallsallrounditanditwasdefendedbyagreatarmyofGaulscommandedbyabravechiefnamedVer-cin-get’o-rix.Cæsarsurroundedthetownwithhisarmyandpreventedfoodfrombeingsentin

totheinhabitants.HealsodefeatedanarmythatcamefromotherpartsofGaultohelptheAlesians.VercingetorixthenhadtocomeoutfromthetownandgivehimselfuptoCæsar.

AftermanyconquestsinGaulCæsarsailedoverwithanarmytotheislandofBritain,nowcalledGreatBritain.Thenativeswereawild,fiercepeople,andtheyfoughtbravelyagainstCæsarandhisarmy.ButtheRomanswerevictorious,andtheytookpossessionofBritain,andforoverfourhundredyearstheislandwasapartoftheRomanEmpire.

IICæsarwasengagedeightyearsinhiswarsinGaulandBritain.Itissaidthatduringtheseyearsheconqueredthreehundredtribesornations,tookeighthundredcities,foughtbattleswiththreemillionsofmenandmadeamillionprisoners.Heobtainedimmensequantitiesoftreasureintheconqueredlands,andhehimself,ascommanderofthevictoriousarmies,keptalargepartofitashisownshare,sothathebecameveryrich.

Cæsar’swonderfulvictoriesmadehimagreatmaninRome.Theplebeiansrejoicedatthesuccessoftheirleaderandfavoriteandwerereadytowelcomehimwiththehighesthonorswheneverheshouldreturntothecity.

ButCæsarhadnowmadeuphismindtobecomethemasterofRome.SohebegantoplanandtoworktodestroythepowerofPompey,whoatthattimeruledpublicaffairsinRomealmostcompletely.

InordertogainstillgreaterfavorCæsarsentanumberofhisfriendstoRometospendimmensesumsofmoneyinvariouswaystopleasethepeople.Theygotupsplendidgamesandfeasts;theydividedlargequantitiesofcornamongthepoor;andtheypaidthedebtsofhundredsofmenwhohadinfluenceamongtheplebeians.ThepeopleknewthatallthiswasdoneatCæsar’sexpense,andtheypraisedandlovedhimforhisgenerosity.

Pompey,withagreatshowofauthority,noworderedCæsartodisbandhisarmyandsendthesoldierstotheirhomes,forhesaidthatCæsarhadnoneedofanarmyanylonger,ashehadfinishedhisworkinGaul.ButPompey,too,hadanarmyatthistimeinSpain,andCæsarsaidtohim:

“Ifyouwilldisbandyourarmy,Iwilldisbandmine.”

ThismadePompeyveryangry,andhegottheSenatetopassalawdeclaringthatCæsarwasapublicenemyandmustbeputdown.Onesenatorasked

PompeywhatheshoulddoifCæsarshouldcometoRomewithhisarmy.

“WhatshouldIdo?”criedPompey,inatoneofcontempt.“Why,Ihaveonlytostampmyfootandthousandsofmenwillspringuptomarchundermyorders.”

AtthattimeCæsarwaswithhisarmyinthenorthernpartofItaly.WhenheheardwhattheSenatehaddonehecalledhissoldierstogetherandmadeaneloquentspeech.HetoldthemoftheinjusticethatPompeyandtheSenatehaddonetohim,andheconcludedbysaying:

“ThisismyrewardforallthatIhavedoneformycountry.ButIshallgotoRomeandestablishanhonestgovernmentofthepeople,ifyou,mybravesoldiers,willbefaithfultome.”

Thesoldiersansweredwithaloudshout,saying:

“Weshallbefaithfultoyou.Wewillstandbyyoutothelast.”

CæsarthanstartedwithhisarmyandmarchedrapidlythroughnorthernItalyuntilhecametothebanksofalittleriver,atthattimecalledtheRu’bi-con,andknownasthesouthernboundaryofGaul.Whatriverthiswasnoonecannowexactlytell,butitissupposedthatitwassomeoneofseveralsmallriverswhichflowintotheAdriaticSeasouthoftheRiverPo.

CæsarhaltedhisarmyattheRubiconandforbadeanyonetocrossituntilhegavetheorder.Hestoodforsometimeonthebanksindeepthought,asiftryingtodecidewhetherheshouldcrosstheriverandproceed,orgiveuphisdangerousundertaking.HewasstillwithinhisownterritoryascommanderofGaul;ifheshouldcrosstheRubiconhewouldbeonterritorydirectlyunderthegovernmentoftheofficersatRome.Bylawitwasmadeanactoftreason,tobepunishedwithdeath,foranyRomangeneraltoenterthisterritorywithanarmy,withoutpermissionoftheSenate.

“Wecanretreatnow,”saidCæsartosomeofhisofficerswhostoodnearhim,“butonceacrosstheRubiconitwillbetoolatetodrawback.”

WhileCæsarwastalkingashepherdcamealongfromafieldcloseby,playinglivelymusiconareedpipe.Thesoldiersgatheredaroundhimtolistentothemusic,andsomeofthembegantodance.OneofCæsar’strumpetersstoodamongthesoldiers,withhistrumpetinhishand.Theshepherdsawthetrumpet,suddenlyseizeditandwalkedtothebridgeovertheRubicon,whichwasbutafewstepsoff.Thenheputthetrumpettohislips,soundedthestirringnotesforanadvanceofthetroopsandbegantomarchacrossthebridge.

“Asignfromthegods!”shoutedCæsar.“Letusgowherewearethuscalled.Thedieiscast!”

Sosaying,heturnedhishorserightintothestreamandrodeacrosstheRubicon,followedbyhisarmy.ItwasadaringthingevenforCæsartodo,andthephrases,“hehascrossedtheRubicon,”“thedieiscast,”arenowoftenusedtomeanthataboldordangerousstephasbeentakenfromwhichthereisnodrawingback.

TherewasnoonetoopposeCæsarashemarchedthroughItaly.Onthecontrary,cityaftercitysurrenderedtohim.Therewasverylittlefighting.Inmostplacesthepeopleseemedgladtohavehimastheirruler,andgavehimawarmwelcomeandfeastedhissoldiers.Hehadonlywordsofkindnessforeveryone,evenforthosewhowereagainsthim,andhewonhostsoffriendsandsupportersallalonghisroute.

TherewasgreatalarmatRomewhenitwaslearnedthatCæsarwasadvancingtowardthecity.ThesupportersofPompeybecameterrified,andtherichnoblesgathereduptheirmoneyandothervaluablesandfled.PompeycoulddonothingtodefendthecityagainstCæsar,andatlasthetooranaway.HewenttoGreecetoraiseanarmytofightCæsar.

WhenCæsararrivedatRomehemetwithnoopposition.Heenteredthecityamidshoutsofwelcomefromthepeople.Heharmednoone,buthesetupanewgovernmentandorganizedanewSenate.HewasnowthemasterspiritoftheRepublic.

AfterarrangingeverythingtohissatisfactioninRome,hewenttoSpainanddefeatedPompey’sgeneralsthere.ThenhecamebackandturnedhisattentiontoPompeyhimself.

InthemeantimePompeyhadbeenverybusygatheringanarmyintheeasterncountriescontrolledbyRome.Inonewayandanotherhecollectedfiftythousandmen.TheywerestationedonthecoastsofMacedoniaandGreece.TheretheywaitedforCæsarandhisarmytocrosstheAdriaticSeatogivethembattle.

Cæsarhadagreatdealoftroubleingettingacrossthestormyseawithhisarmyoffortythousandsoldiers,butatlastalandingwasmadeinGreece.Thenthetwoarmieshadsomeskirmishing,butnogreatbattle.

Thiscontinuedformonths.Pompeyatonetimewouldgaintheadvantage,andCæsaratanothertime.Butitwasevidentthatneitherofthegreatrivalswasin

anyhurrytoriskthechanceofdefeatinageneralbattle.Theyknewwellthatsuchadefeatwouldentirelyruintheonethatwasdefeated.

ButatlastthetwoarmiesmetforbattleontheplainofPhar-sa’li-a,inThessaly,adistrictofGreece.Thesoldiersonbothsidesweremostlyarmedwithspearsandbroadswords.Somecarriedslingstohurllargestones,andothershadbowsandarrows.Thegreaterpartofthefighting,however,wasdonewithswords.

Eightythousandmenwereengagedinthebattle,aboutfortythousandoneachside.Itwasabrave,heroicstruggleandlastedforhours.Botharmiesfoughtsplendidly,butintheendPompey’sarmywasforcedbacktoitscamp,afterdreadfulslaughter.ForafewminutesthecampwasbravelydefendedagainsttheattacksofCæsar’ssoldiersandthenhadtobeabandoned.Thebattledidnotlastlongafterthis.Pompey’sgreatarmywasutterlybeaten.

Pompeyhimself,withafewfollowers,fledtotheseashoreandsailedacrosstheMediterraneantoEgypt.TherehewastreacherouslymurderedbyorderofPtolemy,theEgyptianking.

CæsargainedasplendidvictoryatPharsalia,buthewasnotyetmasteroftheRomanEmpire.TherichnoblesandsenatorsformedarmiestofighthiminAsiaMinor,Africa,andSpain.CæsarwentwithanarmytoAsiaMinor,attackedhisenemies,andwonagreatbattleataplacecalledZe’la.ThisvictorywassoquicklygainedthatinsendingnewsofittoRomeCæsarwrotethefamousdespatch,“Veni,vidi,vici,”whichis,inEnglish,“Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.”

HehadequalsuccessinAfricaandSpain.Inaveryshorttimehedestroyedthearmiesopposedtohim.ThenhereturnedtoRomeandhadthegrandestTriumpheverseeninthecity.

Thecelebrationlastedfourdays,andduringthattimeRomewasinahighstateofpleasantexcitement.Thousandsofpersonsfromthesurroundingcountrycametothecitytowitnessthemagnificentshow.

Oneachdaythereweresplendidprocessions,inwhichthereweregreatnumbersofgorgeouschariots,drawnbybeautifulhorsesandfilledwithCæsar’sprincipalofficers.BehindthemmarchedhundredsofsoldiersbearingbannersonwhichwerepicturedscenesfromCæsar’simportantbattles.HerdsofelephantsandcamelsfromAsiaandAfricaappearedintheprocession,andtherewerealsolonglinesofprisonerscarryingvaluablearticlesobtainedbyCæsarinthelandshehadconquered.

Inadditiontotheprocessionsmanykindsofentertainmentswereprovidedforthepeople,suchasplays,circusexhibitions,combatsbetweengladiators,wild-beasthunts,andchariotraces.Therewerealsofeastsservedtoallthepeopleofthecity.ItwasatimeofunboundedenjoymentanddelightedtheRomanssomuchthattheybecameverydevotedtoCæsar.

Therewasnownooppositiontohim.Boththenoblesandtheplebeianswerewilling,andevenglad,tohavehimastheirruler.HewaschosendictatorforlifeandputincommandofallthearmiesoftheEmpire.Hewascalledimperator,whichmeansemperor.

ThepeoplegavehimthetitleofFatherofhisCountry.Statuesofhimwereerectedinthepublicbuildingsandsquares.Agrandchair,madesomewhatlikeathrone,wasplacedintheSenatechamber,andwheneverhecametolistentothedebateshesatinthischair,asifhewereking.

Cæsarnowhadlawspassedmakingmanyimprovementsinthegovernment.HealsocarriedoutanumberofplanstomakeRomeofmoreimportanceasacommercialcity.Heerectedmagnificentbuildings,madeaqueductstobringplentyofwatertothecity,establishedagreatlibrary,anddidmanyotherthingswhichwereofmuchbenefittothepeople.

Oneofthemostusefulthingshedidwastomakeanewcalendar.BeforehistimetheRomanshadnotaveryclearknowledgeastothelengthofayear.Atonetimetheyhadonlytenmonthsintheiryear.Afterwardstheyhadtwelve,buttheycountedonly365daysineveryyear.Theydidnotknowortheydidnotgiveattentiontothefactthatthereallengthofayearis365days,5hours,48minutes,50seconds.Theydidnotreckontheextrahours,minutes,andseconds,andsotheircalendargotquitewronginthecourseofanumberofyears.Cæsarcorrectedtheerrorbymakingoneyearineveryfourhave366days,andthecalendarthuscorrectedwascalledtheJulianCalendar.

Cæsarnowpossessedallthegloryandpowerofaking,anditbegantobebelievedthathewantedtobeakinginreality.TheRomanshadnothadakingforfivehundredyearsandwouldnothaveone.TheirfeelingagainstkingswassostrongthatnoneofthemenwhohadruledRome,attimeswithalmostkinglypower,hadeverdaredtocallhimselfking.

OnedayanintimatefriendofCæsarsalutedhiminpublicasking.Cæsarreplied:

“Iamnotking,butonlyCæsar.”

Someofthenobles,however,feltcertainthathemeanttomakehimselfking,andtheyformedaplottokillhimintheSenatehouse,ontheIdesofMarch,thatis,onthefifteenthofMarch.TheRomanshadcertaindaysintheirmonthswhichtheycalledKalends,Nones,andIdes.

OneofthepersonswhomadetheplotagainstCæsarwasJuniusBrutus,ahighlyrespectedRoman.ItissaidthathewasadescendantoftheJuniusBrutuswho,fivecenturiesbefore,hadhelpedtooverthrowthetyrantKingTarquin.BrutuswasanintimatefriendofCæsar,buthethoughtthatCæsarintendedtodestroytheRepublicbymakinghimselfking,andthereforehejoinedtheplotagainsthim.

AstheIdesofMarchdrewneartheplanforputtingCæsartodeathwascarefullyarrangedandsettled.Anaugur,orfortune-teller,onedaystoppedCæsarinthestreetandsaidtohim,“BewaretheIdesofMarch!”butthegreatconquerorlaughedatthewarning.

OntheappointeddaytheplottersmetintheSenatechamber,readytodothewickeddeedtheyhadplanned.WhenCæsarenteredthechamber,allpresentrosetogreethim.Hebowedandsmiledpleasantlytothepeopleandtookhisusualseat.Nowwasthefatalmoment.

Ashadbeenarranged,oneoftheplotterswentuptohimwitharequestforthepardonofaprisoner.Thentherestcrowdedaroundhischair,asiftourgehimtogranttherequest.Cæsarseemedsomewhatalarmedatthecrowdandrosefromhischair.Atthismomenthewasstabbedinthesidewithasword.Thentherewereloudoutcriesinthechamber,andallwasexcitementandconfusion.

Cæsarusedhisstylustodefendhimself.Thestyluswasaninstrumentmadeofiron,withasharppointononeendforwritingonwaxtablets,andwiththeotherendsmooth,forrubbingoutawordwhennecessary.Forwritingonparchmentorpaperapenmadeofreedwasused.EducatedRomanscarriedtheirstylusandtabletintheirpockets.Fromthenameoftheinstrumentthewordstyleisnowusedtomeanaparticularmannerofwriting.

Cæsarhadnothingbuthisstylustodefendhimselfwith.Hefoughtbravely,untilhesawhisfriendBrutuscomingtostrikehim.Thenhecriedout,“You,too,Brutus!”andmadenofurtherresistance.

Theystabbedhimuntilhefelldead.ThentheywentoutoftheSenateandthroughthestreetsofRomewithBrutusattheirhead.Theytoldthepeoplewhattheyhaddoneandrejoicedatthedeed.TheysaidthedeathofCæsarsavedtheRomanRepublic.

ButthepeoplewereveryangryandthreatenedtoputtodeaththosewhohadkilledCæsar.TheywouldhavedonethisonlythatBrutusandhisfriendsfledfromthecity.

TherewasagrandfuneralserviceinhonorofCæsar.ThebodywaslaidintheForum,andafamousRomannamedMarkAntonymadeaneloquentfuneralspeechoverit.HepraisedCæsarandspokesobitterlyagainstBrutusandhispartythatthepeopleweremoreangrythanever.ThisMarkAntonywasafterwardsaverypowerfulmaninRome.

Cæsardiedforty-fouryearsbeforeChristwasborn.OfcoursehisdeathdidnotsavetheRomanRepublic.Ithad,indeed,alreadyceasedtoexistinallbutthename.Romewasnolongerarepublic,butanEmpireand,asweshallsee,thefamilyofCæsargaveititsfirstemperor.AlltheemperorsadoptedthenameofCæsaraspartoftheirtitle.

CICERO

IMarcusTul’li-usCic’e-rowasaprominentmanatRomeforsometimeinthelatteryearsoftheRepublic.Hewasagreatorator—oneofthegreatesttheworldhaseverknown.Hisprincipalspeecheshavebeenpreservedandarereadandstudiedatthepresentday.

HeoftenspokeintheForumbeforelargeaudiences,andbyhiswonderfuleloquencedelightedallwhoheardhim.Boththenoblesandplebeiansadmiredhimforhislearning,hisoratory,andhismanlyqualities.

Cicerowasatall,gracefulman,withanintellectualandratherhandsomeface,andverybright,blackeyes.Hewassogreatafavoritethathewaschosentofillseveralpublicofficesandatlastwaselectedconsul.

IntheearlypartofhisyearasconsultherewasamysteriousplotformedinRomebysomenoblesofbadcharacter,oldsoldiers,andothersreadyforanymischief.Whattheirrealobjectwasnooneseemedtoknow.Butitwassaidthattheconspiratorswantedtooverthrowthegovernmentandsetupanewoneoftheirown.

TherewasasenatornamedSer’gi-usCat’i-line,andmanybelievedthathewasattheheadoftheplot.Hehadabadreputation,andforsometimetheothersenatorshadlookeduponhimwithsuspicion.Therewasnoproof,however,thathewasengagedinanyunlawfulproceedings,sonochargecouldbemadeagainsthim.

Butonedayayoungwoman,namedFulvia,cametoCiceroandgavehimsomeimportantinformationabouttheplotandCatiline’spartinit.Shesaidthatshehadaloverwhowasoneoftheplotters,andthathehadtoldhersomeoftheirsecrets.Shewasgreatlyfrightened,forshethoughtthattheremightbebloodshedinRomeiftheplotwenton,andshefeltitherdutytotellCiceroaboutit.

CiceroimmediatelywenttotheSenateandmadeapowerfulspeech.He

chargedCatilinewithbeingtheleadingpersoninaplottooverthrowthegovernment.Therewasgreatexcitementathiswords.Catilinewaspresent,andheboldlydeniedthechargeanddefiedCicerotoproveit.

“IfConsulCiceroisafraidofmydoingharminRome,”saidhe,“Iamwillingtoplacemyselfasaprisonerinthehandsofanysenator.”

“Idonotthinkitissafetohaveyouinthecity,”repliedCicero,“anddoyouexpectanyonetotakeyouintohishouse?”

AfteragreatdealofexcitingtalktheSenatelaidasidethechargesagainstCatilineforawhile.

IIAfewweekslater,inacitynearRome,therewasanuprisingofthepeopleagainstthepublicofficers.Thiscausedagreatdealofalarm,andCicerosaiditwasthebeginningoftheplotthathehadchargedCatilinewithforming.

ThenhehurriedtotheSenate,whereCatilinewas,andmadeagreatspeechagainsthim.Hecalledhimatraitortohiscountry.Catilineturnedpaleandbegantotremble.Heattemptedtospeak,butthesenatorsshouted,andhootedandhissedhim.Thosewhosatnearhimgotupindisgustandtookseatsinanotherpartofthechamber,leavingtheconspiratorsittingbyhimself.AtlastCatilineranoutoftheSenate,furiouswithanger,andthreateningrevenge.Thenhemountedahorseandrodequicklyoutofthecity.

ShortlyafterwardsCicerolearnedthenamesofnineRomancitizenswhowereleadersintheplot,andhehadthemarrested.HedeclaredintheSenatethattheyhadplannedtomurderthesenatorsandthehighofficers,andtoburnRome.Thesenatorsdeclaredatoncethattheninemustdie,andsoCicerohadthemputtodeath.

CatilinenowfledtothemountainscalledtheApenninesandthereraisedaforceoftwentythousandmen.TwoarmiesweresentagainsthimfromRome.Abattletookplace,inwhichCatiline’sarmywasdefeatedandhehimselfkilled.

ThusendedwhatwasknownastheCatilineConspiracy.Cicero’sactioninhelpingtodestroyitgreatlypleasedtheRomans.IntheSenatehereceivedmuchpraiseandhonor.Itwasevendeclaredthathewasthe“FatherofhisCountry.”

AntonydidnotlikeCicero,andwhentheTriumviratewasformed,thegreatoratorwasputtodeathbyAntony’sorder.

AUGUSTUS

IThefirstofthelonglineofRomanemperorswasOc-ta’vi-us,calledinhistoryAu-gus’tus.HewasthegrandnephewofJuliusCæsar.AlthoughhewasscarcelytwentyyearsoldwhenCæsardied,hewasveryambitious.HeoftensaidthatheshouldonedaybeattheheadoftheRomanEmpire.

“IshallruleRomelikeCæsar,”hewouldsaytohiscompanions.“Youmaylaughatmenow,butthetimewillcomewhenIshallbemasteroftheRomans.”

ShortlyafterCæsar’sdeathOctaviusbegantotakeanactivepartinpoliticalaffairs.AtthistimeMarkAntonywasincontrolofRomeandwasmanagingeverythingtosuithimself.HehadbeenanintimatefriendofCæsarandcommandedoneofhisarmies.Heobtainedagreatdealofpower,buthewasnotlikedverymucheitherbythenoblesortheplebeians.Hewasabadruler,andnobodytrustedhim.

OnceAntonytriedtopreventOctaviusfrombeingelectedatribuneofthepeople.“Iwillbeatribuneinspiteofyou,”Octaviussaid,andhesettoworkwithallhisenergytogettheoffice.Therewasaseverestruggleonelectionday,buttheboywassuccessful.

AfterthisOctaviushatedAntonyandplannedinsecrettobringabouthisdownfall.Andhesucceededinallheattemptedtodo.Fromatribuneheadvancedsteadily,stepbystep,tomoreimportantoffices.AtlastheobtainedcommandofanarmyandmarchedhissoldierstonorthernItaly,whereawarwasgoingon.WhileinthisregionhemetAntonywithhisarmy.Thetwobegantoquarrelandatlastcametoblows.ThenthearmyofOctaviusfoughtthearmyofAntony,andthenorthernplainswerereddenedwiththebloodofthesoldiers.

Whenthefightinghadgoneonforsometime,OctaviussenttoAntonyandaskedhimtostopit.HepretendedthathewasverysorryhehadbeguntofightwithAntonyandaskedforhisfriendship.

“Letusbefriendsandworktogether,”hesaidtoAntony.“Byjoiningour

armiesweshallbeabletodosomegood.”

Thefightingwasthenstopped,andthetwogeneralshadameeting.Theyagreedtounitetheirarmies,andtoinviteanotherRomangeneral,namedLep’i-dus,whohadalargearmy,tojointhem.LepidusacceptedtheinvitationandcametohaveatalkwithAntonyandOctavius.TheyagreedtoaplanbywhichtheythemselvesweretoruleRometogether.Thisrule,orgovernment,wascalledatriumvirate,andOctavius,Antony,andLepiduswerecalledtriumvirs,awordwhichmeansthreemen.

IIAftermakingalltheirarrangements,Antony,Octavius,andLepidusstartedforRomewiththeirarmiesandtookpossessionofthecity.Thentheybegantokillthosethattheythoughtweretheirenemies.MorethantwothousandRomanswereslain.TheywouldhavekilledBrutusonlythathewastheninGreece,wherehehadgoneafterCæsar’sdeathtoraiseanarmytofightAntonyandhisfriends.AntonyandOctaviusnowwentwithanarmytoGreecetofightBrutus.BotharmiesmetatPhilippi,inMacedonia,andthentherewasabattleinwhichthearmyofBrutuswasdefeated.AfterthebattleBrutusrequestedoneofhisslavestokillhim.Theslaverefused,butwhenBrutusstillpressedhimtodoit,heheldouthisswordandBrutuskilledhimselfbyfallinguponit.

ItistoldthatsometimebeforethebattleofPhilippi,asBrutuswassittingonenightinhistent,avisionorspectreappearedtohimandsaid,“Iamthyevilgenius,Brutus;weshallmeetagainatPhilippi.”ItisalsosaidthatthespectreagainappearedtoBrutusonthenightbeforethebattleofPhilippiandtoldhimthathisdeathwasathand.

TherewasnoonenowtointerferewithAntony,Octavius,andLepidus,andtheymanagedeverythinginRomeastheyliked.TheypretendedallthetimetohavegreatrespectfortheSenateandtheofficersofgovernmentwhohadbeenelectedbythepeople.

AfterashorttimeAntonywenttosomeoftheEasterncountriesthatwereapartoftheRomanEmpire,andLepiduswenttoAfrica.OctaviuswasleftinRometoattendtoitsaffairs.HethenbegantoplantogetridofAntonyandLepidus,sothathemightruleRomehimself.Withthisobjectheraisedagreatarmyanddeterminedtomakewaronhisrivals.

SextusPompey,asonofPompeytheGreat,wasatthistimeincontroloftheislandofSicily.HewasalwaysmakingtroubleforOctavius,andhewasaided

byLepidus,whohadcomefromAfricatoSicilywithhisarmy.OnedayOctaviussailedovertheMediterraneanSeatoSicily,withthousandsofsoldiers,destroyedthearmyofSextus,andinducedthearmyofLepidustoleavehim.Lepiduswasthentakenprisoner.“NowtoputanendtothepowerofAntony!”saidOctaviustohimself,when

hereturnedtoRomefromSicily.SohewenttotheSenateandaccusedAntonyoftreasoninAsiaandAfricaandaskedthatwarbedeclaredagainsthim.TheSenatedeclaredwar,andOctaviusbegantomakegreatpreparationsforit.

AntonywasinEgyptwhenheheardofthedeclarationofwar.HelaughedscornfullyattheideaofOctaviusbeingabletobeathim.Thenhegatheredanarmyofmorethanahundredthousandmenandafleetofseveralhundredwarships,andsetouttomeetOctavius.HehadwithhimCle-o-pa’tra,thebeautifulqueenofEgypt,whomhehadmarried,andshehadafleetofherown,numberingsixtyships.

OctaviushadaboutasmanysoldiersandshipsasAntony.ThetwofleetsmetnearaplacecalledAc’ti-um,onthecoastofGreece,andfoughtabattle.Forseveralhoursthefightwentonbravely,butneithersidegainedanygreatadvantage.SuddenlyCleopatrasailedawaywithherfleet,andAntonyquicklyfollowedherwithafewships.Thushedesertedhismenwhiletheywerefighting.

ThesailorsandsoldiersofthedesertedfleetkeptonfightingforashorttimeandthensurrenderedtoOctavius.AfewdayslaterapartofAntony’sarmy,whichwasencampedontheshorenearActium,alsosurrendered.

AntonywentbacktoEgyptwithCleopatra.Hisfriendsandsupportersthenlefthim,andhispowerwasgone.Soonafter,hestabbedhimself,andsodied.ItissaidthatCleopatradiedfromthebiteofapoisonousserpentcalledanasp,whichsheplacedonherarmonpurposetokillherself.

IIIOctaviuscontinuedtofightindifferentpartsoftheEmpireuntilhedefeatedeveryonewhodaredtoopposehim.ThenhewentbacktoRomewithagreatdealofgloryandrichesandletitbeknownatoncethatheintendedtobethemasterofthegovernment.Althoughhepretendedtoprotecttherightsofthepeople,hemadehimselfconsulandalsoassumedotherhighofficeswhichgreatlyaddedtohispower.Thousandsofsoldierswereathiscall,andfinallyhebecameverymuchlikeaking.

TheSenateaskedhimifhewouldwishtobeappointeddictatorforlife,buthethoughtitwisetorefusethisoffice.TheSenatethengavehimthenameofAugustus,whichmeantthathewasworthyofrespect.ThewordaugustusintheLatinlanguagemeanssacred.Hecalledhimselfemperor,and,asEmperorCæsarAugustus,heruledtheRomansalltherestofhislife,aperiodofabouttwenty-sevenyears.AndwhenAugustusbecameemperortheRepublicofRomewasnolongerinexistence.

WhatwereknownasthePræ-to’ri-anGuardswereorganizedbyAugustustoprotecthimselfandupholdhisauthorityasemperor.Theseguardswereabouttenthousandinnumber,andtheywerecomposedofthemosttrustysoldiersoftheEmpire.Eachsoldierhadhighrankandlargepay,andhadtoserveformanyyears.WheneverAugustusappearedinpublichewasattendedbysomeofthePrætorianGuards,andtheylookedveryimposingwiththeirhandsomeuniformsandglitteringswordsandspears.

Augustusmademanygoodchangesinthegovernment.Heverymuchimprovedtheconditionoftheplebeians.HisprincipalministersweretwoablemennamedA-grip’-paandMæ-ce’nas,whogavehimveryvaluableassistance.

WheneverthesewisemensawthattheRomansweregettinguneasyandbeginningtogrumble,theywouldadvisetheemperortodistributecornormoneytothepoor,ortogivethepeoplegrandexhibitionstoamusethem.Augustuswouldfollowtheadvice,andbysodoingmadehimselfverypopular.

DuringhislongreignAugustushadmanysplendidpalaces,temples,andotherbuildingserectedinRome,andtheymadethecityverybeautiful.AugustusalsofoundedcitiesinvariouspartsoftheEmpire.Heencouragedliteratureandartandwashimselfanauthor.InhistimethefamousRomanpoets,Hor’ace,Ver’gil,Va’ri-us,andOvidlived,andalsothegreathistorianLivy,whowrotethehistoryofRomefromtheearliestperioddowntohisowntime.VergilwastheauthorofacelebratedpoemcalledtheÆ-ne’id,whichtellsofthewanderingsandadventuresoftheTrojanheroÆneasmentionedonpage1ofthisbook.

ItwasinthereignofAugustusthatJesusChristwasborninBethlehem,atownofPalestine,orJudea,inSouthwestAsia.JudeawasthenpartoftheRomanEmpire.

NERO

IOnthedeathofAugustusintheyear14A.D.hisstepsonTi-be’ri-usbecameemperor.Hewasacrueltyrant.Heputtodeathagreatmanypeopleonlybecausehethoughttheywerehisenemies.ARomanemperorcouldputtodeathanyonehepleased.Ifhedidnotlikeaperson,hewouldchargehimwithsomecrimeandorderhissoldierstokillhim.Tiberiushadmanypeoplekilledinthisway,buthewashimselfkilledbythecommanderorgeneralofthePrætorianGuard.

ThenexttwoemperorswereCa-lig’u-laandClau’di-us.Theyalsoweretyrantsandputmanypeopletodeathwithoutjustcause.ItissaidthatCaligulaoncewishedthatalltheRomanpeopletogetherhadbutoneheadsothathemightcutitoffwithoneblow.

Butthenextemperorwasastillgreatertyrant.HisnamewasNero.Hebecameemperorintheyear54A.D.HewasthesonofawickedwomannamedAg-rip-pi’na.ThiswomanmarriedtheEmperorClaudiusandgothimtoappointherson,Nero,hissuccessor,insteadofhisownlittleson,Bri-tan’ni-cus.ThenshekilledClaudiusbypoison,andNerobecameemperor.

Nerowasatall,strong,good-looking,brightyouth.Hewasfondofgames,andcouldplaywellonseveralmusicalinsruments.Whenhefirstbecameemperorheseemedtobeaffectionateandkind-hearted,andhedidanumberofgoodthings.Once,whenhewasaskedtosignawarrantfortheexecutionofamancondemnedtodeath,heexclaimed:

“IwishIhadneverlearnedtowrite,forthenIshouldn’thavetosignawaymen’slives!”

Thenallthepeoplearoundhimcried:

“Whatanobleyoungmanouremperoris!Whatagoodhearthehas!”

ButinaveryshorttimeitwasfoundthatNerowasnotatallkindormerciful,butthathewasacruelandwickedman.

HismotherAgrippinaexpectedthatwhenhersonwasemperorsheherselfwouldbetherealmistressandwouldruletheRomanEmpireasshepleased.Nerowasonlyaboy,shethought,andhewouldnotwanttotakeuponhimselfthecaresandburdensofgovernment.

AndforawhileAgrippinadidruleRome.Shehadawomanshehatedputtodeathandshepunishedseveralotherpersonswhohadoffendedher.ShemadesomeoftherichestRomanspayherlargesumsofmoney.ButNerosoonputanendtohismother’spower.Onedayhesaidtoher:

“I,notyou,amtheruleroftheEmpire.Youhavenorighttotakeanypoweruponyourselfandyoumustnotdosoagain.Wheneveryouwantanythingdoneyoumustaskmetodoitforyou.”

“Askyou?”criedAgrippina,inarage.“Howdareyoutalkthiswaytomewhomadeyouemperor?Youtheemperor!Youarenottherightfulemperor.ThetrueheirtotheEmpireisyourstepbrother,youngBritannicus,thesonofClaudius!”

ThentherewasafiercequarrelbetweenNeroandhismother,andatlastheturnedheroutofhispalaceandorderedhernevertoappearthereagain.

Butwhatshehadsaidalarmedhimverymuch.HefearedthatBritannicusmightbemadeemperor,andthereforehedeterminedtogethimoutofthewayassoonaspossible.

AtthistimetherewasinRomeadreadfulwomannamedLo-cus’ta,whomadepoisonsandsoldthemsecretlytoanyonewhowantedthem.Nerowentonenighttothiswomanandsaid:

“Makemeastrongpoison—sostrongthatitwillkillapersonlikeaflashoflightning!”

Locustamadethepoisonandgaveittohim.Hetrieditonapig,anditkilledtheanimalinafewmoments.

“Ha!”saidhe,“thiswilldothework.”

Now,Britannicuslivedinthepalacewithhisstepbrotherandnextday,whendinnerwasserved,Neroputsomeofthepoisonintoacupofwinewhichheknewtheboywastodrink.ThemomentBritannicusdrankit,hefelltothefloordead.ThenNerosaidtotheguestswhowereatthetable:

“Donotbealarmed.Itisnothing.Mypoorstepbrotheralwayswassubjecttofits.”

TheattendantscarriedthebodyofBritannicusoutoftheroom,andthedinnerwentongayly.

IIAlittlewhileafterhehadpoisonedhisstepbrother,Neromadeuphismindtogetridofhismother,also.Hewasafraidthataslongasshelivedhewouldnotbesafeasemperor.Shemightstirupthepeopleagainsthimanyday.Sohewenttoseeherandpretendedthathewassorryhehadill-treatedher.Hekissedandcaressedhersoaffectionatelythatshewasentirelydeceived.

Thenthecruelsonmadeaplantodrownhismother.Hehadashipsobuiltthatbypullingoutcertainboltsandpinsitwouldsuddenlyfalltopiecesandsink.Hethenhiredawickedcaptainandcrewtodohisbidding,andgothismothertotakeasailintheshipdowntheTiber.

Agrippinatookamaidwithherandwentaboard.Shewasinahappyhumor,becauseherson,asshethought,wassokindtoher.Whentheshipcametoacertainplaceintheriverwherethewaterwasverydeep,thesailorspulledouttheboltsandpins.Thentheshipbegantofallapartandtosink.

Thesailorssprangintotherivertoswimtotheshore,andAgrippinaandhermaidjumpedoverboard.Themaidwaskilledbyasailor,butAgrippinawaspickedupbythecrewofafishingboat.

Nerowasgreatlytroubledwhenhelearnedofhismother’sescape.Hebelievedthatnowshewouldcertainlytrytohavehimremovedfromthethrone.Sohesentsomementokillherinherhouse,andtheydidsoinamostcruelmanner.

IIINoneoftheemperorsbeforeNerolivedsograndlyashedid.HehadasplendidmarblepalaceatRome,containingimmensequantitiesofbeautifulfurniture,goldandsilverornaments,andworksofartofthefinestkind.OnthepleasantshoresoftheMediterraneanSeahehadseveralhouseswherehelivedinthesummerandautumnmonths.Whereverhewenthehad,ashiscourtorcompanions,threeorfourhundredrichlydressedmenandwomen,withmanyslavestowaituponthem.Theytraveledinchariotscoveredwithivoryandgoldanddrawnbybeautifulhorses.

Nerowasfamousforthesplendiddinnershegaveinhispalace.Therarest

andmostcostlyfoodandwineswerespreaduponthetablesingreatplenty,andwhenthefeastingwasovertroopsofactorsanddancerswouldgiveperformanceswhichlasteduntillateatnight.

Sometimes,atthesedinners,Nerowouldplayonaharporflute,andsometimeshewouldactportionsofplaysorrecitepoemswhichhehimselfhadcomposed.Hewasaveryclevermusicianandactor,andhewroteverygoodpoetry.

OneeveningafirebrokeoutinRomeandragedfuriouslyforaweek.Halfthecitywasburned,andhundredsofpeoplelosttheirlives.SomeoftheRomanssaidthatNerohadstartedthefireandhadpreventeditfrombeingputout.Mostofthesixdaysduringwhichthefirelastedhespentinahightower,enjoyingthesight.Heplayedonhisharp,sangmerrysongs,andrecitedversesabouttheburningoftheancientcityofTroy.

AfterthefirewasputoutNerosaidthatithadbeencausedbythebelieversinthereligionofChrist.AtthistimetherewasaverylargenumberofChristiansinRome.ButmostoftheRomansstillworshipedtheiroldpagangods,andtheyhatedandill-treatedtheChristians.

WhenNerodeclaredthattheChristianshadcausedthegreatfire,thepeoplebegantopersecutetheminadreadfulmanner.ManyoftheChristianswerehanged,somewerecoveredwithpitchandburned,andotherswerehuntedtodeathbysavagedogs.DuringthetimeofthispersecutiontheApostlePaulwasbeheadedandtheApostlePeterwascrucified,asChristhadbeencrucifiedthirty-oneyearsbefore.

AfterashorttimeRomewasrebuiltinagreatermagnificencethanbefore.NerobuiltforhimselfanimmenseandsplendidpalaceonthefamousPalatineHill.ThispalacecontainedsomanyornamentsofgoldthatitwascalledtheGoldenHouse.

IngoverningtheEmpireNerowasveryharshandcruel.Heoftenputinnocentmenandwomen,andevenhisownfriends,todeath.Hekilledhiswifeinafitofpassion.HedidsomanywickedthingsthatatlasttheRomansgottiredofhavingsuchatyranttorulethem,andtheyformedaplottodethronehimandmakesomeoneelsetheiremperor.

Buttheplotcametonothing,becauseaslavewhohadheardofitwenttoNeroandtoldhimallaboutit.ThePrætorianGuardsseizedtheleadingplottersandputthemtodeath.Nerothenbecamemorewickedthanhehadbeenbefore.HeevenaccusedhisoldtutorSeneca,andthefamouspoetLucan,oftakingpart

intheplotagainsthim,andhesentthemanordertoputthemselvestodeath.Senecawasaverygoodmanandagreatwriter.WhenhereceivedthecruelorderfromNero,heknewthatifhedidnotobeyitthetyrantwouldsendsomeonetokillhim,sohehadtheveinsofhisarmscutopenandhediedaftermuchsuffering.Lucanalsoobeyedthetyrant’sorder.Whiledyingherepeatedlinesfromoneofhisownpoems.

IVThiswickedemperorreignedfourteenyears.Butatlasttherewasarebellionagainsthim,andthesoldierselectedGalba,theRomangovernorofSpain,tobethenewemperor.

ThenNeroactedlikeamiserablecoward.HewasafraidtostayanylongerinRome,formostofthepeoplehatedhimandfavoredGalba.Sohemountedahorseandrodeoutofthecitytothehomeofatrustyslave.ButwhilehewastherehereceivedwordthattheSenatehadcondemnedhimtodeathandthathorsemenhadbeensentouttocapturehim.

“Nowdigagraveforme,”hesaidtotheslave,“andIwillkillmyself!”

Atthismomentthegallopingofhorseswasheard.

“Hark!Theyarecomingtokillyou,”criedtheslave.“Usethedaggerwhileitistimeandsaveyourselffromdisgrace!”

WithtremblinghandNeroplacedhisdaggerathisthroat,butdidnothavethecouragetouseit.Theslavethenseizeditandplungeditintotheemperor’sthroat,andthewickedNerofelldead.

TITUS

IDuringthetwoyearsthatfollowedthedeathofNero,therewerethreeemperors,Galba,Otho,andVi-tel’lius.TheyweregeneralsofRomanarmies,andweremadeemperorsbytheirsoldiers.Buttheyreignedonlyafewmonthseach,andtheydidnothingofimportance.

Vitelliuswasaglutton.Hetookpleasureonlyineatinganddrinking.HewouldoftenvisitthehousesofrichRomanswithoutinvitationandtakebreakfastwithone,dinnerwithanother,andsupperwithanother.Afterbreakfasthethoughtonlyaboutdinner;andwhendinnerwasoverhebegantothinkofwhathewouldhaveforsupper.

ThenextemperorwasTitusFlaviusVespasian,commonlycalledVespasian.Healsowasanarmygeneral.WhenhewasmadeemperorbyhissoldiershewasinPalestine.HehadbeensenttherebyNerowithanarmytopunishtheJewswhohadrebelledagainstRome.AssoonashewasdeclaredemperorhereturnedtoItalyandlefthissonTitusFlavius,calledinhistorysimplyTitus,tocarryonthewaragainsttheJews.

TituscapturedJerusalemafterasiegeofsixmonths,andhissoldierstookpossessionofallthevaluablethingstheycouldfind.Thentheyburnedthecitytotheground.Thefamoustemplewasalsodestroyed,andthuswasfulfilledtheprophecyofChristthatnotonestoneofthebuildingshouldbeleftuponanother.WhenTitusreturnedtoRomehehadagrandTriumph,andabeautifularchwasbuiltinhishonor.Thisarchisstillinexistence.

IIVespasiandiedin79A.D.,andthenTitusbecameemperor.OneoftheremarkablethingsTitusdidduringhisreignwastofinishtheColosseum,whichhadbeenbegunbyhisfather.

TheColosseumwasthelargesttheatreintheworld.Ithadseatsforover

80,000people.ItwasfirstcalledtheFlavianAmphitheatre,fromthefamilynameoftheemperorswhobuiltit.Insideithadseatsallroundthering,orarena,andasthewordamphimeansaround,theycalledthegreatbuildinganamphitheatre.InlatertimesitgotthenameofColosseum.TheGreeksusedthewordcolossusasanameforanyverylargestatue,andbecausetheFlavianAmphitheatrewassolargeitwascalledtheColosseum.Inourownlanguageweusethewordcolossaltodescribeanythingofimmensesize.

IntheColosseumtheyhadmanykindsofamusements.Whenitwasfirstopenedtheshowsandgameslastedforahundreddays,and5,000wildbeastswerekilledinthearenabygladiators.Thearenawasavastspacefencedroundaboutwithastrongwall,andarounditwerecirculartiersorrowsofseats,onebehindtheother,likestepsofstairs.Sometimesthearenawasturnedintoalakebylettingwaterflowintoitfrompipes.Thentheyputshipsuponitandhadshamfightsinimitationofabattleatsea.Thissortofshowwascallednaumachia,whichmeansafightwithships.ItwasfirstintroducedintoRomebyJuliusCæsar,whohadalakedugforthepurposeintheCampusMartius.

TheColosseumisstillinexistence,butitispartlyinruins.

BesidesfinishingtheColosseum,theEmperorTitusalsobuiltsplendidbaths.TheywerecalledtheBathsofTitus.TheRomanswereveryfondofbaths.Wealthycitizensusedtobatheseveraltimeseveryday,andoftentheyspentthegreaterpartofthedayatthebaths,wheretherewerefinelyfurnishedrooms.

ItwasinthereignofTitusthatthecitiesofPom-pe’ii(-p ’yi)andHercula’ne-um,inthesouthofItaly,weredestroyedbyaneruptionofMountVesuvius.AfamousRomanauthor,PlinytheYounger,sawtheeruptionfromadistanceandwroteadescriptionofit.Hetellsthatafierycloudofcinders,stones,andashesburstfromthetopofthemountainandraineddownuponthecountryallround,destroyingtownsandvillagesandpeople.TheruinsofHerculaneumwereaccidentallydiscoveredbyworkmenin1709,andtheruinsofPompeiiwerediscoveredsomeyearslater.

Tituswasaverygoodemperor.Healwaysdideverythinghecouldforthewelfareandhappinessofthepeople,andhewassomuchlikedbyeverybodythathewascalledthe“DelightofMankind.”Itissaidthatonenighthethoughthehaddonenothingduringthatdayforthegoodofanyperson,andthathecriedout,“Ihavelostaday.”

TRAJAN

IOnthedeathofTitushisbrotherDomitianbecameemperor.Hewasaverybadmanandtookpleasureonlyindoingcruelandwickedthings.Itissaidthatoneofhisamusementswascatchingfliesandstickingthemwithpins.Oncewhenavisitorcalledandinquiredwhethertherewasanyonewiththeemperor,theservantanswered,“No,notevenafly.”

Itisnottobesupposedthatsuchanemperorcouldhavebeenlikedbythepeople.Evenhissoldiershatedhim,andatlasttheyformedaplotagainsthislifeandkilledhiminhisownpalace.

Nerva,whohadbeenafavoriteofNero,wasthenextemperor,buthewasanoldmananddiedafterareignoftwoyears.HewassucceededbyhisadoptedsonTrajan,whobecameemperorin98A.D.andreignedfornineteenyears.

Trajanwasagoodmanandabravesoldier.AtthetimehebecameemperorhewasgovernorofoneoftheRomanterritoriesorprovincesinGermanyalongthebanksoftheRhine,andheresidedatColonia,nowcalledCologne.

NotlongafterhisreturntoRomeTrajanwasengagedinawarwiththeKingofDacia.ThiswasthenameofthecountrylyingnorthoftheDanubeRiver.ThegreaterpartofitisnowcalledHungary.TheDacianking,whosenamewasDe-ceb’a-lus,hadfrequentlymaderaidsintoneighboringcountrieswhichbelongedtoRome,androbbedandkilledmanyofthepeople.TrajanresolvedtopunishDecebalus,andsohesetoutwithalargearmyandmarchedintoDacia.Thewarcontinuedthreeyears,fortheDacianswerebraveandskillfulfighters;butatlastDecebaluswasdefeatedinagreatbattleandhehadtocometoTrajanandhumblybegforpeace.HeagreedtobeavassalofRome;thatis,toholdhiskingdomsubjecttothecontroloftheRomanemperors.

ButinlessthanayearDecebalusagainattackedhisRomanneighbors,andTrajanhadagaintomarchagainsthimwithanarmy.TheDacianswereoncemoredefeatedinagreatbattle,andDecebalus,afterfailinginanattempttoescape,putanendtohisownlife.DaciawasthenmadeaRomanprovince.

DuringthisyearTrajanbuiltaremarkablebridgeacrosstheDanube.Beforethattimebridgeswerebuiltofwood,butinthebridgeovertheDanubeTrajanusedstoneforthepiers,whichwereofgreatsize.Thebridgehadtwenty-twoarches,anditsruins,whicharestilltobeseen,showwhatawonderfulworkitwas.

WhenTrajanreturnedtoRomeafterhisvictoryoverDecebalushehadagrandTriumph,andthereweregamesandshowsinhishonorwhichlastedahundredandtwentydays.Itistoldthatduringthesecelebrations10,000gladiatorsfoughtintheamphitheatreand11,000wildanimalswerekilledinthearena.

AmarblecolumnwaserectedinhonorofTrajan’svictoriesinDacia.ThismonumentisstillstandinginRome.ItiscalledTrajan’sColumn.ManyscenesshowingbattlesandothereventsintheDacianwarareengraveduponitfromthebasetothetop.

IITrajanalsohadwarsinAsia,andhewonmanyvictories.HeconqueredArmeniaandMesopotamiaandaddedthemtotheEmpire.ButhedidnotlivetoreturntoRome.HediedinatowninAsiaMinor,whichinhonorofhimwasafterwardscalledTrajanopolis.

TheRomansweremuchgrievedatthedeathofTrajan,forhehadbeenagoodemperorandhaddonemuchtobenefitthepeople.HebuiltfineroadsandcanalsandbridgesinItalyandtheprovinces.HegreatlyimprovedandbeautifiedtheCircusMaximus.ThiswastheplaceinwhichtheRomanshadtheirhorseracesandchariotraces.ItwasbuiltinthehollowbetweenthePalatineandAventinehills,andithadseatsfor250,000people.

TrajanalsomadeaforuminRome,whichwascalledafterhisnametheTrajanForum.InthecentreofthisforumtheTrajanColumnwasbuilt,andarounditweretemplesandlibrariesestablishedbythegoodemperor.ForalongtimeafterTrajan’sdeaththepeopleofRome,whenevertheygotanewemperor,usedtowishthathewouldbe“asgreatasAugustusandasgoodasTrajan.”

SomegreatwriterslivedinRomeinthetimeofTrajan.OneofthemwasPlutarch,whowrotethefamousbookcalledPlutarch’sLives.Thisbook,whichyouwillperhapssomedayread,containsanaccountofthelivesofmanygreatmenofGreeceandRome.ThehistorianTacitus,thepoetJuvenal,andPlinytheYounger,alreadymentioned,alsolivedinthetimeofTrajan.

PlinytheYoungerwasso-calledtodistinguishhimfromhisuncle,PlinytheElder,wholivedinthetimeofNeroandwastheauthorofacelebratedworkonnaturalhistory.

MARCUSAURELIUS

IThenextemperorwasTrajan’scousinHa’dri-an.HewasagoodruleranddidagreatdealtoimprovethecityofRome.HetraveledthroughmanypartsoftheEmpiretoseethatthepeoplewerejustlygovernedandthatthepublicofficialsweredoingtheirduty.HevisitedBritain,whichwasthenaRomanprovince,andhecausedastrongwalltobebuiltfromseatoseaacrossthecountrynearScotland,topreventthefiercetribesofthenorthfrommakingraidsupontheRomansettlementsinthesouth.Someoftheremainsofthiswallarestilltobeseen.

HadrianalsobuiltagreattombinRome,whichwascalledHadrian’sMole.HeandmanyotherRomanemperorswereburiedinthistomb.ItisnowknownastheCastleofSt.Angelo.

WhenHadriandiedaverygoodmannamedAn-toni’nuswasmadeemperor.HeshowedsuchfilialregardforHadrian,bybuildingatempleinhishonor,thathewascalledAntoninusPi’us.UndertheemperorswhoruledbeforehistimetheChristianswereverycruellytreated.Theywerenotallowedtohavechurchesorplacesofworship,andnumbersofthemwereputtodeathinthemostshockingmanner.OftenChristianswerethrownintothearenaintheAmphitheatreanddevouredbywildbeasts.

InthosetimestheChristiansofRomeheldtheirreligiousmeetingsinundergroundpassagesdugforburyingplaces.TheseCatacombs,astheywerecalled,werenearthewallsofthecityandaltogetherwerehundredsofmilesinlength.Alongbothsidesofthetunnelswereopenings,oneaboveanother,inwhichthedeadwereburied.ManyoftheCatacombshavebeenexploredinrecenttimes.Theyareamongthe“sights”whichvisitorstoRomearealwayseagertosee.

AntoninusPiuswasveryfriendlytotheChristians.Hegaveordersthattheyshouldbeallowedtopracticetheirreligionandthatanyonewhointerferedwiththemshouldbepunished.

ThenextemperorofRomewasaveryremarkableandaverygoodman.HisnamewasMar’cusAu-re’li-us.HegovernedtheEmpirejustlyandwellfornearlytwentyyears.Hebegantoreignintheyear161A.D.HewastheadoptedsonofthegoodEmperorAntoninus.ForsometimebeforethedeathofAntoninus,heheldahighofficeandhelpedtogoverntheEmpire.

AssoonashebecameemperorAureliusinvitedayoungmannamedVe’rustosharethethronewithhim.VerushadalsobeenadoptedbyAntoninus.ThegenerousactofAureliussurprisedeverybody.NeverbeforewasthereaRomanemperorwhowantedtogivehalfofhispowertoanotherperson,anditseemedstrangetothepeoplethatAureliusshoulddoso.ButAureliussaid:

“Ithinkmyadoptedbrotherhasarighttobeemperorwithme.”

AndsoVeruswasmadeemperorwithAurelius,andforthefirsttimeRomewasruledbytwoemperors.VerushadagreatrespectforAurelius.Heseldomattemptedtodoanythinginmattersofgovernmentwithoutaskinghisadvice.Buthedidnothavemuchtodowithpublicaffairs.Hecaredverylittleaboutbeingemperorandgenerallyspenthistimeinamusinghimself.Hewasnotagoodyoungman,andhisconductgaveAureliusagreatdealofsorrow.ButafternineyearsVerusdied,andAureliuswasthesolerulerduringtherestofhislife.

InhisyouthAureliusstudiedunderthebestteachersintheEmpire,andsohadanexcellenteducation.Healwayshadaneagerdesireforknowledgeandwasconstantlylearning.Eveninwartimes,whenhewasfightinginthefield,hecarriedalibrarywithhimandcouldoftenbeseeninhistentengagedinstudy.HewasoneofthemostlearnedoftheRomanemperors,andhisintimatefriendswerescholarsandauthors.

WhenaboyofonlytwelveyearshejoinedtheSto’ics.ThesewerefollowersofafamouswisemanorphilosopherofGreece,calledZe’no.Thismantaughtthatthepeopleshouldactaccordingtoreasonandvirtue,andshouldkeepaneventemperandabraveheartunderallcircumstances.Hetaughtalsothatmenshouldshowneitherjoynorsorrow,butcontroltheirfeelingsandpassions,andsubmitwithoutcomplainttowhatcouldnotbeprevented.

ThefollowersofZenowerecalledStoics,fromtheGreekwordstoa,whichmeansaroofedcolonnadeorporch.ItwasinaroofedporchatAthensthatZenotaughthisdoctrine.

TheEmperorAureliuswasoneofthebestandmostearnestoftheStoics.Hecarefullytrainedhimselftocontrolhisfeelingsatalltimesandtodohisdutyhonestlyandfaithfully.TheRomansneverhadapurerornobleremperor,orone

morerespectedandbeloved.Hisstyleoflivingwasverysimple.Hehadnoidlecourtiersathishouse,andhekeptonlyafewservants.Hegavenocostlydinnersandentertainments.Hespentmuchofhissalarytoimprovetheconditionofthepoorandtoprovidegoodschoolsfortheirchildren.

HeusedtowalkthroughthestreetsofRomeinplainclothing,attendedonlybyafavoriteslave.Hereturnedthegreetingsofthepeoplewithbowsandpleasantsmiles.Anyonecouldgotohimandtalkfreely,andheencouragedthepeopletotellhimabouttheirtroublessothathemightunderstandhowtohelpthem.

HegavetheSenateagreatdealofpowerwhichhethoughtitoughttohave,andgavebacktothepeoplemanyrightsandprivilegeswhichformeremperorshadtakenawayfromthem.NowondertheRomanslovedhimandcalledhimagoodman.

IIButthereignofAureliuswasfulloftroubles.InthefirstpartofittheTiberonedayoverfloweditsbanks,andthewaterssweptawayalargeportionofRome,destroyingmanylives.Afterthisthereweredreadfulearthquakes,verydestructivefires,andotherseriousmisfortunes.

Therewerealsomanywars.TherewasawarwiththeParthians,abrave,warlikenationinAsia,whodestroyedaRomanarmyandtheninvadedSyria.LargearmiesweresentagainstthemandtheyweresoonconqueredandforcedtopayhomagetoAurelius.

TheParthianhorsemenhadastrangewayoffighting.Theywerearmedwithbowsandarrowsandsmallspearscalledjavelins,andweremountedonveryswifthorses.TheywouldmakeattacksontherearlinesoftheRomans,andwhentheRomansturnedtoattackthemtheywouldlashtheirhorsesandrideoffasfastasthewind.Andwhiletheirhorsesweregoingatfullspeedtheywouldturnintheirsaddlesandcasttheirjavelins,orshoottheirarrowswithwonderfullyaccurateaim.

AftertheParthianwartherewerewarswithanumberofwildtribeslivinginthecountriesnowcalledAustriaandHungary.ThetribesthererebelledagainsttheirRomangovernors,andAureliushadyearsofhardfightingbeforehecouldsubduethem.Hewashimselfaremarkablybraveandablegeneralandgainedmanysplendidvictories.SoatlasthetaughtthebarbarianstorespectandobeytheRomanswhogovernedthem.

Once,whileAureliuswasfightingatribecalledtheQua’di,hissoldierswerehemmedinbytheenemy,inasmallrockyvalley,andsufferedgreatlyfromthirst.Suddenlytheskydarkenedandrainfellintorrents.Thethirstysoldierscollectedthewaterintheirhelmetsanddrankiteagerly.

Whiletheyweredrinking,andtheirlineswereinconfusion,theQuadisuddenlyattackedtheminlargenumbers.TheRomanswouldhavebeencuttopiecesbutthattherecameaviolenthailstorm,withlightningandthunder,whichstoppedthebattle.Whenthestormhadceased,theRomans,muchrefreshedbytherainfall,boldlyfoughttheQuadiandwonagreatvictory.

SomeoftheRomansbelievedthatthesuddenstormwhichrelievedthemsomuchwascausedbythemagicalpowerofanAfricanwizardwhowaswiththearmyatthetime.Buttherewasalsowiththearmyalegionofsoldiers,some3,000innumber,whowereChristians.TheChristianshadprayedforrain,andtheybelievedthattheraincameinanswertotheirprayers.TheysaidthatitwasamiraclesentbyGodtoprovethetruthofChristianity.

NowAureliuswasapagan.SomeofhisChristiansoldiershadtriedtoconverthimtotheirfaith,buttheyhadnotsucceeded.Helivedanddiedabelieverinthepagangodsandgoddesses.Afterthestrangestorm,however,heseemedtohaveagreaterrespectforChristianity,andhenamedhisChristianlegionofsoldiersthe“ThunderingLegion.”

IIIOncethecommanderoftheRomanarmiesinAsia,amannamedA-vi’di-usCas’si-us,plannedarebellionagainstAurelius.WheneverythingwasreadyCassiusdeclaredhimselfemperorandstartedwithhisarmytoRometotakepossessionofthecity.AureliuscollectedhistroopsandwenttomeetCassius;butnomeetingtookplace,forCassiuswaskilledbyhisownsoldiers,andtherebellionquicklycametoanend.

ThosewhohadaidedCassiuswerebroughtbeforeAureliusforpunishment.Buttheemperorwouldnotpunishthem.

“No,Iwillnotharmthem,”hesaid.“IthinkIhavegovernedtheEmpiretoofaithfullyandliberallytofearplots.Icanaffordtoforgivetraitors.LetallthefriendsofCassiusgofree;theyaretobepitiedratherthanpunished.”

Aureliuswasalwaysveryindustriousandwouldneverwasteanyofhistime.Itwasapartofhisdutyasemperortoattendthegamesandsportsinthe

ColosseumandtheCircus.Aureliuscarednothingforsuchsportsandwheneverheattendedthem,healwaysspenthistimeatsomeusefuloccupationwhilesittinginthesplendidchairofstateprovidedforhim.Sometimeshewouldstudyhisfavoritebooksandmakenotesfromthem,andsometimeshewoulddictatelettersandgovernmentorderstoasecretary.ThousandsofexcitedRomansaroundhimwouldbeshoutingtheirdelightatthesportsinthering,butAureliuswouldgooncalmlywiththeworkhehadinhand.“Idonotliketowastemytimebysittingheredoingnothing,”hewouldsay.

“Towastetimeisoneofthegreatestofcrimes.”

Andso,byneverallowinghimselftobeidle,Aureliuswasabletodomanyusefulthings.HeestablishedgoodschoolsandhospitalsinRomeandothercitiesofItaly.Heintroducednewtradessothatthepoorpeoplecouldgetamuchbetterlivingthanbefore.

Aureliusalwaysgavegreatencouragementtoartandliterature.HewelcomedauthorsandartiststoRomeandwasalwaystheirfriend.Heestablishedlibrariesandhallsofpaintingsandstatuary.Hehimselfwroteseveralbooks.

ItissaidthatwithallhisvirtuethelifeofAureliuswasnotahappyone.HehadserioustroublesattimesingoverningtheEmpire,andthecaresofaruleroftenweighedheavilyuponhim.Hiswife,whomhedearlyloved,behavedverybadlyandcausedhimmuchanxiety,andhisonlysonwasaverybadyoungman.

SointhelatteryearsofhislifeAureliusalwaysappearedmelancholy.Asmilewasseldomseenuponhisface.HediedatthecitynowcalledVienna,inAustria,180A.D.

CONSTANTINETHEGREAT

IFormorethanahundredyearsafterthetimeofMarcusAureliusnoneoftheRomanemperorsdidanythinggreatorremarkable.Theywerenearlyallbadmen,andmanyofthemwereputtodeathfortheirevildeeds.

Intheyear307A.D.theEmpirehadbeendividedupthroughmanyquarrelsandwarsbetweengeneralsofthearmies.Oftenanarmywoulddeclareitscommanderanemperor,andhewouldsethimselfupasrulerofpartoftheEmpire.Sointhiswaytherecameatlasttobesixpersonswhoclaimedtobeemperors.

NoneofthemwasinanywayremarkableexcepttheEmperorCon’stantine,calledConstantinetheGreat.HewasthesonofaformeremperornamedConstan’ti-us.WhenConstantiusdiedthearmychoseConstantinetobeemperor.ButhedidnotgotoRometobecrowned.HeremainedinGaul,forhelearnedthatfiveothershadtakenthetitleofemperorindifferentpartsoftheEmpire.

Afterawhile,however,ConstantinegotmessagesfrompeopleinRomebegginghimtocomeandrelievethemfromthecruelgovernmentofMax-en’ti-us,whowasactingasemperorthere.ButConstantinewasawiseman.HethoughtitwouldnotbewellforhimtoleaveGaulandenterintoafightwithMaxentius,sohepaidnoattentiontothemessages.

AtlastMaxentiusopenlyinsultedConstantineandthreatenedtokillhim.ThenConstantinewasarousedtoanger,sohegatheredagreatarmyofgoodsoldiersandsetoutforRome.HemarchedovertheAlpsandinashorttimewasfightingthearmyofMaxentiusontheplainsofItaly.

ThefirstbattletookplacenearTurin.ThesoldiersofMaxentiuswerecladinsteelarmor;butConstantine’smenfoughtthemsofiercelythattheirarmorwasoflittleusetothem,andtheywerespeedilydefeated.TherewasanotherbattleatVerona,whereConstantinewasagainthevictor.

ThethirdbattletookplaceonthebanksoftheTiber,nearRome.MaxentiushadmoresoldiersthanConstantine,buthewasnotagoodgeneral,sohewaseasilybeaten.HehimselfwasdrownedwhilefleeingacrosstheTiber.

AfterthebattleConstantineenteredRomeamidstthecheersofthepeople.AlittlewhileafterwardshetoldaninterestingstorytoaChristianbishopnamedEu-se’bi-us.HesaidthatwhilehewasmarchingthroughnorthernItaly,onthewaytoRome,hewasconstantlythinkingabouttheChristianreligion.Ithadbeenspreadingineverycivilizedcountryformorethantwocenturies,andConstantinethoughtthathe,too,shouldbecomeaChristianandnolongerworshippagangods.Buthecouldnotmakeuphismindtodoso.

Onedaywhilehewasinfrontofhistent,withhisofficersandtroopsaroundhim,thereappearedintheheavensanenormouscrossoffire.AlittleononesideofthecrosswerethesewordsintheGreeklanguage,“Bythis,conquer.”ThewordsaresometimesgivenintheLatinform,Inhocsignovinces,thetranslationofwhichis,“Throughthissignthoushaltconquer.”

Constantinewasastonishedatthewonderfulvision,andhegazedatituntilitfadedaway.Hecouldnotunderstandwhatitmeantandwasgreatlytroubled.ButthatnighthedreamedthatChristappearedtohiminrobesofdazzlingwhite,bearingacrossinHishands,andthatHepromisedhimvictoryoverhisenemiesifhewouldmakethecrosshisstandard.

ConstantinenowdeclaredhimselfaChristianandhadastandardmadeintheformofacross,withabannerattachedtoitbearingtheinitiallettersofthenameofChrist.ThisbannerwascalledtheLab’a-rum,anditwasafterwardsthestandardoftheRomanemperors.

WhenConstantinebecameaChristianhimselfhebegantotaketheChristiansintohisfavor.Hemadesomeofthemhighofficersofthegovernment;hebuiltChristianchurchesanddestroyedthepagantemples.HealsomadetheChristianreligionthereligionoftheEmpire,andhehadthesignofacrosspaintedontheshieldsandbannersoftheRomanarmies.

Thus,aftermany,manyyearsofterriblepersecution,theChristianswerebefriendedbytheRomanemperor,andsoontheybecameverypowerful.ThousandsofRomanswereconvertedtoChristianity,andthechurcheswerecrowdedwithworshipers.

II

ConstantinealsoverymuchimprovedtheRomanlawsandsystemofgovernment.Heputastoptothedishonestpracticesoftheofficersandestablishedjustmethodsofcarryingonpublicaffairs.HedisbandedthefamousPrætorianGuards,whichhadbeenanevilpowerinRomeforcenturies.ManyotherreformswerecarriedoutbyConstantine,whoseemedanxioustodowhatwasrightandwhatwasforthebestinterestsofthepeople.

UnderConstantine’srule,therefore,Romewashappyandprosperous.Toshowtheirgratitudetohimforhisnobledeedsthepeopleerectedinhishonoragrandmarblearchinthecentralsquareofthecityandinscribedonit:

“TOTHEFOUNDEROFOURPEACE.”

FourofthesixemperorswhohadatonetimeruledtheEmpirewerenowdead.ButintheeasttherewasoneemperornamedLi-cin’i-us.Constantineattackedhim,scatteredhisarmies,andtookawayfromhimthegreaterpartofhisterritory.

Thetwoemperorsthenbecamefriends,butaftersometimetheyhadaquarrelandwenttowaragain.Eachhadalargearmyandafleetofwarships.Twogreatbattleswerefought,andConstantinewonboth.Liciniussoonafterwardsdied.

NowforthefirsttimeConstantinewassoleemperor,andformorethanfourteenyearsheruledtheimmenseRomanEmpire.HebuiltthemostmagnificentpalaceRomehadeverseen.Hesurroundedhimselfwithhundredsofcourtiersandlivedingreatsplendor.

AfteratimeheresolvedtomovethecapitaloftheEmpiretoamorecentralplacethanRome,andheselectedBy-zan’ti-um,anancientcityofThrace,attheentrancetotheBlackSea.TothiscityConstantinesentnumbersofworkmentomakealterationsandimprovements,andhechangeditsnametoConstantinople,whichmeanscityofConstantine.Hespentvastsumsofmoneyinerectinggorgeousbuildings,makingaqueducts,constructingstreetsandpublicsquares,andindoingthemanyotherthingspropertobedoneinthecapitalofagreatEmpire.ThefineststatuesandotherworksofartthatcouldbeobtainedinGreece,Italy,andthecountriesofAsiawerebroughttomakeConstantinoplebeautiful.

WheneverythingwasreadyConstantinewiththeofficersofhisgovernmentremovedtoConstantinople.Helivedforaboutsevenyearsafterwards.Thereno

furtherwars,exceptaslightconflictwithatribecalledtheGoths,andthepeopleoftheEmpirewerecontentedandprosperous.

ConstantinediedinConstantinopleattheageofsixty-three,afterareignofnearlythirty-oneyears.HewasthefirstChristianemperorofRome.

ENDOFTHEWESTERNEMPIRE

MostoftheRomanemperorsafterConstantinewereeithercrueltyrantsorveryworthlesspersons,whospenttheirtimeinidlepleasureandneglectedtheirdutiestothepeople.Afew,however,didsomeremarkablethingsandthereforedeservetobementionedamongtheFamousMen.

Oneemperor,whosenamewasJu’li-an,iscalledinhistoryJuliantheApostate,becausehegaveuptheChristianreligionandtriedtoestablishtheworshipofthepagangodsagaininRome.JulianalsoattemptedtorebuildtheTempleofJerusalemwhich,aswehaveseen,wasdestroyedbyTitus.TherewasaChristianprophecythatitwouldneverberestored,andJulianthoughtofrebuildingittoprovetheprophecyfalse.Astoryistoldthatassoonasthemenbegantheworkballsoffireburstfromthegroundclosebythemandtheyhadtostop.Theytriedagainandagainandthesamethinghappened,andatlasttheyhadtogiveuptheworkaltogether.

NotlongafterhebecameemperorJuliansetoutwithalargearmytoconquerPersia.ForawhilehewasverysuccessfulanddefeatedthePersiankinginmanybattles.Butonedayhewasshotinthebreastbyanarrowandhediedsoonafter.Itissaidthatwhilehelaywoundedhecastahandfulofhisownbloodtowardheaven,cryingout,“Thouhastconquered,OGalilean.”ByGalileanhemeantChrist,whoissometimescalledtheGalileanbecauseHewasbroughtupinGalilee.

NotlongafterthereignofJulian,therewasanemperornamedVal-en-tin’i-an.HemadehisbrotherVa’lensemperoroftheeasternpartoftheEmpirewhilehehimselfruledoverthewesternpart.AndformanyyearsafterwardstheEmpirewasruledinthiswaybytwoemperors,onecalledtheEmperoroftheEast,andtheothertheEmperoroftheWest.

OnthedeathofValentinianhissonGra’ti-anbecameEmperoroftheWest,andatalentedsoldiernamedThe-odo’si-usbecameEmperoroftheEastonthedeathofValens.Gratianwasweakandunfittorule,andhewaskilledbyaSpaniardnamedMax’i-mus,whomadehimselfEmperoroftheWest.

TheodosiusfoughtMaximusanddefeatedhim,andafterwardshadhimputtodeath.ThenhemadeasonofValentinianEmperoroftheWest,asValentinianII,andgavehimashisadviserachiefnamedAr-bo-gas’tes.ButArbogasteswassoontherealmasteroftheWesternEmpire.OnedayValentinianwasfounddeadinhisbed,andArbogastesthenmadeEu-ge’ni-us,ateacher,theemperor.Theodosius,whowellknewthatValentinianIIhadbeenmurdered,madewaronEugeniusandArbogastesanddefeatedthem,anduntilhisdeath,afewmonthsafterwards(in395),TheodosiuswasemperorofbothEastandWest.

Theodosiushadbeenawiseruler,buthedidoneverybadthing.ThepeopleofThes-sa-lo-ni’ca,acityofMacedonia,acountrynorthofGreece,hadkilledtheirgovernorbecausehehadputoneoftheirfavoritecircusridersinprison.WhenTheodosiusheardofthishewasveryangry,andhegaveordersthattheyshouldbeinvitedtoashowinthecircusandthereputtodeath.Thiscruelorderwascarriedout.ThecitizensofThessalonicawereinvitedtocomeonedaytothecircustoseeagrandshow.Thousandscame,andassoonastheyhadtakentheirseatsatroopofsoldiersunderthecommandofoneofthegeneralsofTheodosiusenteredthebuildingandmassacredthemallwithoutmercy.Oversixthousandmen,women,andchildrenwerekilled.

AtthistimeTheodosiusresidedinMilan,acityofnorthItaly.AtthesametimetherelivedinMilanabishopnamedAm’brose,whowasagoodandholyman.WhenAmbrosewastoldofthemassacreatThessalonicahewasgreatlyshocked.Heseverelyreprimandedtheemperorandwouldnotpermithimtoenterthedoorofthechurchuntilhehaddonepenanceforthesinhehadcommittedinsocruellyputtingtodeathmanyinnocentpersons.

ThesuccessorofTheodosiusasEmperoroftheWestwashissonHon-o’ri-us,whoreignedfortwenty-nineyears;buttheactualrulerduringallthattimewasasoldiernamedStil’i-cho,whowastheemperor’sguardian.Honoriuswasasimpletonandhadnodesireorabilitytoattendtotheaffairsofthegovernment.

TheGothsandVandalsandotherbarbaroustribesfromthenorthandeastofEuropenowbegantooverruntheWesternEmpireandtothreatenRomeitself.Twicethegreatcitywasactuallycapturedandplundered;thefirsttimebytheGothsunderAl’ar-ic,andnextbytheVandalsunderaboldwarriornamedGen’ser-ic.AboutthosebarbarianchiefsandtheirexploitsyouwillperhapsreadinFAMOUSMENOFTHEMIDDLEAGES,acompanionvolumetothisbook.

TodefendtheseatoftheirEmpireagainsttheattacksofitsenemiestheRomanswereobligedtowithdrawtheirforcesfromseveraloftheoutlying

provinces,includingBritain,whichwasnowlefttoitsnativeinhabitants.FormorethanfiftyyearsafterwardsanumberofmenwithoutmuchabilitytookpartinrulingwhatwasleftoftheoncemightyEmpire.Oneofthesewascalledbythehigh-soundingnameofRomulusAugustulus.HewasthesonofO-res’tes,thegeneralofthearmyofItalyandhadbeenmadeemperorbyhisfather.HewasthelastoftheWesternemperors.

AmongtheItaliansoldierstherewasahuge,half-savagemannamedO-do-a’cer,whobelongedtoawildnortherntribe.Hewasafavoriteofthearmybecauseofhiscourageandstrength.HeresolvedtobetherulerofItaly,sowiththearmyathisbackheputOrestestodeath,tookRomulusAugustulusprisoner,andforcedhimtogiveupthetitleofemperor.ThenOdoacerbecamekingofItalyintheyear476A.D.

BythistimetheworldhadnearlyenteredthatperiodwhichisknownastheMiddleAges,andmanyoftheothercountrieswhichhadbeenpartsoftheRomanEmpirewereeitherrulingthemselvesordefendingthemselvesagainstnewinvaders.GaulwasinvadedandconqueredbyGermantribescalledFranks,fromwhomthecountrysubsequentlygotthenameofFrance.Britain,abandonedbytheRomans,wassoonafterconqueredbyotherGermantribes.AndsoatlastthegreatRomanEmpirehadcrumbledtopieces,andRome,solongtheMistressoftheWorld,asshewascalled,hadfallenfromherproudpositionofgrandeurandpowerintothatofasecondorthirdratecity.

ButtheEmpireoftheEastcontinuedtoexistforcenturiesafterwards,withConstantinopleasitscapital.ItincludedmanyofthecountriesofAsia,Africa,andeasternEuropewhichhadformerlybelongedtotheundividedEmpire.IncourseoftimethepoweroftheGreeks,aidedbytheinfluenceoftheGreekdivisionoftheChurch,becamesupremeatConstantinople,andsotheEmpirewasalsocalledtheGreekEmpire,andsometimestheByzantineEmpire,fromtheancientnameofthecapital.

InthefourteenthcenturytheTurks,orMohammedans,thenverypowerfulinsouthwesternAsia,begantomakeinroadsontheEmpire.Theyconqueredandtookpossessionofseveralofitsprovinces,andin1453theycapturedConstantinople,whichhassincebeenthecapitaloftheTurkish,orOttomanEmpire,therulerofwhichisknownasthesultan.

THEEND