Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal Dry Forests Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects

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Economic Botany ISSN 0013-0001 Econ BotDOI 10.1007/s12231-012-9187-2

Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal DryForests: Ethnobotanical and NutritionalAspects

Viviany Teixeira do Nascimento, MariaAngélica da Silva Vasconcelos, MariaInês Sucupira Maciel & Ulysses PaulinoAlbuquerque

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Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanicaland Nutritional Aspects1

VIVIANY TEIXEIRA DO NASCIMENTO2, MARIA ANGÉLICA DA SILVA VASCONCELOS

3,MARIA INÊS SUCUPIRA MACIEL

4, AND ULYSSES PAULINO ALBUQUERQUE*,2

2Laboratório de Etnobotânica Aplicada, Depto. Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco(UFRPE) Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil

3Laboratório de Análise e Experimentação de Alimentos, Depto. Nutrição, Universidade Federal dePernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil

4Laboratório de Analises Físico-Química de Alimentos, Depto. Ciências Domésticas, UniversidadeFederal Rural de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil*Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects.Famine foods are used by people in times of food scarcity. Although the northeast of Brazilregularly faces periods of drought that cause a shortage of traditional foods, the use offamine foods is insufficiently recorded. The purpose of this study was to record theknowledge of famine food in two rural Caatinga communities, Carão and Cachoeira, in thestates of Pernambuco and Paraiba, respectively, and to determine the chemical compositionof the major famine foods utilized. The ethnobotanical aspect was divided into two stages:free lists and semistructured interviews. Based on the interviews, the main famine foodsknown by communities were selected for nutritional analysis. The study revealed that certainfoods are used by communities only in times of shortages. Carão showed a higher speciesrichness than Cachoeira, but the food knowledge was more widespread among theinterviewees in Cachoeira. In Carão, the main species mentioned were Dioclea grandifloraand Manihot dichotoma, whereas in Cachoeira, Encholirium spectabile and Pilosocereusgounellei were the major species indicated. The species examined had a high carbohydratecontent, especially D. grandiflora, Manihot glaziovii, and M. dichotoma, and could be usedfor complementary feeding of the population if adverse effects could be minimized.Mandevilla tenuiflora is indicated for future studies of potential agro-industrial applicationsand the beneficial aspects of its root, which could represent an alternative source of incomefor the population.

Aspectos etnobotânicos e nutricionais de alimentos emergenciais usados em florestasestacionais secas do Nordeste do Brasil. Os alimentos emergenciais são aqueles que aspessoas consomem apenas em tempos de escassez de alimentos. Muito embora a populaçãoda região Nordeste do Brasil enfrente períodos de seca que provoca a falta dos alimentosoriundos da agricultura, o uso dos alimentos emergenciais é pouco registrado. O objetivodeste estudo foi registrar o conhecimento sobre alimentos emergenciais em duascomunidades rurais da Caatinga e determinar a composição química dos principais alimentosconhecidos. O estudo foi conduzido no município de Altinho, estado de Pernambuco e nomunicípio de Soledade, estado da Paraíba. O trabalho etnobotânico foi dividido em duasetapas: lista livre e entrevistas semi-estruturadas. Com base nas entrevistas, selecionaram-separa a análise nutricional os principais alimentos conhecidos pelas comunidades. O estudorevelou que as comunidades conhecem espécies alimentícias consumidas apenas em períodosde escassez alimentar. Carão tem maior conhecimento que Cachoeira, no entanto, emCachoeira o conhecimento é mais disseminado entre os informantes. Em Carão as principais

1 Received 11 January 2011; accepted 30 January2012; published online ___________.

Economic Botany, XX(X), 2012, pp. 1–13© 2012, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

Author's personal copy

espécies conhecidas foram Dioclea grandiflora e Manihot dichotoma, em Cachoeira foramEncholirium spectabile e Pilosocereus gounellei. As espécies analisadas têm alto teor decarboidratos, especialmente D. grandiflora, Manihot glaziovii e M. dichotoma que podemser utilizadas na complementação da dieta da população se minimizados os seus efeitoscolaterais. Por suas características Mandevilla tenuiflora é indicada para estudos futuros deseu potencial agroindutrial e beneficiamento de suas raízes, que podem representar umafonte alternativa de renda para a população.

Key Words: Caatinga, food plants, emergency food, nutritional composition, nutritionalpotential, semi-arid, famine food.

IntroductionThe northeast of Brazil (specifically the area

covered by the Caatinga semi-arid vegetation) ismarked by a short rainy season, which lasts a fewmonths, and a long dry season that often causessignificant damage to the harvest, mass unem-ployment in the region, and major economiclosses (Araújo et al. 2007). In addition to theseeconomic hardships, drought causes a decreasedfood supply for the population, with the risk ofstarvation from long droughts due to the destruc-tion of crops intended to meet families’ needs.Colson (1979) suggests that subsistence farmersdevelop strategies for coping with these shortagesover time, including 1) diversification of activitiesrather than specialization or dependence on a fewnatural resources, 2) food storage, 3) the conver-sion of surplus food into goods, 4) the develop-ment of social networks that facilitate the use ofnatural resources in other regions, and 5) themaintenance and transmission of knowledgeabout foods that are useful in times of famine.Foods consumed in times of food scarcity areknown as famine foods. Guinand and Lemessa(2001:31) defined famine foods as “plants nor-mally not consumed due to presenting some ofthe following: their limited seasonal availability,local taboos, offensive nature of plants such asabundance of thorns and tiny spines (mostly noton the edible part of the plant), certain unpleas-ant characteristics and side effects such as badtaste, complicated and prolonged preparation,and association with stomach complaints, consti-pation, diarrhea, and even intoxication.”Although these features describe typical famine

foods, in practice other types of food are used bypeople in emergencies. These foods include thefollowing: 1) wild food plants with emergencyfeatures, such as plants that have some organs thatare consumed year-round (fruits, for instance) butother organs that are consumed only in times offood shortages yet do not necessarily have the typical

characteristics of a famine food; 2) food plants thatattract additional categories of consumers duringdrought periods, such as foods that are normallyconsumed by one social group (children, forinstance) and that, in times of scarcity, areconsumed by additional social groups (such asadults); and 3) plants grown with emergencycomponents, that is, organs that are consumed onlyin times of great need because their consumptioncan compromise the survival of the main crop.Famine food has been an extremely important

survival strategy for maintaining the food securityof populations living in regions that face recurrentdrought. Thus, a growing body of scientificresearch examines famine foods, especially inAfrica, where approaches range from analysis ofthe diversity of plants to the nutritional value ofspecies. In contrast, research on famine food inBrazil is still in its incipient stages. This isespecially true in the Caatinga region, a large,semi-arid land area in northeastern Brazil. Thefew studies on famine food in this region areoutdated reports written in the past century thatexamined the role of certain foods in the fightagainst the hunger ravaging the population(Castro 1967; Castro et al. 1947; Cunha 1902).Given this information gap and the recent interestin famine foods in Brazil, the aim of this studywas to gather knowledge about the food plantsused in times of food scarcity in two ruralcommunities in the Caatinga region and toidentify the nutritional potential of these species.

Materials and MethodsDESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREAS

AND COMMUNITIES

The research was conducted in Carão andCachoeira, which are two rural communities innortheastern Brazil. Carão is located in the city ofAltinho (08°29′23″ S and 36°03′34″ W; in thestate of Pernambuco), and Cachoeira is located inthe city of Soledad (7°03′26″ S 36°21′46″ W; in

ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL XX


the state of Paraíba). According to the Köppenclassification, both locations are hot, semiaridclimates (Peel et al. 2007) marked by seasonalrainfall. The locations have a short winter seasonbetween February and April, which encompassesthe majority of the rainy season, and a long dryseason from May to January. Among these areas,Carão has the greatest rainfall, reaching an averageof 826 mm between 2007 and 2009 (FIDEM2010). For the same period, Cachoeira reachedapproximately half of this precipitation value(AESA-PB 2012).

The communities are located in the DroughtPolygon, a term used to designate the territoryrecognized by the Brazilian government as subjectto critical periods of prolonged drought anddominated by Caatinga vegetation (CODEVASF2010). However, the higher levels of precipitationoccurring in Carão favor the development ofhypoxerophytic Caatinga.

The locations are physically and economicallysimilar. Both are composed of small brick houses (61in Carão and 18 in Cachoeira) far from the center oftheir municipalities (approximately 15 km), withaccess via dirt roads. Subsistence farming is the maineconomic sector. In both locations, economic pro-ductivity significantly drops during the droughtperiod, when people survive primarily on pensionsand government subsidies. Both locations haveelectricity, but the water supply is precariouslyobtained through tanks that collect rainwater or bycarrying water from the closest natural reservoir incarts pulled by livestock. The communities make useof the native vegetation for various purposes, such asfirewood (Sá e Silva et al. 2009), timber, fodder,medicine (Alencar et al. 2010; Almeida et al. 2010;Araújo et al. 2008), and food for human consump-tion (Lins Neto et al. 2010; Nascimento et al. 2011).

ETHNOBOTANICAL AND BOTANICAL DATA

COLLECTION

Our work in these communities began in July2006. All of the heads of household, includingmen and women, who agreed to participate in thesurvey were asked to sign the informed consentform in accordance with the requirements ofResolution 196/96 of the National Ethics Coun-cil, which manages the information collection andpublication of data involving humans (Ministérioda Saúde 2002).

For each locality, a broad ethnobotanicalsurvey of all of the useful plants in the region

was initially carried out. This work was done incollaboration with researchers from the Ethno-botany Laboratory (Universidade Federal Ruralde Pernambuco, Brazil), who obtained differentinformation about the useful plants of eachlocation by different approaches. In this step, weused the free-list technique (Albuquerque et al.2010), in which the following information wasacquired: 1) the local plants that the individualsknew to use; and 2) the uses of these plants.

From the general survey, people who men-tioned more than three food plants were selected(44 from Carão and 24 from Cachoeira) forsemistructured interviews (Albuquerque et al.2010) that focused on plants eaten only in timesof food scarcity. The following information wascollected: the name of the plant; the partconsumed; the manner of preparation; the diffi-culties of preparation; the taste of the food; theside effects from consumption; and, if they wereno longer utilized, the reasons why the specieswere no longer in use. The numbers of respond-ents who met the inclusion criteria were equiva-lent to 89.8% and 82.8% in Carão andCachoeira, respectively.

The species cited during the interviews werecollected for botanical identification according tothe usual techniques recommended by Mori et al.(1989). All of the material was identified throughcomparisons with specimens previously depositedin the Geraldo Mariz herbarium (UFP) in theDepartment of Botany at the Federal Universityof Pernambuco, Brazil.

DATA ANALYSIS

Initially, the plants cited in the survey wereclassified as native (all species of South Americanorigin were included in this category) or exotic(species of extra-continental origin) (Alencar et al.2010; Almeida et al. 2010). To analyze thefloristic similarity among the species known bythe local communities, the Jaccard coefficient wasused as follows: JI=a / (a+b+c), where a is thenumber of common species between the com-munities, b is the number of species used only forone community, and c is the number of speciesused only by the other community (Araújo andFerraz 2010; Höft et al. 1999). The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to verify the existence ofsignificant differences among the number ofknown species to men and women within thesame community and between the two locations.

NASCIMENTO ET AL.: FAMINE FOODS IN THE CAATINGA2012]


Analyses were performed with BioEstat 5.0,considering P<0.05 as statistically significant(Ayres et al. 2007). The citation frequency ofeach species was calculated using the ratiobetween the number of informants who men-tioned a given species and the total number ofinformants. The results were expressed as per-centages. Spearman’s correlation coefficient(Conover 1971; Sokal and Rohlf 1995) wasused to analyze the relationship between thenumber of species mentioned and differentsocioeconomic factors, such as age, duration ofresidence in the locality, household income, andgender.

SPECIES SELECTION

The main species that were mentioned (bymore than two informants) in the ethnobotanicalsurveys and that were also available in thecommunities during the period from Februaryto June of 2009 were selected for analysis. Sevenspecies fit these criteria, five in Carão and two inCachoeira (Fig. 1).

SAMPLES

Three different lots (300 g) of the plants werecollected. The samples were picked from adultplants and then carefully selected (discardingspoiled samples). After selection, samples werecrushed in a household food processor andhomogenized. The plants were packaged andstored in plastic containers at -18°C untilprocessed. All species selected for analysis werenative to the Caatinga region.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

The moisture (method 935.29), ash (930.22-32.3.08), protein (N×6.25) (991.20-33.2.11),and total lipid (963.15-31.4.02) contents weredetermined according to the AOAC (2006). Thetotal carbohydrate content was determined by thedifference between 100 and the sum of themoisture, protein, total lipids, and ash content,as percentages. The energy value was calculatedfrom the protein, total lipid, and total carbohy-drate (including fiber) contents using an Atwatersystem (Merrill and Watt 1973). Each determi-nation was performed in triplicate.The acidity/alkalinity (pH), titratable acidity

(TA), and soluble solid (ºBrix) were determinedusing accepted procedures (AOAC 2006).

Carotenoids were extracted according to apreviously described method (Rodriguez-Amaya1999). The carotenoid quantification was per-formed using the mathematical expression describedby Gross (1987) with an absorption coefficient of2500, and the spectrophotometric readings wereperformed at a wavelength of 450 nm. Theextraction of flavonols was conducted using themethod of Lees and Francis (1972), and theconcentration was measured using a wavelengthof 476 nm.

ResultsLOCAL KNOWLEDGE OF FAMINE FOODS

A total of 17 species were known as faminefoods by the communities, with 13 species knownin the community of Carão and 5 in thecommunity of Cachoeira. Only Manihot dicho-toma was familiar to the residents of bothlocations. The Jaccard index showed only a4.76% similarity between the species known asfamine foods in the communities. Wild speciesconstituted the majority of species in each locality(Fig. 2). Due to a lack of fertile botanical materialduring the study period, it was not possible toidentify the origin of three species cited in Carão(Table 1).In Carão, the most frequently mentioned

species during the interviews were M. dicho-toma and Dioclea grandiflora, which were eachcited by 13.6% of the respondents, followed byManihot glaziovii (11.4%). In Soledad, Encholi-rium spectabile and Pilosocereus gounellei werereported with a frequency of 91.7% and 87.5%,respectively (Table 1). The species that wereused in Carão belonged to ten families and sevengenera. The most prominent family was Euphor-biaceae, the most prominent genus was Manihot,and both taxa were represented by two species.The species that were used in Cachoeira belongedto three families and four genera, emphasizing theCactaceae family, with three species, and thePilosocereus genus, with two species.In Carão, we obtained 33 species citations,

with an average of 1.8±0.86 citations perinformant. In Cachoeira, 47 citations wereobtained, with an average of 2.33±0.96 citationsper informant. There were no significant differ-ences between the number of citations betweenthe communities (H=3.57 and p=0.06).A comparison of the data obtained from each

community showed that, in Cachoeira, women



cited 2.33±0.89 species per informant, and inCarão, women cited 1.99±0.74 species perinformant, on average. These differences werenot significant (H=1.35 and p=0.25). Similarly,men in Cachoeira cited 2.33±1.12 species perinformant, and men in Carão cited 1.75±1.04

species per informant; again, no significant differ-ences were found (H=1.24 and p=0.27). Inaddition, there were no significant differences inthe citations between the men and women fromCarão (H=0.52 and p=0.47) or the men andwomen of Cachoeira (H=0.01 and p=0.94).

Fig. 1. The species selected for analysis: (a, b, and c) the fruit with seeds, broken seeds, and flour productionfrom Dioclea grandiflora; (d, e, and f) the plant, starch, and tapioca of Manihot glaziovii; (g) the inflorescence ofEncholirium spectabile; (h) the buttons of Manihot dichotoma; (i) a Pilosocereus gounellei plant; (j) a flower ofMandevilla tenuifolia; and (k) a tuber of Dioscorea coronata. (Photos by: A. T. N. Florentino; L. L. Santos; H. C.H. Silva; J. E. Nascimento, Jr.; and V.T. Nascimento).



THE PARTS CONSUMED, PREPARATION

METHODS, AND CURRENT COLLECTION

OF FAMINE FOODS

Underground organs (roots and tubers) werethe plant parts most often cited as famine foods inCarão, accounting for 71.4% of the citations,followed by seeds, with 21.2% of the citations. InCachoeira, cladodes received the largest numberof citations (60%) (Table 1).In both locales, the consumption of a species as

flour was cited most frequently (63.6% in Carão and93.6% in Cachoeira). Seven species were used forflour in Carão, and three species in Cachoeira. Atboth locations, flour (Fig. 1c and e) was used as abasis for making cakes, couscous (a dish made offlour, maize, cassava, or rice, which is cooked insteam and can be prepared sweet or savory),tapiocas (Fig. 1f), and beijus (dishes prepared withflour made from different species of the Manihotgenus and prepared on a hot plate). However, therewas no current usage of famine foods in either ofthe communities, which, in the opinion of 97.4%of all of the respondents, was the result of theimproved financial conditions of the communities.These have resulted from government pensions andsubsidies, which have allowed a greater acquisitionof food goods in local shops, causing the abandon-ment of famine food-collecting practices. In addi-tion to famine food use, 21.4% of the species fromCarão and 60% of the species from Cachoeira hadother edible organs that were used year-round.

THE SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING

THE KNOWLEDGE OF FAMINE FOODS

In Carão, there was a (weak) correlationbetween the time of residence of the informantat the location and the number of citations of food

plants for famine use (r=0.3207 and p=0.0495). InCarão, those who lived there for more than 50 yearscited more plants. In contrast, there was a correla-tion between the age of those interviewed and thenumber of citations (r=0.5014 and p=0.0125) inCachoeira, with people over 60 years of ageknowing the greatest number of species.

ETHNOBOTANICAL AND NUTRITIONAL

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MAJOR FAMINE

FOODS KNOWN BY THE COMMUNITIES

Dioclea grandiflora

D. grandiflora belongs to the Fabaceae family,and the seeds from this species are used duringperiods of extreme food shortages for the produc-tion of flour to prepare couscous. For thepreparation of the flour, the seeds are broken withthe help of a stone or a hammer and then crushed(Fig. 1b and c). According to the residents ofCarão, the use of this species as food can causeintestinal problems, or even death, due to seedtoxicity. To attenuate and even eliminate sucheffects, it is necessary to wash the flour several timesbefore using it for food preparation. The seeds ofD. grandiflora possess a high quantity of carbohy-drates and proteins (Table 2), resulting in a highcaloric value per 100 grams of consumed food.

Dioscorea coronata

The edible part of D. coronata is the tuber. Anunpleasant taste is a characteristic of this species.According to the residents of Carão, the part ofDioscoreaceae that can be eaten is washed andcooked, which often eliminates the bad taste. Sideeffects associated with its consumption were not

Fig. 2. The origin of species known as famine foods by the rural communities of Carão (Pernambuco) andCachoeira (Paraiba) in northeastern Brazil.



mentioned. The species has a low amount ofcarbohydrates, lipid, and protein per 100 g of theraw food (Table 2).

Encholirium spectabile

Individuals of E. spectabile are pulled out of thesoil to access the leaf base, which is the edible part

of this Bromeliaceae. Pulling the plant out of theground can cause small cuts on the hands becausethe leaves have thorns. The leaves are removed,grated, exposed to the sun to dry and then sievedto produce flour used for preparing couscous. Thetaste of the couscous is bitter in the opinion ofthe majority (56.5%) of those interviewed inCachoeira. Side effects were not mentioned

TABLE 1. FAMINE FOODS KNOWN BY THE RURAL COMMUNITIES OF CARÃO (PERNAMBUCO) AND CACHOEIRA(PARAIBA) IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL.

Scientific Name Popular Name OriginOrganused Preparation

Frequency(%)

Carão Cachoeira

AnacardiaceaeSpondias tuberosa Arruda Umbu W R raw/sweet 4.55 –ApocynaceaeMandevilla tenuifolia(J.C. Mikan) Woodson

Manofê W T freshe 6.82 –

BromeliaceaeBromelia laciniosa Mart.ex Schult. f.

Macambiraroxa

W L freshe 2.27 –

Encholirium spectabile Mart.ex Schult. f.

Macambira W L flour–couscous – 91.67

CactaceaeCactaceae sp1. Ubeba W R flour 2.27 –Opuntia ficus-indica(L.) Mill.

Palma C Cl baked – 8.33

Pilosocereus gounellei(F.A.C. Weber) Byles & G.D.Rowley

Xique-xique W Cl roasted/baked/flour/couscousd

– 87.5

Pilosocereus pachycladus F. Ritter Facheiro W Cl beiju – 4.17CucurbitaceaeWilbrandia sp. Cabeça de nego W Ua flour 2.27 –DioscoreaceaeDioscorea coronata Hauman Cará do mato W T baked 6.82 –EuphorbiaceaeManihot dichotoma Ule Maniçoba C R flour/beijuc 13.64 4.17Manihot glaziovii Müll. Arg. Purnunça C R flour/beiju 11.36 –FabaceaeDioclea grandifloraMart. ex Benth.

Mucunã W S flour/couscousb/

bread13.64 –

SolanaceaeIpomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Batata doce C L baked 2.27 –VitaceaeCissus simsiana Roem.& Schult

Parreira V Ua flour 2.27 –

UnidentifiedN.I. 1 Fava cabocuçu C S baked 2.27 –N.I. 2 Maniçoba do

matoW Ua flour 2.27 –

Conventions: Cl, cladode; L, leaves; R, root; S, seed; T, tubercle; U, underground organ; C, crop; and W, Wild.aThe organ could not be identified due to a lack of knowledge of the species; bUsed only in Carão; cBeijú and tapiocaare typical foods of Brazil and are made with different types of Manihot spp. flour and prepared on a hot plate; dCouscousis a dish made from flour (maize, cassava, and rice), where it is cooked by steaming and can be prepared either sweet orsavory; eConsumed without any preparation.



regarding the consumption of the couscous.Analysis of the triturated leaves revealed that E.spectabile has low levels of lipids and proteins, buta significant carbohydrate content. The specieshas a slightly acidic pH, which was the secondhighest acidity percentage of the species analyzed(Table 2).

Mandevilla tenuifolia

M. tenuifolia belongs to the Apocynaceae familyand has tuberous roots. Carão residents use theroots of this species for food, which are eaten freshafter removing the skin. Problems associated withtaste and side effects were not mentioned. Thespecies does not have attributes that characterize itas a famine food. However, in Carão, this specieswas consumed in the past as an alternative food tosatisfy hunger. The roots of M. tenuifolia containlow total caloric values, high water content, and asmall quantity of bioactive compounds (Table 2).

Manihot dichotoma and Manihot glaziovii

These species belong to the family Euphorbia-ceae. Flour and starch are prepared from theroots, which can be used to prepare tapioca,cakes, and beijus. To avoid causing healthproblems, however, the roots need to be washedseveral times (still uncooked) before consumptionto reduce their toxic effects, as they can otherwisecause dizziness and even death. The carbohydratecontent is the main benefit of this food, especiallyfor M. dichotoma, although M. glaziovii hadhigher levels of soluble solids and a better ratioof soluble solids to acidity (Table 2).

Pilosocereus gounellei

The key element that characterizes this Cacta-ceae as a famine food is the difficulty of itspreparation because the species has many thorns.Flour for preparing couscous can be producedfrom the cladode, and it can be consumed boiledor roasted. The taste of this food was consideredpleasant by 23.8% of those interviewed inCachoeira; the other 76.2% of those interviewednever consumed the species. Side effects were notmentioned. P. gounellei possessed the lowestnumber of total calories (approximately 27calories per 100 grams), and a small amount offlavonoids was found in the sample analyzed(Table 2).T

ABLE2.

THECENTESIMALCOMPO

SITIO

N,PH

YSICOCHEMIC

ALPA

RAMETERS,

FLAVONOID

AND

CAROTENOID

CONTENTOFTHEEDIBLE

PARTSOFTHEPL

ANTSUSE

DAS

FAMIN

EFO

ODS,

ASSE

LECTED

FROM

THEETHNOBOTANIC

ALIN

VENTORYOFRURALCOMMUNITIESOFTHE

CAATIN

GAIN

NORTHEAST

ERN

BRAZIL.

D.grandiflora

aD.coronataa

E.spectabileb

M.tenuifolia

aM.dichotom

aaM.glazioviia

P.gounelleib

Hum

idity

(g/100

g)9.3

81.3

68.9

8573

.679

.692

.5Ash

(g/100

g)2.5

0.7

0.9

0.5

0.8

0.8

1.1

Protein(g/100

g)30

.90.9

0.7

0.7

0.1

1.01

0.4

Lipids

(g/100

g)2.9

0.3

0.8

1.1

0.4

0.2

0.3

Carbohydrates

(g/100

g)54

.316

.828

.712

.724

.218

.35.7

TCV

(kcal/1

00g)

367.3

73.6

124.6

63.2

104.2

79.5

27.5

pH6.06

±0.04

–5.10

±0.07

5.30

±0.04

5.57

±0.06

5.96

±0.20

5.07

±0.29

SS(%

)–

––

5.0±0.00

4.53

±1.15

6.33

±1.03

3.20

±0.93

Acidity

(%citricacid)

3.14

±1.54

–0.68

±0.02

0.19

±0.00

0.14

±0.08

0.13

±0.03

0.10

±0.01

SS(%

)/acidity

––

–26

.79±0.00

38.11±12

.50

51.08±17

.77

31.58±8.65

Flavonoids

(mgquercertin/100

g)(X

±SD

)6.76

±0.88

––

1.71

±0.24

––

3.13

±0.70

Carotenoids

(β-caroteneμg/g)(X

±SD

)–

––

––

––

aSamplecollected

inCarão,amun

icipality

ofAltinh

o,Pernam

buco.

bSamplecollected

inCachoeira,amun

icipality

ofSoledad,

Paraíba.



DiscussionTHE LOCAL KNOWLEDGE OF FAMINE FOODS

The survey revealed that knowledge aboutemergency food is restricted to a small portionof the population. Nevertheless, according toRahamani (1978), the existence of knowledgeabout plants used as famine foods in a populationsuggests that the population has experiencedproblems with food acquisition, even if thepopulation does not show clear signs of difficulty.In Carão and Cachoeira, the richness of speciesknown by the residents was low. It is possible thatpsychological factors are related to the lownumber of species known for emergency use inthose communities. For example, Guinand andLemessa (2001) state that it is common for plantsthat are consumed only when all other foodresources become scarce, and when the foodshortage is extreme, to be considered low-ranking,and for their consumption to be consideredshameful. This situation may have limited theinformation passed on by those interviewed.

The species richness cited in Carão was higherthan that in Cachoeira, but in Cachoeira suchknowledge was more cohesive, especially for E.spectabile and P. gounellei, species cited by nearlyall of the residents. The prevalent knowledge ofthese species may be a result of their importancein the past to combat hunger in the region. InCarão, knowledge of more than half of the speciescited was limited to a single individual in thepopulation, which may reflect the disappearanceof this knowledge. This finding may also suggestthat this community depends less on famine foodthan Cachoeira.

Interestingly, Ipomoea batatas, a species of theSolanaceae family whose roots are a globallysignificant crop, was cited as a food for emergencyuse. The leaf of this plant is the organ cited foremergency use. Guinand and Lemessa (2001)suggest that some crops may have emergencycomponents that are not normally consumed inorder to prevent harm to the main crop. Accordingto these authors’ classification, Spondias tuberosa isa wild plant whose fruits are eaten in abundance,but it has another organ that is consumed only intimes of scarcity—the xylopodium.

We found a low similarity between thelocalities in the species composition of plantscited as famine foods. This may be attributed tothe local differences in vegetation cover, as Carãois located in an area of the Caatinga region that is

subjected to greater annual rainfall, favoring thedevelopment of herbs, such as D. coronata, M.tenuifolia, and D. grandiflora, which are notpresent in the vegetation of Cachoeira. However,it is not possible to make precise comparisonsbetween the floristic compositions of these areasdue to the lack of published data.

In the two communities, the knowledge ofmen and women on the famine use of plants wassimilar. This situation is contrary to what wasfound by Lozada et al. (2006) and Eyssartier et al.(2008), where women had a greater knowledge offood species. However, Guinand and Lemessa(2001) reported that, in times of food scarcity,both genders collect famine foods. Other possibleexplanations include 1) the communities havegone through long and/or intense periods ofdependence on this type of food, 2) there is noclear division of tasks in the communitiesaccording to gender, 3) both communities havea strong oral history through which knowledge isuniformly passed to men and to women, and 4) alimited number of species are available foremergency use.

THE PARTS CONSUMED, PREPARATIONMETHODS,AND ACTUAL COLLECTION OF THE FAMINE FOODS

In Carão and Cachoeira, the large number ofunderground plant components that can be usedas famine foods is striking. According to Guinandand Lemessa (2001), roots are typically used asfood in times of shortage because they toleratedrought and can remain intact in the ground for along time, being collected only when needed.However, Irvine (1952) stated that the leaves andfruits of woody perennial trees and wild grassseeds are also consumed. In addition to beingavailable for a longer period of time, roots andtubers are energy foods that are traditionallyprocessed into flour by the communities. Preser-vation as flour is an excellent strategy for thestorage of resources, especially in times ofdrought. According to Vicenzi (2010), the freewater in some foods allows for the developmentof microorganisms that can cause its deteriora-tion. Foods processed into flour have little freewater, which preserves the product for a longerperiod of time.

At present, famine foods are not used in thecommunities studied. It is believed that this isrelated to the current financial improvement ofthe local populations. In recent years, these



communities have used financial assistance fromthe government as a primary strategy for manag-ing famine. In addition, the retirement of ruralworkers older than 55 has contributed to improvingthe quality of life. Because of this social safety net,the use of emergency food in the communitiesstudied has become increasingly rare, contributingto the apparent erosion of this knowledge. Theseobservations corroborate those made by Minnis(2000), who found that the use of financialresources from international agencies, coupled withgovernment subsidies, has minimized the use ofwild resources by local populations, especiallyfamine foods.The disappearance of this knowledge at a time

when governmental aid is contributing to thefight against hunger may seem insignificant.However, Begossi (1998) notes that the loss ofthe knowledge of local populations may contributeto the reduction of cultural variability and rendersthese communities less capable of responding tosituations of change, thus affecting the resilience ofthe local system.

THE SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE

THE KNOWLEDGE OF FAMINE FOODS

In Carão, the knowledge of famine foods islower among people who have lived there for ashorter time, especially among those who camefrom non-neighboring communities. Therefore,these people have not witnessed the effects ofdrought in the area and are unaware of thestrategies used to survive a drought. In Cachoeira,knowledge is influenced by the age of theinformant, which suggests that older people havewitnessed times of drought in this location. Despitethe fact that the consumption of wild food isnormally associated with poverty in the literature(Balemie and Kebebew 2006; Grosskinsky andGullick 2001; Guinand and Lemessa 2001), acorrelation between income andwild-food knowledgewas not observed.

THE POTENTIAL OF FAMINE FOOD TO FIGHT

HUNGER IN THE CAATINGA REGION

This study revealed that the carbohydratecontent was the main nutritional component ofall of the famine foods analyzed, especially D.grandiflora, which also had considerable proteincontent. The carbohydrate content in this faminefood is extremely relevant because this species canbe an excellent resource for dealing with hunger

in the Caatinga region. However, the harmfuleffect of the seeds is a limiting factor. The firsttrials that reported the toxic effects of species ofthe genus Dioclea were described by Chaves et al.(1948), who reported the death of rats andpigeons after the consumption of D. grandiflora.Hence, it is necessary to eliminate the toxic effectsof the seeds (i.e., by washing) for the species to besafely introduced into the diet of the population.D. coronata contains carbohydrates that may be

useful in times of food shortage, mainly as asubstitute for D. alata, which is a species of thesame genus that is traditionally used in food andis commercially available. However, even if sideeffects related to the consumption of the specieswere not mentioned by those interviewed inCarão, it would be necessary to perform studieson its toxicity, given that it is a wild species andsome species of the genus Dioscorea can be toxic.The consumption of E. spectabile is an excellent

strategy to combat hunger in the Caatinga region.In addition to having no apparent side effects(based on the information obtained in theCachoeira community), the species has consider-able caloric value. The caloric value of E.spectabile was similar to the value of grains thatare traditionally consumed and purchased fromcommercial sources, such as rice (Oryza sativa L.),which has approximately 130 calories per 100grams after cooking (TACO 2006).Although M. tenuifolia does not have a high

caloric value, it is believed that the balancebetween the sweetness and acidity of its roots,expressed by its Brix/acid ratio, makes it asignificant resource in times of famine, especiallywhen the tubers are used as pickles or in saladsand juices. However, the species belongs to thefamily Apocynaceae, which is known for itstoxicity; thus, it is recommended that a carefulanalysis of its toxicity be undertaken. In additionto the consumption of this species by the localpopulation, another excellent alternative would bethe processing of the roots, for example, in theproduction of pickles in homemade mini-facto-ries, which would make the species an alternativeincome resource for the communities of theCaatinga region. However, only further studieswould reveal the possible benefits of the M.tenuifolia roots and the acceptability of itsproducts.Although M. dichotoma and M. glaziovii had

lower nutritional values in comparison to tradi-tional cassava (M. esculenta), they have been



considered as alternative food during the dryseason, when the cultivation of cassava is nolonger sufficient. These species are good foodsources because they have high carbohydratecontent, especially M. dichotoma. However, theconsumption of either species causes side effects,according to the information obtained in Carão.The side effects may be due to the presence ofhydrocyanic acid, which is a compound present atdifferent concentrations in species of the Manihotgenus (Cagnon et al. 2002). Therefore, somespecies cannot be eaten either raw or cooked. Thehydrocyanic acid, which is a volatile compound inthe species, is eliminated during the process ofwashing and roasting and is almost absent in thefinal product when it is prepared in this way(Chisté and Cohen 2008).

The cladode of P. gounellei was found to be anextremely poor food resource due to its nutri-tional characteristics, physicochemical character-istics, and complex preparation. Therefore, thisspecies is not a good resource in times of droughtbecause the energy expenditure used in thepreparation exceeds the energy obtained by itsconsumption. The recent addition of the flourproduced from the cladodes of the Cereussquamosus cactus in crackers, however, has had amoderate acceptance rate (Francisco et al. 2008)and has brought forth a new use of the cladodesof the species in this family.

Finally, the data contained in the presentreport highlight the potential nutritional valueof the famine foods of the Caatinga region.Certainly, this analysis is merely the first step inevaluating their nutritional value to humans; thisresearch must be followed up by studies thatassess the bioavailability of specific nutrients, thetoxicity and the availability of each of the speciesin nature, as well as other ecological aspects, suchas the demography, reproductive biology, anddistribution of these species. Nevertheless, theexpanding body of knowledge regarding thechemical and nutritional composition as well asmethods to minimize the side effects of thefamine foods of the Caatinga should be ofincreasing practical utility to those populationswho make significant use of these edible plantsduring times of hardship.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank the commu-

nities of Carão and Cachoeira for accepting usand helping us perform this study; the Mayor’s

Office of the municipality of Altinho for logisticsupport, especially the Secretary of Agriculture Sr.Miguel Andrade Júnior; the Lucena family forsupport in Soledade, especially Dr. ReinaldoFarias Paiva de Lucena; FACEPE and CNPq forfinancial support and the productivity grantawarded to Dr. U.P. Albuquerque; and Dr. RobertVoeks for his help improving our manuscript.

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Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal Dry Forests Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects

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