FALLACIES

Topic:

What are Fallacies

The reasoning or arguments which are valid but actually invalid.

Arguments, which you know are correct but definitely are not correct.

Arguments the seem to be true but are actually false.

Two (2) Kinds of FallaciesFORMAL or

LOGICAL

INFORMAL or MATERIAL

Formal Fallacy

An error committed is on the violation of the antecedent- consequent relationship or the rules of syllogism.

Are glaring errors (a defective form) which result from violation of the fundamental forms of arguments such as the rules of definition, division, conversion and obversion.

Classification of Formal Fallacies

1. FALLACIES OF DEFINITION

FALLACY OF DEFINITION- the definition is wider than the term it connotes. In this kind of fallacy you should not widen or exaggerate the definition of the term to really understand the reality of truth. A violation arises when we decrease the connotation of the definitions and widen their denotations.

Example: Man is an animal.

TOO NARROW DEFINITION- it violates the rule of definition because the definition is too narrow. Violation arises when we unduly increase the connotation of the definition, thus narrowing its denotation.

Example: Man is an irritable rational man.

FALLACY OF REDUNDANT DEFINITION

- the term are repeated and not essential.

Example: Man is a rational animal capable of learning how to operate and use a computer.

FALLACY OF ACCIDENTAL DEFINITION-some accidental attributes which

are not useful are added to the definition. Even without the accidental attributes, the meaning could still be distinguished.

Example: Man is a rational being who knows how to dance and sing.

FALLACY OF CIRCULAR DEFINITION

- the definition should not be synonymous to the term it defines.

Examples:

•Inflammable is the opposite of flammable.

•A man is a male person.

FALLACY OF OBSCURE DEFINITION

- the definition must be simple enough to easily understand. Do not add terms which are different. They should be clear and simple.

Example:

•A net is reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals with interstices and intersections.

FALLACY OF FIGURATIVE DEFINITION

-do not use exaggeration in defining the term. Figurative or metaphorical language must not be used.

Example:

• Love is the silver link, the silken tie, which heart to heart, and mind to mind, in body and soul can bind.

FALLACY OF NEGATIVE DEFINITION

- do not use a definition which is not the meaning of the term but rather give the real meaning of the term.

Examples:

• An insecure person is one who is not secure.

• A pen is not a pencil.

2. FALLACIES OF DIVISIONFALLACY OF CROSS DIVISION- this

fallacy is also known as overlapping which is a violation of the golden rule of logical division that we have to use only one foundation or basis in defining the term.

Example:• If we divide Filipinos into Christians, Muslim and

Buddhist, we are using a single foundation. On the other

hand, if we divide Filipinos into Christians, Muslims, doctors, women and married, we are using more than one bases of division, namely, religion,

profession, sex and civil status. The result is cross division.

FALLACY OF TOO WIDE DIVISION-it means that we do not go beyond what is really meant by the term.

Example:

•Man into: black, brown, yellow, white, red, blue and green. Here, blue and green exceed or go beyond the accepted color or race

of man.

FALLACY OF TOO NARROW DIVISION-Narrow means “ limited in size or scope”. The definition of a term is incomplete or insufficient. You should complete the definition of a term. A good definition must be complete.

Example:

• Triangle: isosceles and equilateral

FALLACY OF REMOTE DIVISION

-our definition should depend upon the basis of division.

Example:

• If we divide organisms into roses and Filipinos instead of into animals and plants, we commit this fallacy.

3. FALLACIES OF EDUCATIONFALLACY OF INCORRECT CONVERSION

- this fallacy arises when a term is undistributed(particularly) in the converted(original propositions) then distributed(universal) in the converse(inferred propositions).

Example:All Filipinos are Orientals. (Converted)All Bulakeños are Tagalogs. (Converse)Therefore, all Bulakeños are Orientals.

FALLACY OF INCORRECT OBVERSION

-this fallacy arises when, in charging the obverted(original proposition) from the affirmative, the meaning of the original proposition is changed.

Example:All Filipinos are Asians. (Obverted)No Filipinos are Asians. (Obverse)Some Filipinos are Muslims. (Obverted)Some Filipinos are not Muslims. (Obverse)

4. FALLACIES IN CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

FALLACIES OF FOUR TERMS (QUATERNIO TERMINOREM)

-this fallacy occurs if there are actually four terms in the syllogism and there is no middle term that serves as the medium of comparison between the minor and the major terms.

Example:All Filipinos are Orientals.All Bulakeños are Tagalog.Therefore, all Bulakeños are Orientals.

FALLACY OF NEGATIVE PREMISES

-this is also known as the fallacy of two negatives which occurs when we draw a conclusion from two negative premises.

Example:No Americans are Filipinos.No American are Russians.Therefore, no Russians are Filipinos.

FALLACY OF UNDISTRIBUTED MIDDLE

-this fallacy violates the syllogistics rule which prescribes that the middle term must be used at least once as universal in any of the premises.

ExampleSome Filipinos are lawyers.All Ilocanos are Filipinos.Therefore, some Ilocanos are lawyers.

FALLACY OF PARTICULAR PREMISES

-this is also known as the fallacy of two particulars. When we draw a conclusion from two particular premises, this fallacy is committed.

Example:Some Filipinos are Tagalogs.Same Batangueños are Tagaolgs.Some Batangueños are Filipinos.

FALLACY OF ILLICIT MINOR-this fallacy arises when the

minor term becomes universal in the conclusion while it is particular in the minor premise.

Example:Filipinos are patriotic.Americans are not Filipinos.Americans are not patriotic.

FALLACY OF ILLICIT MAJOR- this fallacy develops when

the major term becomes universal in the conclusion whereas it is only particular in the major premise.

Example:Filipinos are heroic people.Malayans are not Filipinos.Therefore, Malayans are not heroic.

THE IEO FALLACY-this fallacy occurs when we draw a

conclusion from IEO mood. The major premise is a particular affirmative proposition,(I), and the minor premise is universal negative proposition, (E), the conclusion is a particular negative proposition, (O), in compliance with the syllogistic rule that should one premise be particular, the conclusion also must be particular; should one premise be negative, the conclusion must also be negative.

Example:First Figure Fourth Figure

I --- Some M is Pu I --- Some Pu is M E --- No S is M E --- No M is S O --- Some S is not Pu O --- Some S is Pu

Informal Fallacy

A fallacy arise s from confusion or ambiguity due to the kind of term used.

Are due to confusion in the connotation or denotation of terms employed, simple ignorance or the plain misapprehension of acts.

Types of Informal Fallacies

1. FALLACIES IN LANGUAGE

This type of fallacy is committed due to lack of preciseness in the word, phrases, or sentences used to express a thought. The types of fallacy which is fall under this category are the following:

FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION-this fallacy is committed when

some terms are used in a premise but with different meanings. There are Tree Kinds of Fallacy of Equivocation.

1.Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle: the middle term is used with two different meanings.

Example:A ruler helps us to draw a straight line.Datu Puti is a ruler.Datu Puti helps us to draw a straight line.

2.Fallacy of Ambiguous Major: when the major term is used in two senses.

Example:All bishops move only diagonally.Deogracias Iniguez, DD is a bishop.Therefore, Bishop Deogracias Iniguez, DD moves only diagonally.

3.Fallacy of Ambiguous Minor: when the minor term is used in two different senses.

Example:No man is made of paper.All pages are men.Therefore, no pages are made of paper.

FALLACY OF AMPHIBOLY -it arises from ambiguous

use not a single word but of a phrase or of a complete sentence.

Example:This man his father killed.For sale: Hyundai Car by a carboy

with damaged button.

FALLACY OF ACCENT-this arises from the use of a

word which changes meaning when the accent on the word changes.

Example:Every invalid needs care and attention.Every fallacy is invalid.Every fallacy needs care and

attention.

FALLACY OF FIGURE OF SPEECH- a wrong conclusion is

drawn due to the use of words that are similar in structure or in meaning.

Example: Honest is the opposite of dishonest Loyal is the opposite of dishonest Mature is the opposite of immature.

FALLACY OF COMPOSITION - this fallacy is committed as

words or phrases are taken jointly or as a unit when they should be taken separately.

Example:The students from RMTU come from the different barrios of Iba.Monica is a student of RMTU.Monica is from the different barrios of Iba.

FALLACY OF DIVISION-this fallacy is the opposite

of the composition. It takes words or phrases separately when it should be taken jointly or as a unit.

Example:BSIE students make up a good class.Angelo is a BSIE student.Angelo makes up a good class.

FALLACY OF ACCIDENT-this fallacy arises when

what is accidental or superficial is emphasized over what is essential or basic.

Example: This coke is in a very elegant

bottle.Therefore it must taste good and

refreshing.

FALLACY OF FALSE CAUSE-it arranges a wrong cause

in a certain effect. Superstitions are based on this fallacy.

Example: He met an accident because it’s

Friday the 13th.

FALLACY OF HASTY GENERALIZATION

- it consists of arguing that what is true to a certain class must also be true to all members of the same class.

Example: Some politicians are corrupt. All politicians are corrupt.

FALLACY OF INCREMENT PREMISES-this fallacy occurs when a conclusion is drawn from premises that are irrelevant.

Example: Maria must be promoted.She is hardworking.She is a doctoral degree holder. She is very decent woman. She is a member of various professionals

associations.Therefore, Maria deserves to be

promoted.

2. FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION

-This fallacy arises when the conclusion is reached by unwanted premises. It also arises when the issue at hand is ignored.

FALLACY OF BEGGING THE QUESTION(PETITIO PRINCIPII)

-this fallacy is the assumption of the truth of the proposition.

a. Not proven- assumes the conclusion under cover of synonymous words or expression.

Example: Souls can never die because they

are immortal.

b. Vicious Circle- uses two unproved propositions to prove each other.

Example: The mind is spiritual because it is

immaterial.The mind is immaterial because it

is spiritual.

FALLACY OF EVADING THE QUESTION

- this fallacy is made to evade the issue by using techniques or modus operandi.

Various Types are the following:

a.ARGUMENT TO THE MAN (ARGUMENTATION AD HOMINEM)

-this ignores real issues. It attacks the character or personality of an opponent.

Example: Why should we believe in the statement of Ka Doming? He is an ex- convict. He was convicted once of murder.

B. ARGUMENT TO THE PEOPLE (ARGUMENTATION AD POPULUM)

- it evades the issue by appealing to passions and prejudices of the populace.

Example: Only respectable women wear a Sara Lee bikinis.Anlene Milk keeps your bones healthy.

C. ARGUMENT TO THE SYMPATHY (ARGUMENTATION AD MESIRICARDIAN)

-it consist of pleading for mercy and leaving reason aside. We ignore the point of issue and appeal to our instinct to have compassion towards the needy, unfortunate, and the downtrodden.

Example: Anthony cannot be given a failing grade because he is blind.

D. ARGUMENT TO THE MONEY (ARGUMENTUM CRUMEMAN)

- we commit this fallacy when we appeal to the sense of greed or cupidity of an individual. Instead of reasoning for an argument, we bribe and use money to defeat the opponent.

Example: A jeepney driver who was caught by policemen for traffic violation uses his

money to settle arguments.

E. ARGUMENT TO THE IGNORANCE (ARGUMENTUM IGNORATIUM)

-we ignore the truth or falsity of a proposition and assert the truth because people are ignorant about it.

Example: We cannot disprove that mermaids

exist, therefore, this existence is true. Mermaids exist.

F. ARGUMENT TO FORCE (ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM)

-we commit this fallacy when we ignore the real issue at hand and appeal to physical or moral pressure rather than to reason.

Example: A teacher threatens her students that if they will not give her an outstanding performance rating in the evaluation survey, she will give them failing marks.

G. ARGUMENTS TO ONE’S OWN ADVANTAGE (ARGUMENTUM PANSARILUM)

-this argument is called an appeal to gain profit. This fallacy is committed when we ignore the issue and appeal to a person to adopt a belief or policy in exchange for the advantage offered.

Example: A man offers to a girl for her to study and finish a degree but in return, the girl should be his mistress.

SUBMITTED BY: Group 8

LEADER: Orlaine GamillaSECRETARY: Jelyan GaranganaoMEMBERS:

Hanjie SalesCarmela Joy SerantesJenalyn VillarosaKaira Marie Grio Alfa Faye CacnioEdrian Say

SUBMITTED TO:Mr. Ursecio

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