Faculty of Cognitive Science and Human Development

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AS A MODERATOR OF TIlE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCUPATIONAL STRESS .

CHARACTERISTICS AND JOB SATISFACTION

Amy Yao Chu Jiang

BF Master ofScience576

Y25 (Human Resource Development) 2008 2008

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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARA W AI(

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS

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I. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 2. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat salinan

untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja 3. Membuat pendigitan untuk membangunkan Pangkalan Data Kandungan Tempatan 4. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat salinan

tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi

5. .. sila tandakan ( " )

D (mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan sepelti termaktub SULIT di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972)

(Mengandungi maklumat Terhad yang telah ditentukan oleh organisasilbadan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)

ITTIDAK TERHAD Disahkan oleh

(TANDAT (T ANDA T GAN PENYELIA)

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Pu at Khidmat Maklum Akadem P.KHIDMAT MAKLUMAT AKADEMIK UNTVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAl(

UNIMAS

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AS A MODERATOR OF THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS CHARACTERISTICS AND JOB

SA TISF ACTION

AMY YAO CHU JIANG

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of

Science in Human Resource Development

Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARA W AK

2008

DECLARATION

No portion of the work referred to in this research paper has been submitted in support of an

application for another degree of qualification of this or any other university or institution of

higher learning.

AMY YAO CHU JIANG

Program Master of Science (Human Resource Development)

Faoulty Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development, UNIMAS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research paper owes its existence to the help, support, and inspiration of many

peopJe. First and foremost, I earnestly thank God for all His blessings and guidance bestowed

upon me throughout this study.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Dr.

Azman Ismail, whose expertise, understanding, and patience, added considerably to the

successful making of this research paper. His unwavering quest for excellence became a

constant source of motivation and dedication in the process of completing this study.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to Puan Nurehan Zulkiply, for taking

considerable time out from her busy schedule to serve as my external reader.

My heartfelt appreciation goes out to all participants who volunteered to partake in

this study. This study would not have been possible without their valuable participations.

I must also acknowledge my fellow course mates, whose helpful insights had

provided valuable contributions to this paper.

Last but not least, I am thankful to my family, for their prayers and continuous

support of all my undertakings, scholastic and otherwise.

11

,..

ABSTRACT

r / This study was conducted to examine the moderating role of emotional intelligence

(EI) in the relationship between occupational stress characteristics and job satisfactioYA

structured survey questionnaire was used to gather data from 101 lecturers from private

institutions of higher learning in Kuching, Sarawak. Results of hierarchical regression

analysis showed that interaction between E1 and occupational stress characteristics (i.e.

physiological stress and psychological stress) had increased job satisfaction. This outcome

confirms that EI does act as a full moderating variable in the occupational stress model of the

organizational sector sampI~Plications of the study on job stress theories of practice,

research methodologies, conceptual limitations, and suggested directions for future research

are also discussey

Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Occupational Stress, and Job satisfaction

III

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji peranan kepintaran emosi (EI) sebagai

moderator daJam perhubungan di antara ciri-ciri tekanan kerja dan kepuasan kerja. Borang

kaji seJidik berstruktur teJah digunakan untuk mengumpuJ data daripada 101 pensyarah

institusi pengajian tinggi swasta di Kuching, Sarawak Keputusan yang diperoJehi daripaaa

anaJisis regresi secara berperingkat menunjukkan bahawa interaksi di antara EI dan ciri-ciri

tekanan kerja (iaitu, tekanan fisioJogikaJ dan tekanan psikoJogikaJ) teJah meningkatkan tahap

kepuasan kerja sampeJ kajian ini. Keputusan ini mengesahkan baha wa EI berperanan

sebagai moderator sepenuhnya daJam modeJ tekanan kerja bagi sektor sampeJ organisasi

yang di kaji. ImpJikasi, metodoJogi penyelidikan, batasan konsepsi, serta cadangan haJa tuju

untulc kajian masa depan turut dibincangkan.

Kata kunci: Kepintaran Emosi, Tekanan Kerja, dan Kepuasan Kerja

IV

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadcmik JNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgement 11

Abstract 111

List of Appendices Vll

List of Tables V111

List of Figures V111

Abstrak IV

Table of Contents V

Chapter 1 INTRODUC-lION 1

Chapter 2 OCCUPATIONAL STRESS 4

Chapter 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 7

Chapter 4 DEFINITION OF THE CONSTRUCTS 8

4.1 Occupational Stress 8

4.2 Emotional Intelligence 9

4.3 Job Satisfaction 10

Chapter 5 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH 11

HYPOTHESES

5.1 Context of Study 11

V

Page

5.2 Relationship between Occupational Stress 13

Characteristics, Emotional Intelligence and

Job Satisfaction

5.3 Research Hypotheses 16

Chapter 6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 17

6.1 Research Design 17

6.2 Measures 18

6.3 Sample and Unit Analysis 19

6.4 Data Analysis 20

Chapter 7 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 22

7.1 Sample Profile 22

7.2 Psychometric Assessments for 25

Measurement Scales

7.3 Correlations Ana~ysis and Descriptive 26

Statistics

7.4 Outcomes of Hypothesis Testing 28

Chapter 8 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY 30

Chapter 9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 32

Chapter 10 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 34

Chapter 11 CONCLUSION 36

References 37

VI

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix A Survey Questionnaire 49

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)

Outputs

Sampling (KMO) and Bartlett's Test of

Sphericity

Appendix B 63

Bl Output of Respondents' Characteristics 64

B2 Output of Factor Analysis (Pattern Matrix) 67

B3 Output of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of 70

B4 Output of Total Variance Explained 71

B5 Output of Reliability Analysis 73

B6 Output of Correlations Analysis 74

B7 Output of Hierarchical Regression Analysis 75

Vll

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Table 4

Respondents' Characteristics

Goodness of Data

Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation between

Variables

Results of Hierarchical Regression with Emotional

Intelligence as the Moderating Variable and Job

Satisfaction as the Dependent Variable

Page

23

26

27

29

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1

Emotional Intelligence as a Moderator of the

Relationship between Occupational Stress

Characteristics and Job Satisfaction

Page

7

Vlll

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Over the past few years, occupational stress has become a much highlighted

organizational issue in fields such as Organizational Behavior, Management, Industrial

Psychology, and Occupational Safety and Health (Elkin & Rosch, 1990; Hobfoll & Shirom,

1993; McHugh & Brennan, 1993; Terry, Nielsen, & Perchard, 1993; Bradley & Sutherland,

1994; DeFrank & Ivancevich, 1998; Griffiths, & Rial-Gonzalez, 2000; Beehr, Jex, & Ghosh,

2001; Cooper, Dewe, & O'Driscoll, 2001; Health and Safety Executive, 2001; Cox,

Devereux, Vlachonikolis, & Buckle, 2002; Newell, 2002; Chapman & Clarke, 2003; Fevre,

Matheny, & Kolt, 2003; Johnson, Cooper, Cartwright, Leka, Griffiths, & Cox, 2004; Rose,

2004; Donald, Taylor, & Millet, 2005; Seaward, 2005;). Work plays a central role in the lives

of many people. The term 'stress' was first coined by Hans Selye, the 'Father of Stress', to

describe a set of physical/physiological and psychological responses to adverse conditions

or influences (Selye, 1964). Within the work context, Dua (1994) defines occupational stress,

or job stress, as a "response and realization by the individual that he or she is unable to deal

adequately with the demands placed upon him or her at the work". Stress is often categorized

into two constructs: eustress ('good stress') and distress ('bad stress') (Selye, 1964; Selye,

1987; Fevre et aI., 2003).

Today, employees are coming under even greater pressure in an increasingly

demanding and competitive workplace, due to common reasons such as work overload, poor

management of work, poor work design and interpersonal conflicts (Leka et aI., 2004). Thus,

the negative impact of occupational stress has become an issue of great concern for the

individual and the organizations in which they work in. Nevertheless, more and more

1

organizations are increasingly aware of the negative effects of work-related stress

(Muchinsky, 2000), and have acknowledged that it can not only limit the output of the

individual, but the group or organization as well (Hobfoll & Shirom, 1993). According to

McHugh and Brennan (1993), and Bradley and Sutherland (1994), stress in organizations can

contribute to detrimental job-related outcomes such as job satisfaction (in the possible forms

of high turnover, absenteeism, low morale, and reduced productivity). Consequently, work­

related stress has become a growing research concern.

It is common fact that intense or prolonged stress can have negative impacts on an

individual's mental and physical health (Cooper et aI., 2001; Health & Safety Executive,

2001). Newell (2002) highlighted the estimation that stress had become an important element

in over half of all medical problems that doctors were asked to treat. A 2005 report by to the

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the US stated that 40% of

workers report their job as very or extremely stressful, while 25% view their jobs as the

number one stressor in their lives (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health,

2005).

The potential costs of both physiological and psychological stress to organizations

have been frequently noted in many studies (McHugh & Brennan, 1993; Bradley &

Sutherland, 1994). Elkin and Rosch (1990) suggested that growing recognition of negative

stress implications, such as one's job satisfaction, have caused more and more organizations

to consider the issue of managing occupational stress more seriously, in order to help

individuals in their organizations cope with stressful aspects of work life (Elkin & Rosch,

1990). These stressful aspects include the nature of the work itself (Taylor, Repetti, &

2

Seeman, 1997; DeFrank & Ivancevish, 1998, Sparks & Cooper, 1999), social environment at

work (Sparks & Cooper, 1999), and threats to job advancement opportunities (Nelson &

Burke, 2000).

Taking into consideration these reasons and more, it is therefore critical that

organizations should step up on the right initiatives and/or strategies to overcome and counter

the increasing emergence of occupational stress and its implications to both the individual

and the organization.

3

Pu at Khidmat Maklumat Akademil

_tiOClS

'....."

stresses

IJN1VERSm MALA SIA SARAWAK.

CHAPTER 2: OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

Early studies about occupational stress have revealed that there is a direct relationship

.wecmjob stress and job satisfaction. For example, co-relational studies in the '70s and '80s

",_&J indicated that job stress and satisfaction are inversely related (Miles & Petty, 1975;

1976; Hollon & Chesser, 1976; Williams & Hazer, 1986). Some findings during these

also reported the indirect effect of stress on turnover intentions through job

_tsractlcm (Hendrix, Ovalle, & Troxler, 1985; Kemery, Bedeian, Mossholder, & Touliatos,

Similarly, in recent studies, there has been extensive literature which supported that

stress was associated with crucial job outcomes, including job satisfaction (Sullivan &

1992; Naumann, 1993; Tett & Meyer, 1993; Leong, Furnham, Cary, & Cooper, 1996;

Laodsbergis, 1998; Kirkcaldy, Cooper, & Furnham, 1999; Lyne, Barett, Williams, & Coaley,

; Fairbrother & Warn, 2003). Specifically, these findings conclude that high levels of

are associated with low levels of job satisfaction (Terry et aI., 1993;

].andsbergis, 1998; Fairbrother & Warn, 2003) and that job stressors are predictive of job

1i'Gl!lS8tistactl<m and a greater propensity to leave the organization (i.e. higher turnover and

organizational commitment) (Cummins, 1990). Thus, these studies suggest that better

'!Dllllllltem.entofjob stress can enhance an individual's job satisfaction level.

However, these studies have only examined the direct effects of occupational stress

job satisfaction. This direct conceptual relationship has become too simplistic, and has

~.Ilec::ted important influencing factors that can potentially affect the relationship between

4

occupational stress and job satisfaction today. There is lack of research focus in incorporating

EI as a crucial, influencing or moderating factor between how one manages job-related stress

and one's attitude towards his or her job - particularly with the emerging emphasis on the

profound influence of EI at work (Chemiss, Goleman, Emmerling, Cowan, & Adler, 1998;

Johnson & Indvik, 1999; Dulewicz & Higgs, 1999; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000). Ever since the

publication of Daniel Coleman's first book on EI in 1995, the topic has gained increasing

popular attention, particularly among the working population (Chemiss et aI., 1998; Dulewicz

&Higgs, 1999' Johnson & Indvik, 1999; Chemiss, 2000; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000).

The theory ofEI argues that IQ (intelligence quotient) by itself is too narrow and not a

good predictor of success, because there are much more important emotional forces (known

as EI) that can dictate and determine a person's success in life and work (Salovey & Mayer,

1990; Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). In fact, studies have found that EI

can affect various important job-related outcomes such as stress management, job satisfaction,

work performance, and organizational productivity (Goleman, 1995; Cooper, 1997; Johnson

& Indvik, 1999; Chemiss, 2000; Diggins, 2004). For example, Chemiss (2000) and Slaski

(2002) found that people with high level of EI are able to identify, regulate and express their

emotions better. Therefore, they are less likely to be overwhelmed by stress. Additionally,

Canneli (2003) reported that individuals with high EI often experience continuous positive

moods and feelings that can generate higher levels ofjob satisfaction.

Nonetheless, studies often focused on the effects of EI on job satisfaction and

.occupational stress in separate, distinct researches (Bar-On, 1997; Grandey, 2000; Slaski &

Cartwright, 2002; Chapman & Clarke, 2003; Diggins, 2004). A thorough review of literature

5

found that studies directed towards examining the moderating role of EI in the relationship

between these two variables have been less emphasized. This study, therefore, attempts to fill

Ibis existing research gap by proposing that EI does playa central role in influencing the

lationship between an individual's occupational stress characteristics and job satisfaction in

a single study.

6

CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1 below provides the conceptual framework for this study. This framework is

as a guideline to establish the study's research hypotheses, and was developed based on

a thorough review of research literature on occupational stress characteristics, EI, and job

I8tisfaction. It highlights that effect of occupational stress characteristics on job satisfaction is

indirectly affected by EI (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969; Luthans, 1992; Cooper, 1997;

Slaski, 2002; Mueller & Maluf, 2002; Carmeii, 2003).

'igure 1: Emotional Intelligence as a Moderator of the Relationship between Occupational Stress Characteristics and Job Satisfaction

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

• Physiological Stress

• Psychological Stress

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

JOB SATISFACTION

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

MODERATING VARIABLE

7

IBVlew

responses.

CHAPTER 4: DEFINITION OF THE CONSTRUCTS

Occupational Stress

This study focuses on the negative aspect of stress (distress) in the workplace. A

of literature suggested that in situations which the individual perceives as being

t1bIlmtening, there can be three forms of responses to distress: physiological reaction, a

1«Jt1Dl11t1ve(psychological) response, as well as a behavioral response (Robbins, 1993; Newell,

20(2). However, it was suggested that in today's working context, behavioral responses to

stressors are less likely to occur, compared to physiological reactions and psychological

According to Robbins (1993) and Newell (2002), when faced with job stress,

employees are more frequently and likely to experience physiological reactions (e.g. heart

palpitation, abdominal pain, headache, insomnia, fatigue) and psychological responses (e.g.

depression, anger, frustration), than resorting to portray behavioral reactions to job stress (e.g.

running away, fidgeting, increasing smoking habits, consuming higher levels of alcohol,

poducing rapid speech) during the course of their work. It has also been common fact that

iDtense or prolonged stress can have more particular negative impacts on a person's mental

IIId physical health (Cooper et ai., 2001; Health & Safety Executive, 2001). Based on Selye's

fbunding concept of stress, the World Health Organization (WHO) also acknowledges that

1be nature ofjob stress can more often be physiological and/or psychological in form (World

Health Organization, 2005). Therefore, this study chooses to examine occupational stress

Ivm the perspective of an individual's physiological and psychological stress characteristics.

8

--============--~~--.------------=~------=:----=----

Physiological stress is often referred to as a physiological reaction of the body to

fftlriOllS stressful triggers (e.g. fatigue, sleep disturbance, increased likelihood for illness,

attacks, gastrointestinal problems, breathing difficulties) (Newell, 2002; World Health

Q lPUlliza.tioln, 2005). On the other hand, psychological stress is often seen as emotional

ptions experienced by individuals when exposed to various stressors (e.g. anxiety,

depression, obsessive fear, nervousness, poor concentration, increased irritability, agitation,

q er and mood swings) (National Institute of Health, 2000; Devereux et aI., 2002;

chology Infonnation Online, 2005; World Health Organization, 2005;) .

In the context of this study, occupational stress is defined as the physiological and

1·.ps:ycbolOlglCal responses experienced by employees when facing job stressors in their work.

this study identifies physiological stress as an employee's physiological

various work-related stressors. Meanwhile, this study refers to

~ l1S,yCb.OlOlglCal stress as an employee's psychological response or reaction to various work-

Emotional InteDigence

Salovey and Mayer, who first coined the term EI in 1990, described it as the "a form

social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and

:_ OU<llns, to distinguish among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and

(Salovey & Mayer, 1990). This study was based on Salovey & Mayer's revised

iiDlWmt of EI (i.e. their Ability Model of EI), which proposes that an emotionally intelligent

_~ should have 4 abilities: "the ability to perceive/identify emotions, the ability to use

9

I

\

'-OUClOS to facilitate one's thought, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to

"DII~ them, so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Mayer et aI., 1999). In

study, EI was represented by the Ability Model's fourth proposed ability (i.e. the ability

manage one's emotions). Thus, for this research, EI is defined as an employee's ability to

-DII!:e his responses or reactions to physiological and psychological stress.

Job Satisfaction

Locke (1969) defines job satisfaction as "a function of the perceived relationship

~bltwec::n what one wants from one's job, and what one perceives it as offering". In other

it is "a pleasurable and positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's

or job experience". Job satisfaction is a result of employees' perception of how well their

provides them with the things which are viewed as important. In the context of this study,

satisfaction is referred to as an employee's feelings or attitude towards the various job

.~s, such as nature of work, pay, contingent rewards, and promotion.

10

•

CHAPTER 5: LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Context of Study

In Malaysia, statistics showed somewhat worrying rates on occupational stress. A

pominent local study on occupational stress done by Mansor and his colleagues (Mansor,

Fontaine, & Chong, 2003), which examined 440 Malaysian managers in multinational

companies (MNCs), revealed that workloads, working conditions and relationships at work

were the main concerns which lead to stress at the workplace.

A nationwide poll of 600 people conducted by Merdeka Center Research (published

on October 2004, in the New Straits Times), found that I in 6 Malaysians claimed that they

are stressed out by work, and that work is the biggest stress factor for them (Rose, 2004).

Specifically, those in the teaching profession (particularly in secondary and tertiary levels)

reported to have one of the most high-stressed jobs in the nation. Morris and Raabe (2002)

concluded that the teaching profession is a stressful career, citing that a major source of

occupational stress is overwork. Tsui and Yeung (2002) also concluded in their study that the

latively high stress level of lecturers warrants critical attention. Johnson and his colleagues'

study on work-related stress across different occupations revealed that lecturers scored

among the lowest (among other occupations) in terms of job satisfaction level, physical

bealth and psychological well-being (Johnson et aI., 2005). Additionally, in March 2006,

IDOther survey by Malaysia'S National Union of the Teaching Profession (NUTP) revealed

that 69"10 of teachers are stressed out, mainly due to increasing pressure and higher

11

l.CX)pecltan~ons from more demanding parents and students, as well as heavier workloads and

chances of career advancement (Associated Foreign Press, 2006).

With the rapid expansion in the number and types of private institutions of higher

I8DlIIDg in Malaysia since the 1990s (Lee, 1998), it is understandable that the pressure level

_~ienc~ed among lecturers in the local private higher education sector has increased

8Ioogs~ide as well. The changing social demands of education, and a growing trend towards

globalization of higher education, have forced private institutions to compete more

_~;sively with one another (and also with the public education sector) to increase its

1(:Hcmtele and expand its network. Subsequently, lecturers' job designs, job roles, and nature

work have changed dramatically within these few years, to meet these changing pressures

demands (Lee, 1998; Yesuiah, 2008). Data gathered from in-depth interviews revealed

local lecturers are increasingly faced with work challenges such as increased duration of

(i.e. working longer hours due to expanded number of classes and students), increased

burdens (i.e. having to multitask in several roles such as performing administrative works

carrying out marketing and promotional duties besides lecturing), and increased job

IDStCCUlnty (i.e. fewer career development opportunities and/or more likelihood of lay-offs).

these changing aspects of the lecturers' jobs were largely brought on by institutions' cost­

measures, which are part of their expansion plans to increase competitiveness in the

..-..~L. Subsequently lecturers are left to cope with what they can in their progressively

12

._Id

lbiduals with

As such, for these reasons and more, the sample for this study derived from those in

teaching vocation (tertiary level), to examine their level of stress management, job

••:noln, and EI in managing this high-stress profession.

Relationship between Occupational Stress Characteristics, Emotional

Intelligence and Job Satisfaction

There has been strong empirical evidences which found that stress experienced at

can have adverse outcomes for an employee's physiological well-being. Bradley and

ruttmmd s review of stress management in the workplace provided one such verification

lI'IKDey & Sutherland, 1994). Researches directed at studying physiological symptoms have

concluded that stress could create changes in metabolism, heart and breathing rate,

bcRue blood pressure, and induce heart attacks (Robbins, 1993). In his study of examining

based on the Bar-On Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence (ESI), Bar-On (1997),

that those with high level of EI are generally more competent in managing their

well-being. In addition, both of Slaski and Cartwright's studies on the implications of

OD stress, health, and performance among employees in the United Kingdom (UK) also

DOI1C:d this claim respectively. Their studies found that that individuals with higher EI can

and cope with stress better, and are generally physically healthier, compared to

lower emotional intelligence (Slaski & Cartwright, 2002; Slaski &

PNilt, 2003). Cooper (1997) added that when individuals are able to properly counter

lUI_age their physical stress, they often feel happier and are more contented around the

".e. Furthermore, in his study which examines the relationship between EI and work

behavior and outcomes among senior managers employed in public sector

13