FACTORS AFFECTING PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AMONGST

NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN KENYA

BY

Cornel Ragen

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

This study seeks to address the factors affecting project implementation in an

organization with a focus on a non-governmental organisation. The process of project

implementation, involving the successful development and introduction of projects in the

organization, presents an ongoing challenge for managers. Miller (2002) notes that project

implementation process is complex usually requiring simultaneous attention to a wide variety of

human, budgetary, and technical variables. As a result, the organizational project manager is

faced with a difficult job characterized by role overload, frenetic activity, fragmentation, and

superficiality. The major influencing variables to be considered in the study are the resources

management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the

organisation.

Arthur (2003) explains that resource management is the efficient and effective

deployment for an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include

financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology

(IT). In the realm of project management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best

approach for allocating resources have been developed. Resource management is a key element

to activity resource estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential

components of a comprehensive plan implementation.

Czarniawska (2003) states that resource management is a relatively new approach to

managing people in any organisation. People are considered the key resource in this approach. It

is concerned with the people dimension in management of an organisation. Since an organisation

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is a body of people, their acquisition, development of skills, motivation for higher levels of

attainments, as well as ensuring maintenance of their level of commitment are all significant

activities. These activities fall in the domain of Human Reseource Management (HRM).

A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service and it

follows an agreed procedure of work flow. The selected plan is implemented by means of

programs, budgets, and procedures which are organizations operational systems and way of

handling things. Implementation practices involve organization resources and motivation of the

staff to achieve objectives. The way in which the plan is implemented can have a significant

impact on whether it will be successful or not. A project is temporary in that there is a defined

start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the achievement of the goals and objectives).

Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not projects. Projects usually include constraints

and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome (Choudhury, 2007). It is noted that if

the operational systems are not clear then the implementation process will have a rocky path and

the project might fail to realize the intended goal or purpose.

Various typologies have been suggested as useful means of describing differences in

culture between organizations. Harrison (2007) suggests four main types of organizational

culture: power; role; task/achievement; and person/support. Deal and Kennedy (2009) also

proposed four generic culture types as determined exclusively by one aspect of organizational

behavior the degree and speed of feedback on whether decisions or strategies are successful.

Harrison (2007) further analyzed cultural differences in dealing with external population and

suggested that culture has four dimensions that influence project or strategies implementation:

power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism/collectivism; and masculinity/femininity.

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Project leadership is widely considered to be an important aspect of project control.

While the theory of managerial control in projects is well developed, there remains the need to

further develop understanding of the leadership style that complements the sophistication of

contemporary control techniques and methods (Barber, 2004). Regardless of the availability of

software tools, project implementation remains dependent on a leadership style that is outcome

focused and not problem focused. Although problems will always arise and deviations from plan

will occur, the need for control requires a shift away from reactive behaviours, the firefighter

style, where the focus is on tackling immediate problems.

1.2 Background of the Study

1.2.1 Non-Governmental Organisations in Kenya

The NGO Coordination Act (1990) defines an NGO as “a private voluntary grouping of

individuals or associations, not operated for profit or for other commercial purposes but which

have organised themselves nationally or internationally for the benefit of the public at large and

for the promotion of social welfare, development, charity or research in the areas inclusive of,

but not restricted to, health, relief, agriculture, education, industry and the supply of amenities

and services". An NGO cannot become a branch or affiliated with or connected with any

organisation or group of a political nature established outside of Kenya. An NGO is required to

benefit the public at large and promote social welfare, development charity, or research in areas

including but not restricted to health, relief, agriculture, education, industry, and the supply of

amenities and services (NGO Co-ordination Board, 2012).

In a broad sense, NGOs, though relatively recently identified with an acronymic label and

as a “third sector” are not new in Kenya (Salamon & Anheier 2002). Both local and international

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organizations have a long history in the territory. Since 1963, the beginning of Kenya's history as

an independent country, the government of Kenya has encouraged the development of

indigenous not‐for profit organizations, locally called harambee groups self‐help societies or

community‐based organizations (CBOs). Harambee, which literally means, “let’s pull together”

in Swahili, was the rally cry of Kenya's first President, Jomo Kenyatta, and it became the

country's motto.

Kanyinga (2009) states that in Kenya, local, community‐based self‐help groups and

foreign based other‐oriented NGOs exist. Both are registered with the government. The former,

now numbering more than 220,000 are registered with the Ministry of Culture and Social

Services under the Societies Act, and are often called CBOs. The later, for the most part, have

morphed into NGOs, and along with similar Kenyan‐based organizations, are registered with the

NGO Coordination Board. These NGOs are largely secular organizations, though they are

sometimes registered in association with a church or other religious organization, making the

strict characterization of NGOs as “secular organizations” inaccurate. While both CBOs and

NGOs are interesting and important, this dissertation focuses on NGOs. Most NGOs in Kenya

are involved in one or more of the following eight types of activities: agriculture, education,

environment, general development, peace and governance, health, emergency or refugee relief,

and programs directed at disadvantaged communities (specifically women, children, youth, the

disabled and the elderly).

1.2.2 Overview of TechnoServe

TechnoServe is a non-governmental organization that helps entrepreneurial men and

women in poor areas of the developing world to build businesses that create income, opportunity

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and economic growth for their families, their communities and their countries. The organization

runs programs that focus on developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and

improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches

globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices worldwide. Its programs are designed to

develop capacity for individuals and businesses, strengthen market systems and facilitate

scalability for emerging industries (technoserve, 2012). TechnoServe was founded in 1968 by

businessman and philanthropist Ed Bullard after a volunteering experience at a hospital in

Ghana. He was inspired to start an organization helping rural people harness the power of private

enterprise to lift themselves out of poverty (technoserve, 2012).

The developing entrepreneur’s activities involve business plan competitions where it

helps aspiring entrepreneurs to turn business ideas into viable business plans through national

business plan competitions. TechnoServe’s Young Women in Enterprise (YWE) program is

helping several hundred young women to learn entrepreneurship and other important skills such

as personal finance. Mentors and coaches help them develop business plans and start businesses.

The participants also support each other in enterprise clubs and are given opportunities to

network with community leaders that can help them reach their goals. On building businesses

and industries activities involve agriculture and Agribusiness where the organization is helping

revitalize Kenya’s cashew-nut industry, working with entrepreneurs to establish processing

plants in struggling rural areas. One plant has already opened, and four more are planned. These

will create steady markets for some 30,000 farmers and generate thousands of new jobs.

TechnoServe is working with other stakeholders on a pilot program to help 10,000 farmers

organize themselves in business groups and produce more and better cashews, with the aim of

doubling their incomes. Kenya's climate, geography and soil conditions help it to produce some

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of the world's best coffee. But sub-optimal farming and processing practices limit the quality and

quantity of coffee that smallholders produce, and poor market links limit their ability to sell it

(technoserve, 2012).

TechnoServe being a non-governmental organization go through challenges in realising

some of its projects that targets the entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the

developing world. The operational system as planned normally don’t get realised considering

some of the target groups and parts of the country are involve with other similar or related

organisations which sometimes conflicts in ideas and manner in which operations are conducted

(technoserve, 2012).

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Project implementation in any given organisation involves a number of activities. At

TechnoServe among the major activities are securing community participation for launching the

project, co-ordination of activities, monitoring, and taking care of contingencies. These activities

are usually the responsibility of a project manager/coordinator or a project management

committee.

David (2008) states that project implementation problem become more important when

we realize that the efficiency of plan in an organization is faced with many impediments. If a

project is considered as a process consisting of formulation, implementation and assessment

steps, organizations face problems in each step. Aspects of the problems are revealed when we

understand that organizations have failed in implementing over 70% of their plans and strategic

initiatives (Miller, 2002).

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It is however noted that there is little attention on the non-governmental sector

considering most of them are normally accountable to the donor organization. Discussion on the

problems and difficulties of a project has been highly fascinated by the strategic management

discourse since the implementation of project plans and decisions have not been as successful as

their designers expected. The study notes that there are many nongovernmental organizations

that run similar programmes and this makes it difficult to realize the full intensions of a given

project. The target populations are normally the same and given different organizational

approaches some of the projects contradict at the implementation stages and as a result resources

run into to waste while the target audiences don’t get the intended assistance or help. Hence, it

seems necessary to identify factors affecting project implementation in a non-organization.

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to address the factors affecting project implementation

amongst non-governmental organizations in Kenya, with a focus on TechnoServe Kenya which

is a non-governmental organisation that seeks to provide business solutions to poverty. The study

will be tested using four variables (resources management, the operational systems, the

organizational culture and the leadership of the organisation).

1.5 Research Objectives

The study will be guided with the following specific objectives:

i. To establish the effect of resources management on project implementation within a non-

governmental organization.

ii. To determine how operational systems affect project implementation within a non-

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governmental organization.

iii. To find out if organizational culture affects project implementation within a non-

governmental organization.

iv. To determine whether the organisation leadership affects project implementation within a

non-governmental organization.

1.6 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

i. Of what effect are resources management on project implementation within a non-

governmental organization?

ii. How do the operational systems affect project implementation within a non-governmental

organization?

iii. Does the organizational culture affects project implementation within a non-governmental

organization?

iv. Does the organisation leadership affect the project implementation within a non-

governmental organization?

1.7 Significance of the Study

The rationale of this study is to examine factors affecting project implementation in an

organization. This study is expected to benefit the management as to the best ways to re-align the

operations within the organisation to ensure full implementation of projects and strategies within

the case organisation.

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From this study other organizations ranging from small to large, public and private,

service and even the manufacturing organizations will benefit by finding solutions to project

implementation and even come up with better means and approaches in ensuring initiated

projects are implemented.

As a researcher this study will be a source of immense knowledge. It will aid in helping

to shape the role of project planning and implementation in an organisation. In the process of

researching, there will also be the benefit of exposure on how the research is conducted.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study will be carried out at TechnoServe which is a nongovernmental organization

that helps entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the developing world to build

businesses that create income, opportunity and economic growth for their families, their

communities and their countries. The study will focus on the personnels who are charged with

carrying out projects within the organisations. The project in consideration are on education,

developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and improving the business

environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000

employees in 30 offices worldwide. The study will focus on the personnel at the Kenya Nairobi

offices.

1.9 Limitation of the Study

The following limitations might be encountered when carrying out the study:

The study for sees and expect suspicion by respondents. When carrying out the research

at times one encounter respondents who are over suspicious of the exercise to the point that some

are hesitant to give accurate details concerning questions that they are asked. They feel that the

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researcher is trying to find out their weaknesses which may be used against them by

management.

For the research work to be comprehensive and successful it needed funds for the

computation of data, purchasing writing materials, typesetting, questionnaires, mailing and

browsing the web, travelling and binding as well as other miscellaneous expenses.

Respondent’s perception is considered to be a limiting factor as it is realized in school

based research some of the respondents normally don’t see the need for the research and thus

hamper the smooth and easy collection of the much needed data. The research will be conducted

with ethical standards and observations. The respondents names will not appear anywhere in the

study and only the willing ones will be considered for the study.

1.10 Assumption of the Study

The study makes an assumption that there are certain forces of factors that affect the full

realization of projects within a nongovernmental organisation. It is assumed that the resources

management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the

organisation affect project implementation in an organization, hence it is the goal of this study to

determine the level of effect on each independent variable.

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1.11 Conceptual Framework

This section of the study illustrates and interprets the relationships that will be studied in

this research to outline the possible course of action. Below is a representation of a conceptual

framework reflecting the relationship between the various variables adopted for this study.

Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables Indicators

Dependent Variable

Source: Author (2012)

Resource management is the efficient and effective deployment for an organization's

resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory,

human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT). In the realm of project

management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating

resources have been developed. Resource management is a key element to activity resource

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Resource Management

Operational Systems

Organizational Culture

Organisation Leadership

Project Implementation

Cost efficiency

Organization resources

Experiences

Management and Control

estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a

comprehensive plan implementation.

The selected plan is implemented by means of programs, budgets, and procedures which

are organizations operating systems and way of handling things. Implementation practices

involve organization resources and motivation of the staff to achieve objectives. The way in

which the plan is implemented can have a significant impact on whether it will be successful or

not.

Organizational culture describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and

values (personal and cultural values) of an organization. It is the specific collection of values and

norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they

interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. They are beliefs and

ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the

appropriate kinds or standards of behavior organizational members should use to achieve these

goals.

Many administrators, supervisors, and even top executives execute their responsibilities

successfully without being great leaders. But these positions afford opportunity for leadership.

The ability to lead effectively will set the excellent managers apart from the average ones hence

for a project to be implemented well there is need for proper leadership approach. Organizations

projects succeed or fail not only because of how well they are led but also because of how well

followers follow.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current

knowledge and methodology approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary

source of data and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. This chapter

enables the researcher to assess the present situation, previous and the expectations to come from

the sources such as publications, reports, books, journals and the internet. The section facilitates

the provision of intensive information, which makes the study reach a successful end. The

chapter has been divided into three sections which are the theoretical review, the empirical

review and the knowledge gap.

2.2 Theoretical Review

This section of the study seeks to explain the theories in relation to project implementation in an

organization. The discussed theories are organisation based and they entail Neoclassical

Organization Theory, Expectancy Theory and Goal Theory. This section of the study determines

the aims to review the critical points of knowledge including substantive findings.

2.2.1 Neoclassical Organization Theory

The human relations movement evolved as a reaction to the tough, authoritarian structure

of classical theory. It addressed many of the problems inherent in classical theory. The most

serious objections to classical theory are that it created over conformity and rigidity, thus

squelching creativity, individual growth, and motivation. Neoclassical theory displayed genuine

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concern for human needs. One of the first experiments that challenged the classical view was

conducted by Mayo and Roethlisberger in the late 1920's at the Western Electric plant in

Hawthorne, Illinois (Mayo, 1933). While manipulating conditions in the work environment like

the intensity of lighting, they found that any change had a positive impact on productivity. The

act of paying attention to employees in a friendly and nonthreatening way was sufficient by itself

to increase output. Uris (1986) referred to this as the "wart" theory of productivity. Nearly any

treatment can make a wart go away nearly anything will improve productivity. The implication is

plain: intelligent action often delivers results (Uris, 1986).

Barnard (1998) proposed one of the first modern theories of organization by defining

organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities. He stressed in role of the

executive in creating an atmosphere where there is coherence of values and purpose.

Organizational success was linked to the ability of a leader to create a cohesive environment. He

proposed that a manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the

hierarchical power structure of the organization. Barnard's theory contains elements of both

classical and neoclassical approaches. Since there is no consensus among scholars, it might be

most appropriate to think of Barnard as a transition theorist.

Simon (1995) made an important contribution to the study of organizations when he

proposed a model of "limited rationality" to explain the Hawthorne experiments. The theory

stated that workers could respond unpredictably to managerial attention. The most important

aspect of Simon's work was the rigorous application of the scientific method. Reductionism,

quantification, and deductive logic were legitimized as the methods of studying organizations.

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2.2.1:1 Application of Neoclassical Organization Theory

The Neoclassical Organization Theory has been used effectively in highly dynamic and

technological environments by project management organizational. The project manager

becomes the focal point for information and activities related to a specific project. The goal of

the theory is to provide effective integration of an organization’s resources towards the

completion of a specific project. Implementing a project management approach often involves

dramatic changes in the relationships of authority and responsibility

2.2.2 Expectancy Theory

According to Vroom (1964) in a general approach expectancy theory is about the mental

processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to

make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first

proposed by Victors Vroom of the Yale School of Management. Expectancy theory predicts that

employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that the reward they are

receiving is adequate to offset the amount of work being done. These predicted organizational

rewards are valued by the employee in question. This theory emphasizes the needs for

organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided

are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients. This theory is used to indicate an

approach to empowering the employees.

Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative

forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes

choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to

match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the

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individual’s expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the

instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result

for the individual, known as valence. In this context a motivated employee feel empowered on

work performance.

Rao, (2000) states that in order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should

use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the

rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-

performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve

their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance. Rao further explains that

Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose

purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom (1964) suggested that the

relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first

imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on

individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.

Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V),

expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one

element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P

expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). E>P expectancy: Our

assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required performance level. P>O

expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to certain

outcomes (Vroom, 1964).

Rao (2000) states that on Vroom’s model is based on three concepts: Valence - Strength

of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person

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must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Instrumentality means of the first level

outcome in obtaining the desired second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome

will lead to the second level outcome. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a

particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome.

The relevance of the theory is that, expectancy is the belief that one's effort will result in

attainment of desired performance goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-

confidence and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated

with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self

efficacy is the person’s belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular project.

Goal difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made

too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy perceptions. Control is one’s perceived

control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they

have some degree of control over the expected outcome in a project.

2.2.3 Goal Theory

Goal theory holds that goals are important regulators of human behavior and posits a

strong relationship between goal difficulty and performance, with harder goals resulting in a

greater effort than easier goals (Manning, 1995). Goal theory is normally used to empower

employee in a given task, it’s also used in motivating workers to performance and productivity

improvements. The theory examines goal-setting activities from an individual perspective.

Ivancevich, (1998) says that goal setting is designed to improve an individual's ability to

set and achieve goals. Goals are the object of an action or what a person intends to accomplish.

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Goal setting theory was proposed initially by Locke (1998) and was based on the understanding

of goal setting as a cognitive process of some practical utility. Locke's (1998) view is that an

individual's conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior. The theory

places specific emphasis on the importance of conscious goals in explaining motivated behavior.

Tetlock and Kim, (1997) states that depending on the type of goal given, one can go

about achieving it differently. A directional goal is one where individuals are motivated to arrive

at a particular conclusion. Thinking can be narrowed to selecting beliefs. The lack of deliberation

also tends to make one more optimistic about achieving the goal.

An accuracy goal is one where people are motivated and empowered to arrive at the most

accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being inaccurate is high. People

invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large deviation may

well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not

achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and

stop thinking about it people tend to continue to search for improvements. Both methods work by

influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-making rules (Tetlock and Kim, 1997).

Cooper and Schilndler (2002) point out goals inform individuals to achieve particular

level of performance, in order for them to direct and evaluate their actions, while performance

feedback allows the individual to track how well he or she has been doing in relation the goal, so

that, if necessary adjustments in effort direction or possibly task strategies can be made.

Cooper and Schilndler (2002) notes that there are at least five ways to convince people

that goal attainment is worthwhile: These include (a) eliciting a public commitment to goals, (b)

communicating an inspiring vision, (c) using an empathy box analysis to understand and alter the

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perceived consequences of goal commitment, (d) providing financial incentives for goal

attainment, and (e) expressing confidence that the goal will be achieved.

Cooper and Schilndler (2002) investigated performance differences depending on

whether difficult tasks are framed as a challenge providing an opportunity for self-growth, or as a

threat regarding which effective strategies to deal with it are not readily available. As

hypothesized, challenge appraisals yielded consistently better performance than threat appraisals.

However, those who viewed the task as a threat performed better when they had learning goals

rather than performance outcome goals. Finally, difficult performance goals induced high

adaptation to change when the work context was perceived as challenging, but poor adaptation

and performance when the work context was perceived as threatening.

Goal theory is of relevance to the study in that it holds that goals are important regulators

of human behavior and posits a strong relationship between goal difficulty and performance,

nearly everything Human resources (HR) specialists do from recruiting to compensation has

organizational ramifications and hence benefits from knowledge provided by organization

theory; organizational development and change are particularly important elements of HR that

demand deep knowledge of organizations and organizing, and organization theory can provide

content for executive training programs.

Communication specialists must understand the interpretive processes of organizational

stakeholders and need to address the many ways in which different parts of the organization

interact with each other and the environment, in order to design communication systems that are

effective or to diagnose ways existing systems are misaligned with the organization’s needs.

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Goal theory is concerned with how the internal organizational structure works to motivate

participants and produce outcomes consistent with the goals of those who control the

organization projects. It is also interested in how the world external to an organization effects

what goes on inside of a particular organization. It is concerned with how the internal

organization and the external world can effect organizational survival. There are three questions

that all theories take up.

2.3 Empirical Review

2.3.1 Project Implementation

Touwen (2001) Project implementation involves a number of activities. Among the major

activities are securing community participation for launching the project, co-ordination of

activities, monitoring, and taking care of contingencies. These activities are usually the

responsibility of a project manager/coordinator or a project management committee.

Morris (2003) states that in project implementation or project execution, one put it all

together. Project planning is complete, as detailed as possible, yet providing enough flexibility

for necessary changes. In a customer-contractor relationship, the contract is signed, based on the

right decisions about the contract structures, and including clauses for change management and

claim management.

Nutt (2001) indicates that the process of project implementation, involving the successful

development and introduction of projects in the organization, presents an ongoing challenge for

managers. The project implementation process is complex, usually requiring simultaneous

attention to a wide variety of human, budgetary, and technical variables. As a result, the

organizational project manager is faced with a difficult job characterized by role overload,

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frenetic activity, fragmentation, and superficiality. Pinton (2011) indicates that often the typical

project manager has responsibility for successful project outcomes without sufficient power,

budget, or people to handle all of the elements essential for project success. In addition, projects

are often initiated in the context of a turbulent, unpredictable, and dynamic environment.

Consequently, the project manager would be well served by more information about those

specific factors critical to project success.

The project manager requires the necessary tools to help him or her focus attention on

important areas and set differential priorities across different project elements. If it can be

demonstrated that a set of factors under the project manager's control can have a significant

impact on project implementation success, the project manager will be better able to effectively

deal with the many demands created by his job, channeling his energy more efficiently in

attempting to successfully implement the project under development (Cleland and Kerzner,

2005).

Pinton (2011) notes that project implementation success has been defined many ways to

include a large variety of criteria. However, in its simplest terms, project success can be thought

of as incorporating four basic facets. A project is generally considered to be successfully

implemented if it comes in on-schedule (time criterion), comes in on-budget (monetary

criterion), achieves basically all the goals originally set for it (effectiveness criterion) and is

accepted and used by the clients for whom the project is intended (client satisfaction criterion).

Tuman (2008) explains that strategy and tactics are both essential for successful project

implementation, but differently so at various stages in the project life cycle. Strategic issues are

most important at the beginning of the project. Tactical issues become more important towards

the end. This is not to say that there should not be a continuous interaction and testing between

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the strategic and tactical factors. Strategy is not static and often changes in the dynamic

corporation, making continuous monitoring essential. Nevertheless, a successful project manager

must be able to transition between strategic and tactical considerations as the project moves

forward.

2.3.2 Resource Management

Slevin (2000) states that the implementation management team requires expertise in

planning for both financial and non-financial resource types, such as human resources, supplies,

specialist knowledge and supporting teams. The Resource Management Strategy typically

consists of the following elements: funding requirements (including budget), procurement

approach, required assets (such as office space and equipment), technology and services and

finally human resources (including Subject Matter Experts).

Beck (2010) states poor resources selection and considerations lead to failures in project

implementation stages. There should be a proper budgeting system in place which involves the

allocation of administered and departmental funds against key project deliverables. This section

sets the framework for dealing with the “on budget” part of the objective on time, on budget and

to expectations. The principle underlying this section is cost control. This section will enable

departments and agencies to effectively track expenditure over time and provide early warning of

likely overspend /under spend or possible savings. In some cases, expenditure will be a critical

indicator of progress.

Beck (2010) further states that It is critical that the budget reflects whole of life costing

for the measure concerned and clearly distinguish departmental and administered items as well

as distinguishing capital and operating expenses. This section of the implementation plan will

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only be necessary for projects where there is substantial buy in of expertise or capital items.

Projects that do not involve a high level of procurement expenditure should simply indicate that

this requirement is not applicable.

Adams and Barndt (2006) on a study on behavioral implications of the project life cycle,

state that failure to document the following then projects are likely to fail: Policy deliverables to

be procured by proposed agreement or contract, strategies for negotiating and managing

agreements/contracts, If there is need for staged delivery and desirability of testing the

deliverables and whether a purchase-provider arrangement is being considered and if so: timings

for release of documentation to the public, tender and contract finalization, contract period; the

procurement method (specific purpose payments, expressions of interest, request for price/quote,

request for tender); the funding model (i.e. milestone payments); supplier selection processes

such as tender evaluation and contract negotiation, and tender evaluation criteria; and

arrangements for ongoing contract management including review and evaluation. Probity issues

should be covered in the Quality Assurance section. Where appropriate, link also with risk

management, resources, quality assurance and stakeholder engagement sections. Review the

scope and work breakdown structure and identify the resources that are critical to the successful

implementation of the measure. Critical resources are those which are vital to the success of the

measure, and may include staff with the special skills, consultants, a co-located office venue,

ICT equipment, transportation, data / information systems etc.

2.3.3 Operational System

Unlike other functional areas within organizations, many people find it hard to clearly

and easily understand what activities come under the field of Operations. Finance, for example,

24

deals with the use (and sometimes abuse) of funds. Marketing is primarily responsible for

positioning, pricing, selling and liaison with customers. However, when it comes to Operations,

it is not so clear-cut. This is because the word ‘operations’ is sometimes (wrongly) used

interchangeably with ‘operational’, a word that is the opposite of strategic, and connotes detailed,

localized, short term, day-to-day activities (Danny 2007).

Ideally defined, operations within an organization are first and foremost an oversight

function that ensures all internal operating groups are Integrated into the same business plan with

well defined roles and responsibilities. Danny (2007) notes that most organizational projects

involving external community fail as a result of the organizations departments not functioning

together as one unit to ensure operational integrity relative to opportunity development, there is

no proper risk management, resource management and allocation, and overall best practices are

not covered within all functions of the organization.

Effectively communicating between other functional departments, participating in the

business planning and development strategy process are some of the indicators of an efficient

operational system. Operating within the parameters of an integrated budget, and adhering to all

financial practices while following other established policy, procedures and controls will see a

success to project implementation.

2.3.4 Organisational Culture

Organizations, just like individuals, have their own personalities more typically known as

organizational cultures. Understanding how culture is created, communicated, and changed will

help you to be a more effective manager. (Nelson and Pasternack, 2005)The concept of culture is

complex and definitions of culture vary. The anthropologist Edward Tylor defined culture in the

25

late 1800s as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,

and other capabilities acquired by a man as a member of a society” (Hill, 2005).

Drucker (1999) culture is more generally as a system of values, norms, and practices that

are shared among a group of people and that, when taken together, constitute a design for living.

Values are ideas about what a group believes to be good, right and desirable. This is the deepest

level of culture since values are often embedded in tacit preferences as well as they are difficult

to articulate and change. Norms are derived from values and can be described as social rules and

guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations.

Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is leadership that affects culture rather than

management and describe the difference to be an influence to change management in an

organization. When one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to

keep in consideration that this is a long term project. Corporate culture is something that is very

hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For

companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.

Cummings and Worley (2005) give the following six guidelines for cultural change

management, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995):

Formulate a clear strategic vision, Display Top-management commitment Model culture change

at the highest level, Modify the organization to support organizational change and Develop

ethical and legal sensitivity.

Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests,

which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for

changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings &

Worley, 2005).

26

Organizations culture is very important and inevitable. Culture innovations is bound to be

because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in

existing environment. Black (2003) states that cultural innovation is bound to be more difficult

than cultural maintenance. Besides institutionalization, deification is another process that tends

to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. The organization itself may come to be

regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. Organizational

members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns given by the

organization, and they begin to identify with in. The organization turns into a sort of clan.

Organization culture at any given organization is different to that of another organization and the

impact levels are normally varied.

2.3.5 Organisation Leadership

Argyris and Schon (1996) organizational leadership does not mean having a boss think of

a command and then watch as it is filtered throughout the ranks. Organizational leadership,

instead, is the ability of management to understand its employees and company goals enough to

bring everyone together. Frequently, an organization with excellent leadership will have

employees who feel that their opinions are valued and that their work is highly important to the

shared success of the whole organization. There is no single technique to ensure that this

happens.

Every company is different, and positive leadership recognizes that and turns it into an

advantage. Utilizing team-building exercises, instilling leadership development on all levels of

organization and fostering positive communication are some techniques used to promote positive

leadership. Many times, these exercises are used to fix organizations in trouble. An example

27

would be an insurance company that is losing money, so it gives bottom-line financial

responsibilities to individual employees instead of departments, in order to foster ownership of

the company's mission (Argyris and Schon 1996).

Cole (2004) recommends that those attempting to implement projects should study the

history of the organization and its relationships with its various stakeholders, including those

beyond its boundaries. Only in this way can project implementation advocate and understand the

observable but misleading facts and uncover the real systems of meaning to which managers and

employees subscribe.

Brungardt (1996) management's leadership in the project effort seems to be the key

determinant of whether that the project will succeed. It is not new to say that leadership is

critical. What is new is the type of leadership being recommended one that does more than just

create and articulate a new vision for the organization. Management needs to communicate

openly with those affected by the change and once again, collaborate with those same individuals

to obtain their input. Part of communication and collaboration involves wining the intended

project to organizational outcomes. Brungardt (1996) states another key leadership feature

involves role modelling of expected behaviors. For example, if top management expects lower

level managers and employees to behave ethically, then top executives themselves must do the

same.

2.4 Knowledge Gap

This literature has reviewed organizations as people management systems that range from

simple hierarchies along traditional lines to complex networks dependent on computer systems

and telecommunications. The observed literature term organizational structure to how individual

28

and team work within an organization. It states that agility is a critical structural element in

achieving organizational and a project effectiveness and efficiency. It is also made clear that in

reconfiguring an organization to enhance its performance, there is no one appropriate or ideal

structure. Further, there is agreement that many organizations have hybrid structures in which a

several different structures happily co-exist and as a result implementing projects might involve

reviewing the organization structure.

The key component of successful leadership now and in the next century is proactive and

effective responsiveness to change. It is noted that too often leaders and managers address

technical dimensions of projects but fail to consider what it takes at each stage for leaders to

actually carry out that project implementation. It is noted that leading implementation of projects

requires, establishing direction, aligning people, and motivating and inspiring. Other elements

like operations system do not come out clearly on the observed literature as well as the

organisation culture from both within and out of the organisation hence it is of essence to carry

out a study on factors affecting project implementation amongst nongovernmental organizations

in Kenya.

29

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the methodology that will be used to carry out the study. The

chapter presents the research design, the population, sample and sampling technique, data

collection methods and instruments and data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The study will adopt a descriptive design to research on factors affecting project

implementation amongst nongovernmental organizations in Kenya. Descriptive research studies

are designed to obtain pertinent and precise information concerning the current status of a

phenomenon and draw valid general conclusions from the facts discovered.

This research design will be both qualitative and quantitative methods that probe for

deeper understanding rather than just examining surface features (Patton 1990). The adoption of

this research design is based on Strauss and Corbin (1990) claim that qualitative methods can be

used to better understand any phenomenon about which little is yet known. They can also be

used to gain new perspective on things about which much is already known or to gain more in-

depth information that they may be difficult to convey quantitatively. Thus, this qualitative

method is appropriate in this situation where researchers needs to first identify the variable that

might later be tested quantitatively, or where the researcher has determined that quantitative

measures cannot adequately describe or interpret a situation.

30

3.3. Target Population

The study will focus on the personnel’s who are charged with carrying out projects within

the organisations. The project in consideration are on education, developing entrepreneurs,

building businesses and industries, and improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a

registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices

worldwide. The study target population will be drawn from the personnel’s at the Kenya Nairobi

office which entails 160 personnel’s (techno serves HR 2012). The Nairobi based office is

considered to be having permanent and temporary staffs and volunteers. The table below shows

the population stratus to be considered.

Table 3.1 Target Population

Category Frequency Percentage

Directors/Chief of Party 4 3

Heads of projects 12 8

Programme Managers 16 10

Administration 23 14

Logistics team 27 17

Field Personnel’s 39 24

Volunteers 20 13

Affiliates 19 12

Totals 160 100

Source: Researcher (2012)

3.4. Sampling Procedure

According to Kothari (2004) sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals

or objects from a population such that the selected group contains elements representative of the

characteristics found in the entire group. Stratified random sampling technique will be used to

31

select the sample. Kothari further states that the method allows the researcher to divide the

sample into appropriate strata that is mutually exclusive. The strata entail the departmental staffs

involved with the project initiation to implementation. A representative sample of at least 50% of

the target population will be considered for the study. Sekaran, (2003) contend that a sample

size should be at least 50% of the target population. The sample selection is shown in the table

3.2 below.

Table 3.2 Sample Size

Category Frequency Sample Size

Directors/Chief of Party 4 2

Heads of projects 12 6

Programme Managers 16 8

Administration 23 11

Logistics team 27 14

Field Personnel’s 39 19

Volunteers 20 10

Affiliates 19 9

Totals 160 79

Source: Researcher (2012)

3.5. Data Collection Instruments

The data collection instruments will include questionnaires. The questionnaires will

contain both closed and open ended questions. The questionnaire will consist of two sections A

and B. Section A will sort for general information on the respondents while section B will focus

on the study information.

32

The administration of the questionnaires will be done by the “drop and pick” method that

allow respondents ample time to complete the questionnaires. The respondents approval to

participate in the survey will be sought before administering, the questionnaire. A letter of

identification introducing the researcher will be obtained from the learning institution.

3.6 Data Analysis

Before analyzing the responses, the completed questionnaires will be edited for completeness

and consistency. The data will be coded and checked for errors and omissions. This will be done

to ensure precision; precision is expressed as validity and reliability. The responses will be

analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. The data will be analyzed

using descriptive statistics to assess the influence of various variables.

33

REFERENCE

Adams, J. R. and Barndt, S. E. (2006). “Behavioral Implications of the Project Life Cycle,” .

New York,

Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1996). “Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice,

Reading”, Mass: Addison Wesley.

Arthur, J. (2003). “Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing performance

and turnover,” Academy of Management Journal.

Barnard, W. (1998). “A casual model of organizational performance”, The 1998 Annual:

Developing Human Resources, University Associates, San Diego, pp. 277-88.

Beck, D. R. (2010). "Implementing Top Management Plans through Project Management," in

Project Management Handbook, New York.

Black, R. (2003). “Organisational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic

Success”, London UK,

Brungardt, C. L. (1996). “The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership

development and education”. The Journal of Leadership Studies.

Burman, R. and Evans, A. J. (2008). “Target Zero: A Culture of safety”, Defence Aviation

Safety Centre Journal.

Cleland, D. I. and Kerzner, H. (2005). “A Project Management Dictionary of Terms”. Nostrand

Reinhold. New York,

Cole. G., (2004). Management theory and practice, 6th edition, Research fellow, University of

Sussex Institute of Education

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Cooper, D. and Schilndler. P. S., (2002). “Business Research Methods”, 9th edition. McGraw

Hill/Iruib. New York, U.S.A.

Cummings, T. G. and Huse, E. F. (2005). “Organizational Development and Management”. St

Paul: West Publishing Company.

Czarniawska, B. (2003). “Social constructionism and organizational studies”, in Westwood, R.

and Clegg, S. (Eds), Debating Organization – Point and Counterpoint, Blackwell, Oxford,

pp. 128-39.

Danny. S. (2007). “Operations Management” An Integrated Approach Cambridge University

Press

Deal, T. and Kennedy, A. (2009). “Corporate Culture: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life”,

Penguin Business, London.

Drucker, P. (1999). “Managementb of Challengesin Projects for the 21st century”, Harper

Business, New York.

Harrison, R. (2007). “How to describe your organization”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 51,

May/June, pp. 119-28.

Hill, J. (2002). "Managing an Organizational Learning System by Aligning Stocks and Flows".

Journal of Management Studies 39 (4): 437–469.

Ivancevich, J. M. (1998). “Organizational Behaviour and Management, 2nd ed, Richard Irwin”,

Homewood.

Leibenstein, H. (1999). “General X-Efficiency and Economic Development”. New York: Oxford

University Press.

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Locke, E. (1998). “The relationship of intentions to level of performance”. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 50, 60–66.

Manning, M. M. (1995). “Self-efficacy expectancies, outcome expectancies”. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology21-431.

Mayo, E. (1933). “The Human Problems of Industrial Civilization”. New York: Macmillan.

Miller D (2002). Successful Change leaders: What Makes Them? What Do They Do That Is

Different? J. Change Manage, 2(4): 359-68.

Morris, P. W. G. (2005). “Managing Project Interfaces-Key Points for Project Success” in

Project Management Handbook, ed. Cleland, D. I. and King, W. R. (Van Nostrand

Reinhold. New York.

Nelson, G. L., & Pasternack, B. A. (2005). Results: Keep what’s good, fix what’s wrong, and

unlock great performance. New York: Crown Business.

Nutt, P. C. (2005). “Implementation Approaches for Project Planning." Academy of

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Slevin, D. P. (2000). "The Project Implementation Profile: New Tool for Project Managers."

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37

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE

The purpose of this questionnaire is to facilitate data collection to the study that seeks to address

factors affecting project implementation amongst non-governmental organizations in Kenya,

with a focus on TechnoServe Kenya which is a non-governmental organization that seeks to

provide business solutions to poverty. Information gathered will be treated confidential and no

names should be indicated in the questionnaire.

Section A: Bio Data

1. State your Gender as applicable

a.) Male [ ]

b.) Female [ ]

2. State your age as applicable

a.) Between 18 – 25 [ ]

b.) 26 – 40 [ ]

c.) 41 – 55 [ ]

d.) Over 56 [ ]

3. What is you department of work and job title …………………………………………...

4. State your level of education.

a.) Diploma level [ ]

b.) Degree Level [ ]

c.) Postgraduate Level (Masters) [ ]

d.) Postgraduate Level (PhD) [ ]

38

5. How long have you worked at TechnoServe Kenya?

a.) Below one year [ ]

b.) Between one to two years [ ]

c.) Between two to four years [ ]

d.) Over five years [ ]

Section B: Study Information

I. Resource Management

6. Do you think resource management is handled poorly on the organisation?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons;

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Do you agree that the human/personnel’s at TechnoServe Kenya affect project

implementation?

a) Strongly Agree [ ]

b) Agree [ ]

c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]

d) Disagree [ ]

e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

39

8. Are there adequate allocation of finance to ensure projects are implemented at TechnoServe

Kenya?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons;

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Do you agree that the cost efficiency is not well managed hence affect project implementation

at TechnoServe Kenya?

a) Strongly Agree [ ]

b) Agree [ ]

c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]

d) Disagree [ ]

e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

10. Is the human resource well trained on TechnoServe Kenya projects?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons;

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

40

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

II. Operation Systems

11. Are the operation systems in place affects project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………....

12. Are the TechnoServe Kenya operational system advance to ensure projects are executed?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons;

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13. How would you rate the budgeting plans in relation to implementation of projects?

a.) Reasonable [ ]

b.) Acceptable [ ]

c.) Justifiable [ ]

d.) Fair [ ]

e.) Not Sure [ ]

41

14. Do you agree that the manner in which problems and challenges are addressed project affect

implementation?

a) Strongly Agree [ ]

b) Agree [ ]

c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]

d) Disagree [ ]

e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

Organizational Culture

15. Are you as an employee TechnoServe influenced by the prevailing organizational culture?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give resons;

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

16. How does governance within TechnoServe Kenya affects project implementation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

42

17. Does the level of individual staff performance affects project implementation at TechnoServe

Kenya?

a) Strongly Agree [ ]

b) Agree [ ]

c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]

d) Disagree [ ]

e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

18. Would you consider the staff’s level of experience to be of effect to project implementation

at TechnoServe Kenya?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

IV. Leadership

19. Are you as an employee affected by the organization leadership?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons,

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

43

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

20. Do you agree that communication in the organization effect to project implementation at

TechnoServe Kenya?

a) Strongly Agree [ ]

b) Agree [ ]

c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]

d) Disagree [ ]

e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

21. Does the form of leadership in the organization effect project implementation at TechnoServe

Kenya?

a.) Yes [ ]

b.) No [ ]

Give reasons;

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

44

22. Finally what is your opinion on practices and procedures in implementation of projects at

TechnoServe Kenya?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..….

24. What are your recommendations for better approaches to project implementation at

TechnoServe Kenya?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

Thank you for your cooperation

45

APPENDIX II: BUDGETARY ALLOCATION

No. Cost (kshs)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Travelling

Research and Stationery

Photocopying

Typing and Printing

Binding three copies

Hard Cover Binding

Miscellaneous

2,000.00

1,500.00

2,00.00

2,000.00

560.00

3,000.00

2,000.00

Total 14,060.00

46

APPENDIX III: TIME FRAME (2012 - 2013)

47

Activities September October November December January

1. Formulation of

problem          

2. Writing of

research

proposal          

3. Presentation of

proposal  

4. Data collection          

5. Data analysis

and Final

presentation