FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CHANGE IN ATTITUDE OF RURAL-URBAN

MIGRANTS TOWARDS SANITATION IN GHANA

INTRODUCTION

1. The development of urban communities is a global phenomenon partly resulting from

people migrating from rural areas to larger towns for various reasons. Reasons such as the search

for economic prosperity, security and the availability of vital resources attract migrants. The

consequent growth of urban areas has however resulted in various challenges involved in the

management of large communities of people. One of these major challenges faced by urban

authorities is the management of sanitation in large cities. According to the World Health

Organisation (WHO), sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the

safe disposal of human urine and faeces. It also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions,

through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.1 A major contributing factor

to the management of sanitation is the attitude and behaviour of people as identified by the World

Water Council.2 Attitudes are defined as expressions of favour or disfavour toward a person, place,

thing, or event and can be formed from a person's past and present. Attitudes are measurable and

changeable, influencing a person's emotion and behaviour.3 The attitudes and behaviour of urban

residents based on their backgrounds are of prime importance in sanitation management.

2. African urban residents can be grouped into various categories. A number trace their

ancestry to the original settlers of the urban community, whiles a large proportion are rural-urban

migrants. The behaviour of such migrants could impact positively or negatively to an area’s

1. WHO: Sanitation. Accessed from http://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/ on 03 Jan 2014 at 1415hrs.2. World Water Council: Water Supply and Sanitation. Accessed from http://www.world watercouncil org/library/archives/water-supply-sanitation on 03 Jan 2014 at 1420hrs3. Wikipedia: Attitude. Accessed from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_%28 psychology%29 on 03 Jan 2014 at 1430hrs.

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fortunes, including sanitation management. Rural urban migrants consequently may develop

behaviours that may be at variance with their origins. Studies have described various attitudes of

residents that can impact the management of sanitation in urban areas. Attitudes identified include

the sense of individualism, anonymity, superficiality and transience in lifestyle which characterise

rural-urban migrants.4 The result of such attitudes is an exhibition of a poor individual responsibility

towards sanitation in urban areas.

3. Ghana, as a typical African country has a society with some contrasting features between

rural and urban sanitation practices. Many Ghanaian towns and cities have problems with garbage

disposal and inadequate public toilet facilities. The various tribes and ethnic groups merged together

into one country have resulted in the emergence of communities with different traditional customs

and practices co-existing with modern practices. The influence of traditional customs and practices

however is more evident in rural communities than in urban city environments. Dwellers in rural

communities in general seem to be more responsible towards waste management than urban

dwellers. As a result, there seems to be a relative difference in the appearance of rural and urban

settlements. Within the cosmopolitan nature of cities however, city authorities have continued to

grapple with issues of sanitation management. In Accra, for example, the 3.9 million residents

generate about 2000 tonnes of waste daily, of which 25 percent is openly burnt or dumped in water

and sewage drains.5 Publications on sanitation challenges in Ghana have highlighted the impact

that local attitudes have on waste and sanitation, and the need to factor this in solving the poor

sanitation in urban areas. 6,7

4. Erewise.com: Urbanization. Accessed from http://www.erewise.com/current-affairs/urbanization_art52949ca4481d3.html#.Uz267vvw66 on 03 Jan at 1930hrs.5. Annepu,R and Themelis, NJ. Earth Engineering Center, 2013: Analysis of Waste Management in Accra, Ghana and Recommendations for further Improvements: Accessed from http://wtert-ghana.tiswm.com/files/Analysis_of_Waste_Management_in_Accra_ Ghana_and _Recommendations_for _further_Improvements.pdf on 03 May 14 at 1440hrs.

6. Kadfak, A; 2011: An Analysis of the Social Relations In Waste Management: Two case studies in Somanya and Agormanya in Ghana Accessed from http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:453271/FULLTEXT01. Accessed on 04 Jan 14 at 0940hrs.7. UNDESA: International Decade for Action ‘Water for Life’ 2005-20015. Accessed from http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/africa.shtml on 10 Jan 14 at 1005hrs.

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4. The focus of previous efforts by Ghanaian authorities to improve sanitation in urban areas

has largely been on the provision of more public sanitation infrastructure and services. These have

included building public toilets, providing waste dump sites and hiring waste contractors. A public-

private partnership between government and contractors as Zoomlion Ltd only seems to solve part

of the problem.8 Attempts at enforcing law and order, such as using the police and metropolitan

guards have largely been ineffective as residents return to old insanitary practices when these

enforcers leave. The importance of focusing more on examining ways of influencing a positive shift

in the attitudes of urban residents towards good sanitation practices is thus important. A focus on

reasons why rural urban migrants in particular do not transfer positive attitudes towards sanitation

from rural to urban areas would thus be of interest.

5. This paper is written for the Commandant to discuss the possible factors contributing to a

negative change in attitude of rural-urban migrants towards sanitation in Ghana. It will discuss the

characteristics of first rural then urban communities and their systems of governance that impact on

sanitation. The causes and effects of migration on the behaviour of rural-urban migrants in Ghana

will then be highlighted. The paper will also discuss the impact of rural-urban migration on urban

sanitation in Ghana with a focus on the attitudes of migrants. It will then suggest improved

approaches to sanitation management in urban settlements.

AIM

6. The aim of this paper is to discuss the factors responsible for the change in attitude of rural-

urban migrants towards sanitation in Ghana with a view to suggesting improved approaches to

sanitation management in urban settlements.

8. Annepu,R and Themelis, NJ. Idem.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL COMMUNITIES AND SYSTEMS OF

GOVERNANCE THAT IMPACT ON SANITATION

7. Ghana’s population is about 25 million people, according to the 2010 census. Rural dwellers

constitute 49.1 percent of this population, with 50.9 percent in urban areas.9 The rural population

have diverse ethnic practices and characteristics which combine with systems of local governance

to influence their behaviours and attitudes. The characteristics of rural communities in Ghana

follow some general characteristics identified globally.10 The sum of these influences impact the

attitudes of rural communities towards sanitation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL COMMUNITIES AND DEDUCTIONS

8. Social Homogeneity. Rural communities are typically socially homogeneous,

consisting of mainly one ethic group. Social homogeneity is largely visible in the similarities in the

ways of thinking, behaving, dressing, actions and living. There is consensus among rural people

with regards to habits, opinions, morals, customs, values and religious beliefs. The homogeneity

makes it easier for local authorities to enforce both local customs and public law.

9. Dominance of Primary Relations. Primary relations are those which exist between people

who know each other physically or live close together. Rural people know other inhabitants of the

community and are interested in the welfare of members of the community. Community interests

tend to prevail over individual interests. The domination of community interest in rural areas

contrasts that found in urban communities. Spreading a message around a rural community about

decisions involving sanitation would thus be easier than in urban areas.

10. Important Role of Neighbourhood . A neighbourhood is a smaller area in a community

where relationships tend to be primary. Residents in a neighbourhood tend to be well acquainted

with each other, visit one another, exchange articles and services and in general do things together.

9. Ghana Statistical Service, 2012: 2010 Population and Housing Census, Summary Report of Final Results.10 Neha Pansare: Important Characteristics of Rural Community. Accessed from http://www.shareyouressays.com/86996/essay-on-the-important-characteristics-of-rural-community on 10 Apr 14 at 2000hrs.

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Neighbours participate in all common ceremonies, functions and festivals. The neighbourly spirit is

more powerful in rural areas than in urban areas. The neighbourly spirit is influential in rallying

rural communities around a social cause such as cleanups and improved sanitation,

11. Conservativeness and Dogmatism. Rural people tend to be highly conservative, traditional

and dogmatic in their approach. Consequently, inhabitants do not accept policies, plans,

programmes, principles, projects or doctrines that the majority disapprove of. Conversely, the

individualistic nature of urban communities may mean there would be a mixed acceptance of

projects and policies. Decisions and policies can thus be planned more simply in rural areas since

their outcomes can predicted more easily.

12. Deductions. The outlined characteristics could positively shape the overall outlook of

rural inhabitants and their approach towards social life, including sanitation management. These

characteristics need to be understood and appreciated when comparing rural attitudes and behaviour

to those of urban areas.

SYSTEMS OF RURAL GOVERNANCE IN GHANA

13. Types of Rural Governance Structures. A typical rural area in Ghana would have two

parallel local governance systems. The first is the traditional governance system headed by chiefs

and a council of elders in acephalous or chiefless societies. The second type of local governance is

the decentralized political government system present at the district and the unit level.

14. The Traditional Governance System. Traditional governance, for example, in Southern

Ghana extends from the chiefs, queenmothers to male and female youth leaders. Others are clan

heads and elders who all participate in decision making in a town or village.11 Members of a rural

community all pay homage or accord respect to the chief as well as to the council of elders. Other

11. Kendie, B and Guri, G: Indigenous Institutions, Governance and Development: Community Mobilization and Natural Resources Management in Ghana. Accessed from http://www.bioculturaldiversity.net/Downloads/Papers%20participants/Kendie_Guri.pdf accessed on 04 Jan 14at 0640hrs

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cultural personalities who reinforce adherence to local customs and norms include spiritualists,

herbalists, traditional priests and soothsayers.12 Traditional local governance has also relied heavily

on taboos and other cultural practices to maintain order in rural societies. The taboos and cultural

practices are enforced by the system of chiefs and elders in the town or village. The relevance of

chiefs in contemporary local governance has been emphasised by Local Government experts.13 This

form of local governance has proved effective in the management of small rural communities.

Sanitation control in rural areas is therefore relatively simpler due the respect accorded these leaders

of rural societies.

15. The Decentralized Political Government System. A decentralized political government

system is administered by elected and appointed officials of the central government at the local

level. Officials have had a responsibility of ensuring that government policies and projects are

implemented at the local level. Officials have also represented the people of their unit or district in

the decision making for the disbursement of funds and projects.14 The local government system is

still a relatively modern one which has relied on the cooperation of the local populace and

traditional chiefs for success. The local authorities have the legal authority to collect tolls and local

taxes for the use of community services including sanitation and waste management.

16. Deductions. Local rural governance systems based on chieftaincy and the decentralized

political government system are complementary in the management of sanitation management in

rural areas. This complementary system of governance is not evident in urban areas where the

decentralized political government system is mainly responsible for sanitation management. The

complementary role of traditional governance aids greatly in positively influencing rural

inhabitants’ attitude towards sanitation management.

12 . Kendie, B and Guri,G: idem13 . Ayee, J RA, July 2007: Traditional Leadership and Local Governance in Africa: The Ghanaian Experience. Paper presented at the Fourth National Annual Local Government Conference on the theme “Traditional Leadership and Local Governance in a Democratic South Africa: Quo Vadis” Durban, South Africa 14. Ahwoi,K, 2010: Local Government and Decentralisation in Ghana Page 82-3 . Unimax McMillan, Publishers.

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THE IMPACT OF CHARACTERISTICS AND SYSTEMS OF RURAL GOVERNANCE ON

SANITATION

17. Rural waste and sanitation management in small towns and village have been typically

organised around both individual households and communal systems. Individual household

cleaning is done mainly by women who then send refuse to a dedicated area to be burned or

dumped.15 Communal cleaning occurs when local rulers and authorities declare days to be set aside

for this purpose. Rural folk are consequently accustomed to the notion of the negative impact of

residing in close proximity to improperly disposed waste. A typical small town dweller or rural

dweller is likely to therefore to consider poor waste management as undignified.

18. Traditional customs and laws have been further enforced by the extended family structure of

rural living. The norm in many communities in Ghana is for a man to marry more than one woman

and live in the same compound with their children. A sort of social hierarchy exists in households

especially among female members. Women-in-law, for instance have a low hierarchy in the

household and take responsibility for sanitation management in the many traditional areas.16 The

impact and perception of gender roles is consequently important to sanitation management in rural

family households. The dedication of women to preserving family dignity ensures that rural

sanitation standards are consistently high.

19. The gender and family roles have had an added result of encouraging family units to display

a high level of social responsibility with regards to ensuring adequate sanitation management.

Homesteads with insanitary conditions were likely to be an embarrassment to the family and the

clan to which it belonged. Families were consequently more likely to strive to maintain a culturally

accepted sanitary appearance and take part in communal clean-ups for their own dignity. This

15. Pulitzer Centre on Crisis Reporting, Oct 2013: Managing Ghana’s Waste. Accessed from http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/africa-ghana-waste-trash-sewage-management-landfill-poverty-public-health-safety-landfills-population.on 28 Dec 2013at 0305hrs.16. Kadfak, A; 2011: idem

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extended family system as part of a homogenous ethnic society could thus be said to be essential in

maintaining a clean rural environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN COMMUNITIES AND SYSTEMS OF

GOVERNANCE THAT IMPACT ON SANITATION

20. The urban population of Ghana are mainly in the Greater Accra and Ashanti Regions, with

at least 90.5 and 60.6 percent of their populations being urbanized.17 Urban communities in Ghana,

as pertains globally, also have characteristics which impact on the attitudes and behaviour of

inhabitants.18 An examination of these characteristics would enable an assessment of how they

impact on the attitudes of inhabitants towards sanitation. The type of authority and governance

structure at work in urban communities may also impact sanitation management and the attitudes of

the inhabitants.

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN COMMUNITIESAND DEDUCTIONS

21. Size and Density of Population. Urban communities are much larger than rural ones.

Related to size is a higher density of population, with more people occupying an area than would be

found in a rural area. Dense concentrations of heterogeneous people in an area may result in apathy

in their behaviours and attitudes towards sanitation.

22. Role of Extended Family. The extended family plays an important role in individual

character formation. Relationships and families in urban communities are centred more around the

17. Ghana Statistical Service, 2012: 2010 Population and Housing Census, Summary Report of Final Results.18.Your Article Library: Important characteristics of Urban Communities. Accessed from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/20-important-characteristics-of-urban-community-sociology/4873/ on 01 Apr 2014 at 2000hrs.

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nuclear rather than the extended family. The disconnection between extended families negatively

affects the control and moulding of behaviour of urban inhabitants towards community related

activities such as sanitation management.

23. Social Heterogeneity. Unlike the rural areas, urban communities are heterogeneous

in nature and characterized by inhabitants of diverse races and cultures. Great variety exists with

regard to food and dress habits, living conditions, religious beliefs and cultural outlook. Customs

and traditions of urban dwellers consequently vary widely and can consequently affect attitudes and

behaviours. Unifying urban communities around a common cause such as neighbourhood sanitation

management is consequently difficult.

24. Social Distance. Social distance results from the heterogeneous nature of urban areas.

A level of anonymity may exist among people who do not have shared traditions and routine social

contacts in urban communities are mostly impersonal. Social responses may be half-hearted due to

a relative lack of personal involvement in the affairs of others as compared to rural areas. There is

thus poor acceptance of local authority control in areas such as sanitation management in urban

areas since authority figures are relatively unknown.

25. Rapid Social and Cultural Change. Rapid social and cultural change results from the

relegation of important rural traditions or values to the background. Achieving the benefits of urban

life results in changes to norms, ideologies and behaviour patterns of rural-urban migrants.19 Rural

norms such as bonding together to maintain community dignity through good sanitation practices

thus may be abandoned.

26. Formal Social Control. Formal social control dominates in urban societies compared

to the informal control wielded by traditional rulers and family structure of rural society. Urban

communities are largely regulated in their behaviour by agents of the government such as the 19. Nukunya, GK; 2003: Tradition and Change in Ghana, An Introduction to Sociology. Ghana Universities Press.

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police, law courts and metropolitan authorities. The agents mostly maintain an impersonal

relationship with urban residents. The result is that urban inhabitants may not find the law deterrent

enough to be law abiding in such activities as good sanitation practice.

27. Deductions. The outlined characteristics influence the behavioural patterns of urban

inhabitants. The behaviour of urban inhabitants may also be influenced by the system of urban

governance that exists to regulate the society through the decentralized government system. The

sum of these influences impact negatively the attitudes of urban residents towards good sanitation

practices when compared to rural inhabitants.

SYSTEM OF URBAN GOVERNANCE IN GHANA

28. The decentralized formal government system is drawn from the Local Government Act of

1993, Act 462 and is primarily responsible for regulation in urban areas. The parallel system which

involves traditional authorities as in rural areas does not dominate in urban areas. The Act provides

that there are 3 kinds of districts in Ghana – districts, municipalities and metropolis. Each of them

has an assembly as the highest political authority in the district: a District Assembly, Municipal

Assembly or a Metropolitan Assembly. Municipal Assemblies are in districts with a minimum

population of 95,000 people whiles Metropolitan Assemblies are in districts with a minimum

population of 250,000 people.20 The municipal and metropolitan assemblies such as the Accra

Metropolitan Assembly are consequently a very important in regulating many public services in

urban areas.

29. Public services such as primary education, water and sanitation, environmental protection

and transport are decentralized to the metropolitan and municipal authorities21. The authorities adopt

a number of measures to carry out their mandate for the provision of public services. Public-private

partnership especially in refuse and human waste collection is used in most municipal and 20. Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, 2011: Structure of the Local Government System. Accessed from http://ghanadistricts.com/home/?_=13&sa=3621&ssa=128 on 11 Apr 14 at 0900hrs.21. Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, 2011: idem

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metropolitan areas. Private contractors such as Zoomlion Services mainly use centralised refuse

bins or distributed house-hold refuse bins. Areas which are not covered are consequently left to

their own devices, resulting in poor sanitary conditions in many urban enclaves.22 The lack of

adequate funding from the metropolitan and municipal authorities has however resulted in poor

sanitation management.

30. Lack of adequate funding to pay enough contractors and the poor enforcement of laws

including that on sanitation has worsened the standard of service of public services. Low

community self-help attitude which could have supplemented funding with voluntary contributions

also exists. Rural-urban migrants also appear to adapt to this urban structure and gradually lose their

rural community spirit. Urban authorities thus need to identify other means of arousing the

participation of urban residents in solving sanitation problems in the community. An example could

be the involvement of active civil society organizations in sensitizing the wider society towards

working towards behavioural changes in sanitation.

THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF

RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS

31. The phenomenon of a migrating rural population in Ghana is part of a larger process of

globalization around the world. The Greater Accra Region which has the capital city, Accra, was

the most urbanised accounting for 90.5% of the urban population.23 Estimates by the United Nations

Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) also project that by 2030 over 60% of

Ghana’s population will be urbanised.24 The rate of increase in the urban population has been

attributed in part to rural-urban migration apart from normal population growth. The drive towards

rural urban migration is powered by several factors which in turn impact on the behaviour of the

22. Annepu,R and Themelis, NJ: idem23. Ghana Statistical Service, 2012: idem.24. Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat: World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 Revision . Accessed from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/unup/p2k0data.asp on Saturday, April 12, 2014 at 0633hrs.

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migrating population. Local authorities need to understand these factors as well as the goals of the

migrating population to better appreciate any changes in attitudes towards sanitation management.

CAUSES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

32. Factors which contribute to rural-urban migration can be categorised into push factors and

pull factors. Push factors are those which drive people residing in rural areas away to leave for the

urban areas. Pull factors are those conditions which attract people to a new area. Push and pull

factors can also be identified in the movement of rural-urban migrants in Ghana.25 The push and

pull factors will be discussed in turn.

33. Push factors. Push factors driving rural migrants away from the rural areas in Ghana are

varied. Common factors existing in Ghanaian rural areas include poor prices for agricultural

produce, floods and droughts which destroy farmlands and conflicts from ethnic and chieftaincy

disputes. The main goal of migrants pushed away by these factors thus could be the desire to

increase their income in cities. Young people avoiding involvement in local conflicts also may have

a goal of leading better lives.

34. Pull factors. Pull factors attracting rural inhabitants to urban areas centre mainly on the

better social and other infrastructures which are not common in the rural areas. A slower rate of

development in rural areas has resulted in urban centres having higher concentrations of

government offices and social amenities. Other amenities include industries, higher educational and

health centres, facilities for major sports and entertainment facilities, telecommunication and

modern housing. The main goals of migrants pulled by these factors could be the desire to attain a

more comfortable lifestyle and improve upon their standards of education. A concerted effort by

successive governments to decentralize major amenities to rural areas, coupled with education of

rural dwellers of these actions by the Ministry of Information could reduce the urge to migrate for

these reasons.25. Boakye-Yiadom and L,McKay A: Migration between Ghana’s Rural and Urban Areas: the Impact on Migrants ’ Welfare Accessed from: http://www.pegnet.ifw-kiel.de/papers/conference-2007/boakye-yiadom_mckay.pdf on 12 Apr 14 at 1559 hrs

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EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS

35. Ghanaian urban areas are typically multi-cultural melting-pots without the influences of

local traditions which have resulted in some loss of traditional control. Accra, for example, is on

tribal Ga land but large populations of other tribes consider the city as their home. The proximity to

formal, central government control ultimately has a greater impact on urban inhabitants. The

moderating effect on behaviour that customs, traditions and close family systems had on rural urban

migrants is usually diluted. A consequence of the dilution of the influence of local customs and

traditions is reflected in waste and sanitation practices. For instance, Accra’s largest slum areas of

Nima, Agbogboloshie, and Ashaiman which consist largely of migrants are notorious for their poor

sanitation. Local and central government authorities have more responsibility for regulating the

lifestyle of urban dwellers compared to rural areas and this regulation is primarily formal. The

behaviour of individuals without the important regulation of community may result in negative

attitudes. Poor attitudes of rural-urban migrants towards sanitation could thus be traced to this effect

of urbanization.

36. The factors which cause rural-urban migration also have key effects on shaping attitudes.

Migrants are primarily attracted by the possibilities that cities can offer, but most of them often

settle in slums and experience extreme poverty.26 Most of the urban poor who work spend their lives

in insecure and poorly paid jobs in cities such as Accra and Kumasi. The consequent need to fulfil

the aims and goals for migrating thus may relegate the need for social cooperation to the

background. Slums such as Agbogbloshie are crowded and unregulated, which may compound the

stress of survival with depersonalization. Crowding encourages deviant behaviour as well as

increasing apathy and indifference.27 Rural-urban migrants may also regard the city as a temporary

residence for the achievement of their aims and thus be detached from important happenings in their

26 . Wikipedia: Urbanization. Accessed from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization on 05 Apr 14 at 0845hrs.27. Erewise: Urbanization idem

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neighbourhood. The net effect of these factors is to contribute to the lack of cooperation of rural-

urban migrants with urban authorities in the management of sanitation.

THE IMPACT OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON

SANITATION IN GHANA

37. Rapid population growth in urban areas has led to increased pressure on social services

including sanitation management. Poorly managed sanitation involving solid and human waste

disposal system has arisen from slum development and the proliferation of petty trading. The

problem is further compounded by the lack of sufficient resources for effective urban sanitation

management. These factors will be examined in turn.

38. Solid Waste Disposal. Urban areas are supposed to be planned and managed for

social services such as solid waste disposal by municipal or metropolitan authorities. 28 With the

rapid growth of urban areas from rural-urban migration however, the development of unauthorised

structures especially in slums have out-paced such planning. A rapid proliferation of petty trading is

another phenomenon where vendors display their wares in many ways including in kiosks and

sheds. Users of these ad hoc structures do not have enough access to sanitation services and are a

source of dumping and other insanitary activities. The consequences have been the dumping of

waste into water bodies, drains and open areas. Unlike the rural areas where traditional, family and

neighbourhood controls check such behaviour, migrants may feel independent of such control.

Efforts by municipal authorities to enforce local laws on waste disposal have also been largely

ineffective. There is a need therefore to raise the social awareness of urban slum dwellers to

augment efforts of the authorities in managing solid waste.

28. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sanitation Country Profile – Ghana. Accessed from http// www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/ country/ghana/SanitationGHANA04F.pdf on 12 Apr 14 at 1730hrs.

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39. Human Waste Disposal. Human faecal and liquid waste disposal is a major aspect of

urban sanitation challenges confronting urban authorities. The definition of sanitation by WHO

includes the availability of facilities that ensures hygienic separation of human excreta from human

contact.29 Urban sanitation systems cost money to build and maintain but some people may refuse

to pay for a service they may feel as inadequate or unnecessary. The result has been open defecation

and the dumping of human waste in open areas. Crowding and a practice of landlords building

houses for rent without adequate toilet facilities further compounds this problem. Schemes to

encourage urban residents to patronize individual or public facilities are therefore needed.

40. Lack of Resources. Inadequate resources affect especially the management of waste and

sanitation in urban areas. Metropolitan and municipal authorities consistently face challenges with

the collection of sufficient local tolls and taxes to fund sanitation management. The daily collection

of waste in most cities and towns, for instance, is done through partnership with private waste

collectors. The payment and terms of contract of some private operators in partnership have

sometimes been in dispute, negatively affecting sanitation management. Rapid population growth of

most major towns and cities has further compounded this problem as waste is generated much faster

than can be managed. A more effective means of generating revenue as well as effective

collaboration between non-governmental organisations involved in sanitation would aid in

ameliorating this problem.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVED APPROACHES TO SANITATION

MANAGEMENT IN URBAN SETTLEMENTS

29. World Health Organisation: Definitions of Indicators. Accessed from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04_2.pdf on 13 Apr 14 at 1825hrs.

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41. An assessment of the sanitation situation of Ghana by the United Nations’ Department of

Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) has identified several issues of concern in Ghana’s urban

sanitation management.30 The issues identified include inadequate funds from local authorities to

pay solid waste contractors as well as inadequate Government financial support on sanitation. The

shift of attention has also gone to curative instead of the preventive aspect of sanitation. There is a

lack of public awareness on the need to pay for sanitation services and indifference towards good

sanitary practices. Other issues identified included the lack of intense and sustained public

education on sanitation, a problem of land acquisition for public waste disposal and the inadequacy

of law enforcement. The need to put in place recycling plants for plastic waste was also an urgent

issue identified. The issues identified encompass some negative aspects of sanitation management

which still exist in Ghana’s major urban areas. Aspects which remain to be considered include

improving public awareness and identifying alternative sources of funding. Additionally, municipal

and metropolitan authorities need to encourage the use of alternative means of solid waste disposal.

The authorities could also explore avenues to encourage the fostering of the community spirit.

42. Improving Public Awareness. Improving public awareness was a key issue identified above

in urban sanitation management. Current measures adopted by local authorities focus on curing the

effects of poor sanitation practices by urban residents. There is an urgent need for a heightened

awareness of residents, including rural-urban migrants, of the role their attitude plays in improving

urban sanitation. The need to focus on attitudinal change was highlighted by the Chief Director of

the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development in a speech in 2013.31 The Director

attributed a major problem of poor sanitation in the country to wrong attitudes in people. Local

urban authorities in conjunction with relevant ministries could therefore employ intensive sustained

public education on the need for attitudinal change towards sanitation practices.

30. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sanitation Country Profile – Ghana. Idem.

31. Ghanaweb, General News of Wednesday, 16 January 2013: Poor sanitation mainly an attitudinal problem. Accessed from http://www. ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=262279 on 14 Apr 14 at 1815hrs.

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43. Identifying Alternative Sources of Funding. Currently, local authorities fund their activities

by the collection of various taxes and levies mandated by law. Rent taxes are however paid into

central government coffers, which may not be readily available to municipal and metropolitan

authorities. Appropriate legislation may thus be needed to permit local authorities to collect taxes

from landlords and institutions for sanitation management. Other sources of funding such as direct

collaboration with external donor partners could also be considered. Parliament and municipal

assemblies could therefore re-examine current legislation and bye-laws to allow wider sources of

funding.

44. Exposure to Alternative Means of Solid Waste Disposal. Using alternative means of solid

waste disposal would be a major way through which solid waste can be managed. Currently, the

main form of such disposal is by dumping and carting to landfill sites. Other alternatives which

exist include the use of specially designed controlled incinerators and recycling. Local authorities

could consider offering special incentives to companies to build community incinerators where

residents do not have to pay directly. Funding could be from rent taxes as suggested above.

Currently plastic waste recycling exists on a small scale but generally regarded as inconvenient due

to the need for residents to labouriously separate plastic from other waste. Improved public interest

may however be achieved when recycling competitions are organised and funded in collaboration

with donors. Monetary prizes for such competitions could encourage poor urban residents

especially to be aware of the need to recycle. Sustaining this method could in the long term improve

attitudes in urban residents, including rural urban migrants.

45. Fostering the Community Spirit. The improvement of the community spirit in urban

neighbourhoods is an avenue that is under explored. Media exposure of urban neighbourhoods

which exhibit good sanitation practices could help to improve this characteristic normally

associated with rural areas. The voluntary gathering of neighbourhoods to enforce cleanliness and

local laws could therefore be widely publicized. Public spirited individuals and institutions could

also be encouraged to donate rewards for such neighbourhoods. Municipal and metropolitan

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authorities need to be the leaders in identifying such neighbourhoods, individuals and institutions;

holding them up as an example for others to achieve this aim.

CONCLUSION

46. Rural communities in Ghana have some general characteristics which in addition to the

systems of governance impact the attitudes of rural inhabitants towards sanitation. The

characteristics of rural communities include social homogeneity, dominance of primary relations,

role of neighbourhood and conservativeness. The characteristics are influential in shaping the

overall outlook rural inhabitants and their approach towards their social life, which includes

sanitation management. These characteristics need to be understood and appreciated when

comparing rural attitudes and behaviour to those of urban areas. (Paragraphs 7-12).

47. Ethnic practices and local governance systems also play a major role in the habits and

attitudes of rural inhabitants. A typical rural area in Ghana has two parallel local governance

systems; the traditional governance system and the decentralized political government system. The

two systems are complementary in the management of sanitation management in rural areas. The

family, community and gender roles are also reinforced in rural areas and are strong in ensuring the

participation of rural dwellers in sanitation management. (Paragraphs 13-19).

48. Urban communities in Ghana also have general characteristics which impact on the attitudes

and behaviour of inhabitants. The type of authority and governance structure at work in urban

communities impact on the way sanitation is handled as well as the attitudes of urban inhabitants.

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The characteristics of urban communities include large size and population, decreased role of

extended family, social heterogeneity, social distance, rapid social and cultural change and formal

social control. These influences impact negatively the attitudes of urban residents towards good

sanitation practices when compared to rural inhabitants. (Paragraphs 21-27).

49. The regulation of structure and maintenance of law and order in urban communities in

Ghana is largely carried out by municipal and metropolitan authorities in a decentralized

government system. Reliance on traditional authorities is minimal. The lack of adequate funding to

back the provision of public services has resulted in lapses in sanitation management. The

characteristics and features of urban communities contribute to the lack of the community and

family self help spirit which could have supplemented funding. Urban authorities could involve

active civil society organizations in sensitizing the wider society towards working towards

behavioural changes in sanitation. (Paragraphs 28-30).

50. Rural inhabitants migrate due to various factors in order to achieve certain goals. There is a

need to understand these factors and goals to better appreciate any changes in attitudes towards

sanitation management. Factors which contribute to rural-urban migration can be categorised into

push factors and pull factors. Push factors include unfavourable market returns for agricultural

produce, environmental disasters which destroy farmlands and conflicts. The main goals of

migrants pushed by these factors could be the desire to increase income and avoid being victims of

conflict. Pull factors attracting rural inhabitants to urban areas centre mainly on the better social and

other infrastructures which are uncommon in the rural areas. Uneven development and distribution

of social amenities are pull factors. The main goals of migrants pulled by these factors thus could be

the desire to attain a more comfortable lifestyle as well as improve upon their standards of

education. A concerted effort by successive governments to decentralize major amenities to rural

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areas, coupled with education of rural dwellers of these actions by the Ministry of Information

could reduce the urge to migrate for these reasons. (Paragraph 32-34)

51. Urban life tends to dilute the effect that customs and traditions had on rural urban migrants.

The behaviour of individuals without the important regulation of community may result in negative

attitudes from urbanization. Rural-urban migrants may also regard the city as a temporary residence

for the achievement of their aims and thus be detached from important happenings in their

neighbourhood. The net effect of these factors contributes to the lack of cooperation of rural-urban

migrants with urban authorities in the management of sanitation. (Paragraphs 35-36).

52. The rapid population growth in urban areas has led to an increased pressure on social

services including sanitation management. The sanitation problems include a poorly managed solid

and human waste disposal system as well as a lack of resources to effectively manage the

challenges. A more effective means of generating revenue as well as effective collaboration

between non-governmental organisations involved in sanitation would aid in ameliorating this

problem.(Paragraphs 38-40).

53. Current measures at managing urban sanitation in Ghana have had several inadequacies.

Aspects which should be considered include improving public awareness and identifying alternative

sources of funding. The exposure of residents to alternative means of solid waste disposal such as

controlled incinerating and plastic recycling is necessary. Fostering the community spirit is also an

avenue which could also be explored. Intensive sustained public education on the need for

attitudinal change is also needed. Parliament and municipal assemblies could also re-examine

current legislation and bye-laws to allow wider sources of funding. Monetary prizes and media

exposure could also encourage residents to be involved in other means of solid waste disposal. The

recognition of model communities would also improve the fostering of community spirit in urban

neighbourhoods. (Paragraph 41- 45).

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RECOMMENDATION

54. The following are the recommendations made:

a. Urban authorities should involve active civil society organizations in sensitizing the

wider society towards working towards behavioural changes in sanitation. (Paragraph 49).

b. The government in power should undertake concerted efforts decentralize major

amenities to rural areas with the education of rural dwellers of these actions by the Ministry

of Information to reduce the urge to migrate. (Paragraph 50).

c. Metropolitan and municipal authorities should improve on systems for increasing

public awareness of sanitation management. (Paragraph 53).

d. Neighbourhoods which exhibit positive attitudes towards sanitation could be

publicly advertised to bolster the image of that community and encourage others.

(Paragraph 53)

e. Households and neighbourhoods should be continuously exposed to alternative

forms of solid waste disposal such as controlled incinerating and plastic recycling to

promote behavioural change. (Paragraph 53).

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