FACT Foundation Jatropha Handbook 2010

8/3/2019 FACT Foundation Jatropha Handbook 2010

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THEJATROPHAHANDBOOK

FromCultivation

to

Application

FACTFoundationandindividualauthorsmentionedperchapter.

Horsten1

5612AXEindhoven

TheNetherlands

www.factfoundation.com

[email protected]

Allrightsreserved.

FirstprintingApril2010.

ISBN9789081521918

Thematerial inthispublicationiscopyrighted.Requestsforpermissiontoreproduceportions

of it should be sent to FACT Foundation. FACT Foundation encourages dissemination of its

workandwillnormallygivepermissiontoreproducepromptly,and,whenthereproductionis

for

noncommercial

purposes,

without

asking

a

fee.

Permission

to

photocopy

portions

for

classroomuseisnotrequired,thoughnotificationofsuchusewillbeappreciated.

ThiscompletehandbookhasbeenplacedinmodularformontheFACTFoundationwebsite,in

English,SpanishandPortuguese.

FACTFoundationandtheauthorsarenot liableforanydamageor injuriesresultingfromthe

use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained within this

Handbook.


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FOREWORD

In our fight for a global cleaner environment, the Dutch Ministry of Environment invests in

various ways to achieve GHG emission reductions within the framework of sustainable

development.

Local

production

and

utilization

of

biofuel

such

as

derived

from

the

Jatropha

plantcanbecontributingtoachievingthesegoalsthroughenhancingincomeinagriculture,the

provisionofenergy,andpositiveenvironmentalimpact.Jatrophaseedscanbeconvertedinto

energycarrierssuchasoilorbiodiesel,electricityandbiogas.Itcanassistinruralproduction,

transformingrawagriculturalproductstoaddedvaluemarketableproducts,energygeneration

for irrigationandconserving landfromerosion.Assuch,Jatrophadisplaysawidepotentialof

applications.Inthishandbookhowever,thefocusisontheenergyusesofJatropha.

Drivers for increaseduseofbiofuelssuchasJatropha,are localemployment,energysecurity

andclimatechangemitigation.The Jatrophaplant increases aboveground andunderground

biomassandhence fixesCO2ascarbon.Atthesametimethe Jatrophanutscanbeused for

biofuelproduction,

thereby

reducing

the

need

for

fossil

fuels.

An

additional

positive

effect

is

thatJatrophacanbeusedinalocalrenewableenergysystemthatallowslocalsmallholdersto

generate income on energy, rather than having no other option than to pay for fossil fuels.

Although Jatropha cannot solve all problems related to energy in developing countries, it is

likelytobeoneofthemostpromisingbiofuelcrops,thatwouldalsocontributetosustainable

agricultureandimprovedlivelihoods.

Althoughagriculturalproductioninmostdevelopingcountriescanbeintensified(moreoutput

perha)byafactor2to4usingproventechnology,thishasnothappeneddueto inadequate

agriculturalpoliciesinmanycountriesaswellasdisappointinginvestmentlevelsinagriculture.

For

local

use

Jatropha

can

be

well

combined

with

agricultural

production,

where

improved

foodproductioncombinedwith Jatrophacangeneratemoreoutputonahectarebasis,asa

badly managed food crop alone. Jatropha emerged as a highly interesting biofuel some 15

years ago and expectations were high. Over the last years, many studies from Jatropha

plantationsgiveusabetterideaonwhattheplantcanyieldunderwhichconditions.

ThisbookaimstoprovidethereaderwithusefulinformationtoappraiseJatrophaasabiofuel

intherealmofbiofuels.Itcoversallaspects(technical,organizational,financial)fromJatropha

plantingtoconversiontoelectricityorbiodiesel.

This book is dedicated to the late professor Kees Daey Ouwens, who established the FACT

Foundation,and

in

whos

honor

Ihave

created

the

Daey

Ouwens

Fund.

He

was

apioneer

in

thisfield,hasexploredwaystopracticallymakeadifferencebyusinglocallyproducedbiofuels

basedoncarefulresearchwithrespecttolocalcircumstances.Itiswiththisapproachinmind

thatIwishyouwellwithmakingadifference.

Dr.JacquelineCramer,

MinisterfortheEnvironment

oftheNetherlands


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TheapplicationofJatrophaoilforenergypurposesisarelativelynewphenomenon.Although

theplantand its featureshavebeenknown forgenerations,only in2005thereal interest in

Jatrophaoil

as

biofuel

started

to

take

off.

Since

its

establishment

in

2005,

FACT

Foundation

has

obtaineda lotofexperience inallaspectsofJatropha,fromcultivationtoenduse,mainlyby

theexecutionofitsfirstthreepilotprojectsinHonduras,MaliandMozambique.

ThisHandbook istheresultoftheknowledgegatheredbyFACTFoundationfrom itsprojects

andseminars,andfromprojectsofothersthatFACTwasinvolvedwith.Itwasfirstpublishedin

an electronic form on FACTs website in march 2006 and has been regularly updated ever

since.Thecurrentversionisthefirstthathasbeentakenintoprint.Theauthors,listedbelow,

havedonetheirutmost inwritingtheassignedchaptersandwewould liketothankthemfor

theircontributions:

Ir.Eric

van

der

Putten,

Ir.YweJanFranken

Dr.Ir.FlemmingNielsen

Ir.JandeJongh

Ir.WinfriedRijsenbeek

Ir.PeterBeerens

Ir.JanskevanEijck

Ir.TitusGalema

Ir.GerGroeneveld

Ir.NielsAns

Ir.

Mara

Wijnker

Ir.ThijsAdriaans

Drs.PeterMoers

InadditionwewouldliketothankBillDickinsonforreviewingthetextoncorrectEnglish.The

layouthasbeendesignedbystudentsoftheEindhovenseSchool.Forthegeneralcoordination

wethankMaraWijnkerandElsValkenburg.

Wearemuchobliged to StichtingHetGroeneWoudt,whohas fundedFACTsworksince its

establishment.

ForFACT,

JandeJongh,editor


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TABLEOFCONTENTS

1 GENERALDATAONJATROPHA 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 BOTANICALDESCRIPTION

11.3 ECOLOGY 3

1.4 GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTION 4

1.5 JATROPHAHISTORICALANDCURRENTUSES 4

1.6 FACTSHEET 6

1.7 JATROPHAANDLOCALDEVELOPMENT 6

1.8 JATROPHAHANDBOOKOUTLINE 6

1.9 REFERENCES 7

2 PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION 9

2.2 SOILSANDFIELDPREPARATION 9

2.2.1 Soilrequirements 9

2.2.2 Soilsampling 10

2.2.3 Soilpreparation 11

2.2.3.1 Plantingholes 11

2.2.3.2 Plantspacing 11

2.2.3.3 Plantingseason 12

2.3 JATROPHAPLANTDEVELOPMENT 12

2.3.1 Jatrophadevelopmentstages 12

2.3.2 Rootdevelopment 13

2.3.3 Floweringand

fruiting

13

2.4 PLANTINGMATERIALANDPLANTINGMETHODS 13

2.4.1 Geneticandphenotypicalvariation 13

2.4.2 Seedselection 14

2.4.3 Germination 14

2.4.4 Directseeding 14

2.4.5 Nurseryplanting 15

2.4.6 Cuttings 16

2.4.7 Micropropagatedclones 16

2.5 PLANTATIONMANAGEMENT(AGRONOMY) 17

2.5.1 Weeding 17

2.5.2 Nutrientmanagement

17

2.5.2.1 Nutrientrequirements 17

2.5.2.2 Organicmatter 19

2.5.2.3 Fertilisation 19

2.5.2.4 Mycorrhiza 19

2.5.3 Pruning 19

2.5.4 Irrigation 20

2.5.5 Intercropping 21

2.6 JATROPHAHEDGES 21

2.7 SEEDYIELDS 22


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2.8 PESTANDDISEASES 23

2.8.1 Controlmeasures 24

2.8.2 Preventivemeasures 24

2.9 REFERENCES 25

3 HARVESTING 29

3.1 INTRODUCTION 29

3.2 HARVESTINGTECHNOLOGIES 29

3.2.1 Manualpickingofjatrophaseeds 29

3.2.2 Mechanicalharvestingsolutions 30

3.3 SEEDEXTRACTIONFROMFRUITS 32

3.3.1 Dehulling 32

3.3.1.1 UniversalNutSheller(UNS) 32

3.3.1.2 Largesizeindustrialdehuller 33

3.3.2 Separationofseedsandfruitshells 34

3.3.2.1 Smallscale(byhand) 34

3.3.2.2 Largescale(mechanical) 343.3.3 Dryingfruit 35

3.4 DRYINGANDSTORAGEOFSEEDS 35

3.4.1 Dryingofseeds 35

3.4.2 Storageareaofsacks 36

3.4.3 Storageconditions 36

3.4.3.1 Seedstorageforplanting 36

3.4.3.2 Seedstorageforoilextraction 37

3.5 REFERENCES 37

4 OILPRESSINGANDPURIFICATION 39

4.1 INTRODUCTION 39

4.2 MECHANICALOILEXTRACTION 40

4.2.1 Cleaningandcheckingtheseeds 40

4.2.2 Thepressingprocess 40

4.2.3 Importantparameterswhenpressing 40

4.2.3.1 Oilrecovery 41

4.2.3.2 Oilquality 41

4.3 PRESSTECHNOLOGIESANDEXPELLERTYPES 42

4.3.1 Rampresses 42

4.3.2 Expellers 43

4.3.2.1 Cylinderhole 444.3.2.2 Strainer 44

4.3.3 Powerrequired 45

4.3.4 Suggestedmodels 45

4.3.5 Concludingremarksexpellers 46

4.4 CLEANINGOFVEGETABLEOIL 46

4.4.1 Impuritiesintheoil 47

4.4.2 Sedimentation 47


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4.4.3 Filtration 48

4.4.3.1 Gravityfilters 48

4.4.3.2 Bandfilter 49

4.4.3.3 Filterpress 50

4.4.3.4 Pressureleaffilter 51

4.4.3.5 Bagfilters 524.4.3.6 Candlefilters 53

4.4.4 Centrifuging 53

4.4.5 Concludingremarksoilcleaning 54

4.5 QUALITYSTANDARDSFORSVO 54

4.5.1 Oildegumming 56

4.5.2 Oilneutralization 56

4.6 HANDLINGANDSTORAGEOFOIL 56

4.6.1 Handlingcriteria 56

4.6.2 Storagecriteria 57

4.6.2.1 Coolstoragetemperature 57

4.6.2.2 Avoidingtemperaturevariations(andhencewatercondensation) 57

4.6.2.3 Darkness 57

4.6.2.4 Contactwithfreshair 57

4.7 REFERENCES 57

5 APPLICATIONSOFJATROPHAPRODUCTS 59

5.1 INTRODUCTION 59

5.2 APPLICATIONSOFOIL 59

5.2.1 Lampsandcookingstoves 59

5.2.1.1 Lamps 59

5.2.1.2 Cooking

stoves

605.2.2 Directfuelforcarsanddrivingenginesforshaftpowerorelectricitygeneration 61

5.2.2.1 Introduction 61

5.2.2.2 PPOfuelproperties 61

5.2.2.3 Otherproperties 62

5.2.2.4 Engineconversion/Enginetypes 64

5.2.2.5 Engineconversion 66

5.2.2.6 Importanttechnicalissues 69

5.2.2.7 Serviceandmaintenance 74

5.2.2.8 Externalcomponentsattachedtotheengine 75

5.2.2.9 Emissions 75

5.2.2.10 Examplesofconvertedengines 765.2.3 Feedstockforsoapproduction 76

5.2.4 Feedstockforbiodieselproduction 77

5.2.4.1 Somechemistry 77

5.2.4.2 Typeofalcohol 78

5.2.4.3 PreparationofPPOfeedstock 78

5.2.4.4 Biodieselproductionrecipe 79

5.2.4.5 Biodieselrefining 79

5.2.4.6 Biodieselbyproducts 80

5.2.4.7 Concludingremarks 81


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5.3 APPLICATIONSOFOTHERJATROPHAPRODUCTS 81

5.3.1 Woodenstemsandleaves 81

5.3.2 Presscake 82

5.3.2.1 Handling 82

5.3.2.2 Presscakeasabiogasgenerationfeedstock 82

5.3.2.3 Presscakeasbriquettesforfuel 835.3.2.4 Presscakeasafertilizer 84

5.3.2.5 Insecticidefromoiland/orpresscake 85

5.3.3 Whatisnotrecommended 85

5.4 REFERENCES 85

6 PROJECTIMPLEMENTATION 87

6.1 INTRODUCTION 87

6.2 OWNERSHIP,PRODUCTIONANDFINANCEMODELS 87

6.2.1 Ownership 87

6.2.1.1 Ownershipmodels 87

6.2.1.2 Appropriateownershipmodels 896.2.2 Productionmodels:thejatrophavaluechain 91

6.2.2.1 Thebasicjatrophabiofuelproductionchain 91

6.2.2.2 Mainfactorsdeterminingfeasibilityofthebasicbiofuelchain 92

6.2.2.3 Theextendedproductionchain 936.2.3 Financingmodels 101

6.2.3.1 Howtofinancefarmersplantations 101

6.2.3.2 Howtofinancetheprocessingenterprise 106

6.2.3.3 Howtofinanceengineadaptations 107

6.2.3.4 ProjectFundingSources 108

6.2.3.5 Alternative

financing

schemes

1106.3 SUSTAINABILITYOFJATROPHACURCASACTIVITIES 112

6.3.1 Introduction 112

6.3.2 Sustainabilitycriteriaandinitiatives 113

6.3.3 Tentativecriteriaforsustainabledevelopmentoflargescalejatrophaproduction 114

6.3.4. Conclusion 115

6.4 REFERENCES 116

ANNEXA: PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT

ANNEXB: HARVESTING

ANNEXC: OILPRESSINGANDPURIFICATION

ANNEXD: APPLICATIONSOFJATROPHAPRODUCTS

ANNEXE: PROJECTIMPLEMENTATION


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1

1 GENERALDATAONJATROPHA

Mainauthor:EricvanderPutten,withcontributionsofYweJanFrankenandJandeJongh

1.1 Introduction

Jatropha curcas L. (Latin name) is often referred to as jatropha. It is a plant that produces

seedswithhighoilcontent.Theseedsaretoxicandinprinciplenonedible.

Jatrophagrowsunder(sub)tropicalconditionsandcanwithstandconditionsofseveredrought

andlowsoilfertility.Becausejatrophaiscapableofgrowinginmarginalsoil,itcanalsohelpto

reclaimproblematiclandsandrestoreerodedareas.Asitisnotafoodorforagecrop,itplays

animportantroleindeterringcattle,andtherebyprotectsothervaluablefoodorcashcrops.

Current

interest

by

investors,

farmers

and

NGOs

in

jatropha

is

mainly

due

to

its

potential

as

an

energycrop.Jatrophaseedscanbepressedintobiooilthathasgoodcharacteristicsfordirect

combustionincompressedignitionenginesorfortheproductionofbiodiesel.Thebiooilcan

also be the basis for soapmaking. The pressed residue of the seeds (presscake) is a good

fertilizerandcanalsobeusedforbiogasproduction.

Jatrophaisapromisingcropwithmanyapplications.Thetechnologyisinitsinfancyandonthe

vergeofcommercialisation.Expectationsarehigh.Thefirstdevelopmentsareunderway,but

notmuchhasbeenrealisedsofar.FACT(FuelsfromAgriculture inCommunalTechnology) is

gaining experience in several pilot projects and has encountered many initial obstacles and

problems. In several projects it has tried to tackle these problems. The objective of this

handbookis

to

share

the

most

recent

knowledge

on

all

aspects

of

jatropha

with

practitioners

andotherpeople involved inmakinguseofjatropha for localdevelopment,withbiofuelas

themostinterestingoption.

Withinthiscontext,theprimaryfocusofthisbookwillbeonthestartupofplantations,the

processingoffruit,seeds,oilandtheuseofoilforlocaldevelopment.Eachtopicisdiscussedin

moredetailintheappropriatechapters.

Thisintroductorychapterdescribesthebasicandglobalcharacteristicsofjatropha.Itincludes

the botanical description, ecology, geographical distribution, applications ofjatropha and its

oil,sustainabilityissuesandreportoutline.

1.2 Botanicaldescription

Jatropha curcas L. has many local names, including bagani/ (Ivory CoastMali), pourghre

(French),physicnut (English), tabanani (Senegal),makaen/mmbono (Tanzania),pion (Latin

America),purgeernoot(Dutch),sketnoto(Surinamese).

InallcasesJatrophacurcasL.isatallbush/shruborsmalltreethatcangrowupto6meters

tall,belongingtotheEuphorbiaceaefamily.Itslifespanisintherangeof50years.Thetreeisa

deciduouswoodtypewithleavesfallingoffunderconditionsofstress.


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The plant has green leaves with a length and width of 6 to 15 centimetres. Jatropha plants

showdifferentplantarchitecture,rangingfromamainstemwithnoorfewbranchestoaplant

that isbranchedfrombelow.Thebranchesofthejatrophaplantcontainawhite,sticky latex

that leavesbrownstains,whicharehardtowashout.Therootsystemfromnaturaljatropha

plantsiswelldeveloped,withrootsgrowingbothlaterallyandverticallyintodeepersoillayers.

Figure11TheJatrophaplant(photosMauricioMoller)

Theplant ismonoecious,withmaleandfemaleflowersonthesameplant.Fruitformsatthe

endofbranchesinbunchesof520,haveashaperesemblinganAmericanfootballandare

about 40 mm. long. Each fruit contains 3 seeds, though occasionally one may have 4 or 5

seeds.

Figure12Jatrophafruits(photosArthurRiedacker)

Jatrophaseedslooklikeblackbeansandareonaverage18mmlongand12mmwideand10

mmthick.Thesedimensionvarywithinseedsfromthesameplantorprovenanceandbetween

seedsfromdifferentprovenances.Seedweighbetween0.5and0.8gram,withanaverageof

1333 seeds per kilogram. Seeds contain various toxic components (phorbol esters, curcin,

trypsin inhibitors, lectinsandphytates)andarenonedible.Seedsconsistofahardshellthat

makes up around 37% by weight on average and soft white kernel that makes up 63% by

weight.Thedryseedshaveamoisturecontentofaround7%andcontainbetween32and40%

ofoil,

with

an

average

of

34%.

Virtually

all

the

oil

is

present

in

the

kernel.


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Jatropha is a resilient plant that can adapt to many ecological conditions. Its survival

mechanism enables it to withstand periods of stress (cold weather/ severe drought/ low

radiation).Itisabletoretrievethenutrientsfromitsleavesandstorethemintheplantstem

and root system. The leaves then turn yellow and are subsequently shed by the plant. The

stemremainsgreenandphotosyntheticallyactive.Inthisdormantstatetheplantcansurvive

periodsof

more

than

ayear

without

rain.

In some casesjatropha naturally forms a symbiosis with soil mycorrhiza (a specific kind of

fungus)thatincreasestheplantsuptakeofnutrientsandwaterfromthesoil.Thepresenceof

mycorrhiza increases the plants tolerance to drought and low levels of nutrients. This

symbiosisoccurssometimesundernaturalconditionsbutneveroccurs inplantations,unless

artificiallyintroduced.

1.4 Geographicaldistribution

Jatropha

historically

originates

from

Central

America

and

the

northern

parts

of

South

America.

Jatrophahasbeendistributed to other tropical regionsbyEuropeanseafarersandexplorers

from the16thcenturyonwards.Presently itgrows intropicalareasworldwide (SubSaharan

Africancountries,SoutheastAsia,India).

Figure14indicationofthemostsuitableclimateconditionsforthegrowthofJatrophacurcasL

(30N,35S)andOilpalm(ElaeisguinensisJacq.)(4N,8S).[3]

1.5 Jatrophahistoricalandcurrentuses

Historical

records

show

thatjatropha

was

used

by

native

Indians

of

Central

America

and

perhaps South America, where it was traditionally used in herbal medicine. Jatropha seeds

were commercially produced on the Cabo Verde Islands already in 1836. The seeds were

exportedtoPortugalandFranceandtheoilwasusedforstreet lightingandsoapproduction

[1].Duetothetoxicityoftheleavesanditsfastgrowthandresilience,jatrophaisoftenusedas

ahedgeorlivingfencesinceitisnotbrowsedbycattle.Therearemanyothercurrentusesfor

jatropha.Figure15givesanoverviewoftheseveralapplicationsofjatrophaanditsproducts.


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Jatropha Curcas

Fruits

Seeds

Whole plant

- Erosion control

- Hedge plant

- Medicinal use

- Plant protectant

- Fire wood

- Fertiliser

- Combustibles,

- Fertiliser

Fruit hulls

Seed cakeOil

- Fuel * Lamps

* Cooking stoves

* Direct engine fuel- Resource * Soap production

* Bio diesel

- Fertiliser

- Input for biogas production

- Input for combustion- Charcoal production

Figure15Usesofthejatrophaplantandproducts

Figure16Left:Pongamiaseeds(anotheroil

containingtreeseed);Middle:jatrophaseeds

fromTanzania;righttop:soapfromKakuteTanz;

rightbelow:JatrophaoilfromDiligent

Figure17Piecesofpresscake,pressedbya

strainerpress(photoRuralBiodieselBrazil)


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1.6 Factsheet

Table11belowlistsanumberofminimum,maximumandaveragevaluesofseveralJatropha

attributes.

Table11JatrophaFactsheet

Parameter Unit Minimum Average Maximum Source

Seedyield drytonne/

hectare

0.3 1.5 6 PositionPaperonJatropha

LargeScaleProject

Development,FACT2007

Rainfall

requirementsfor

seedproduction

mm/year 600 1,000 1,500 PositionPaperonJatropha

LargeScaleProject

Development,FACT2007

Oilcontentof

seeds

%ofmass 34% 40% Jatrophabiodiesel

productionanduse,W.

Achtenetal,2008

Oilyield

after

pressing%

of

mass

of

seedinput

20%

25%

varioussources

Energycontent MJ/kg 37

1.7 Jatrophaandlocaldevelopment

Jatrophacanbe integrated intotraditionalfarmingsystemsindevelopingcountries.Itcanbe

planted as a living fence around agricultural fields or on marginal soils to control erosion.

Whenthepresscake isreturnedtothefieldsthere isasustainablerecyclingofnutrientsand

thesoilremainsproductive.Theproductionofseedsandprocessingintobiofuelprovideextra

jobopportunities.

Jatropha

biofuel

can

be

used

for

both

transport

and

electricity

production,

andcangivelocalcommunitiesenergyindependence.Anyexcessbiofuelthatisproducedcan

besold.Theoilcanalsobeusedforsoapproduction,providingaprofitableruralactivity.

Jatropha production should only take place when there is sufficient land for local food

production. Intercropping jatropha with food crops is also a good option; the extra

investmentsinagriculturewillincreasefoodproductionaswell.

1.8 Jatrophahandbookoutline

This handbook describes thejatropha oil production process step by step, as indicated in

Figure18.

Introduction

(CH 1)

Plantation

establishment

(CH 2)

Harvesting

(CH 3)

Oil pressing and

purification

(CH 4)

Use of jatropha

products

(CH 5)

Project

implementation

(CH 6)

Figure18Jatrophahandbookoutline

Plantation establishment (Chapter 2) discusses the aspects of the establishment and

management of ajatropha plantation on a small scale (0.5 to 5 ha.). It elaborates on soil

sampling,fieldpreparationandplanting.Furthermorethechapterhighlightsthedangersand

hazards

on

a

plantation,

including

pests

and

diseases.

At

the

end,

there

is

a

discussion

of

variousdryseedyieldsoftheplantation.


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Harvesting (Chapter 3) discusses the harvesting and drying of fruit, and the dehulling and

storage of seeds. It provides insight into the major issues of the harvesting process of the

jatrophaseeds.

Oilpressingandpurification(Chapter4)discussesthemechanicaloilextractionmethodsand

oil

quality

aspects

forjatropha

oil

production.

Multiple

technologies

are

available

for

oil

extraction. The selection is mainly a tradeoff between the acceptable complexity, costs of

technologyandtherequiredoilquality.Productionscaleisanimportantlimitingfactorinthe

choiceoftechnology.Oilextractionisoneaspectofoilproduction.Afterpressing,thejatropha

oilneedsfurtherpurificationbeforeitcanbeused.Cleaningmethods,handlingguidelinesand

storageconditionsarethereforediscussed.

Useofjatrophaproducts (Chapter5)discussesthepotentialapplicationsofjatrophaand its

products.Jatrophaisfirstofallcultivatedfortheoilanditsseveralapplicationsarediscussed.

Duringtheprocessmanybyproductsarecreatedwhichcanbeusedaswell.However,until

nowonlyafewapplicationshavebeenrealizedonareasonableand largescale.Thischapter

elaboratesfurther

on

the

technical

details

and

concepts

needed

to

modify

and

adapt

existing

technologiesfortheuseofjatrophaoilandbyproducts.

Project implementation (Chapter 6) focuses on the implementation phase, which requires

several strategic decisions about who will own the production facilities, what products to

include in the chain and how to finance the different components of the enterprise. These

decisions determine toa large degree thesocial impactandsustainability of the production

chain. This chapter also aims to describe the most important options, with its respective

advantagesanddisadvantages.

Sustainabilityis

another

important

topic

of

the

implementation

phase.

Conformation

with

the

CramerCriteria,forexample,isobligatoryifonewantstosellitsproductsintheNetherlands.

Other sustainability issues, namely environmental, social and economic subjects (people,

profit,planet)arealsoimportantforthelongtermacceptanceandsuccessofanyproject.

1.9 References

1. JoachimHeller,IPGRI 1996 Physicnut underutilizedspecies

2. Jongschaapetal.,2007


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2 PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT

Mainauthor:YweJanFrankenwithcontributionsofFlemmingNielsen

2.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the aspects of establishing and managing ajatropha plantation on a

smallscale(0.5to5ha.).Itelaboratesonsoilsampling,fieldpreparationandplanting.There

aremanyoptionsforstartingaplantation,fromseedstocuttingsanddifferentplantspacing

arrangements. The growth process of thejatropha plant is described here. Subsequently,

plantationmanagement isdescribed. Issuesoffertilizationandweedingbelongtothistopic.

Furthermore,thischapterhighlightsthedangersandhazardsonaplantation, includingpests

anddiseases.Attheend,thereisadiscussionofthevariousdryseedyieldsofaplantation.

2.2 Soilsandfieldpreparation

2.2.1 Soilrequirements

Jatropha prefers welldrained soils with an open wellaerated structure. The soil types

mentionedinthetextbelowrefertoFigure21withtheUSDAsoilclassificationbasedongrain

size.

Mostsuitablesoilsare loam,sandyclay loamandsilt loam.Heavysoils(clay,sandyclay,clay

loam,siltyclayloam,andsilt)areonlysuitableunderrelativelydryconditionswhenfrequent

periods of heavy rainfall are absent. In that casejatropha can be quite productive because

thesesoils

usually

have

agood

nutrient

supply.

Jatropha

cannot

tolerate

permanent

wetness

(it becomes waterlogged). Heavy soils, therefore, are only suitable when they are not

saturated with moisture for long periods (maximum one week, which will already have a

negative impact on production). These conditions occur when there are no periods of high

rainfallthatleadtowaterloggingandwhenthegroundwatertableisoutofreach.Heavysoils

arenotsuitableunder conditionswhereverydryandwetperiodsquickly follow eachother

becausetheyshrinkandswellandrootformationisimpaired.

Sandysoils(sand, loamysand,andsandy loam)aresoilsthatarepronetodryingoutquickly

(unless they are very high in organic matter). On these soilsjatropha has a comparative

advantageover

other

crops,

because

it

is

drought

tolerant.

These

soils

usually

are

not

high

in

nutrients, sojatropha will need fertilization or high organic matter application to the soil in

ordertobeproductive.

Regardlessofthesoil,agoodpHforjatrophaliesbetween5.5and8.5.Undermoreacidicor

alkalineconditionsjatrophagrowthislimited.Soildepthshouldbeatleast45centimetersand

soilslopeshouldnotexceed30. Jatrophacansurvive lowsoilnutrientcontents,but in that

case growth and production are limited. Higher nutrient levels in the soil translate into

increased production. Soil organic matter is also favorable tojatropha growth, especially in

coarsesoils.


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10

Figure21belowclassifiessoilsaccordingtosand,siltandclaycontent.Thefigureconsistsof

threeaxesgivingthesandcontent(leftaxis),siltcontent(rightaxis)andsandcontent(bottom

axis).Thevariousblocksinthefigureindicatedifferentsoiltypes.

Figure21USDAsoilclassification

2.2.2 Soilsampling

Itisimportanttohaveagoodindicationofthesoiltypeandfertilityattheplantingsite.Before

startingaplantation,soilsamplesshouldbetakenandanalyzed.

Soilsamplesshouldbe taken at around30cmdepthand perspot (100m2)around1015

samples should be taken of 100 cm3 each. The location of each spot should be exactly

described preferably by GPS coordinates. The samples should be pulverized and mixed well

togethertoget1sampleforanalysis.Onecupofsoilshouldbeput inaplasticbag, labelled

andusedforanalysis.Theremainderofthemixedsampleshouldbe labelledandstoredasa

backup.Perhectare,atleast5mixedsamplesshouldbeanalyzed.

Theclay,siltandsandcontentneedtobemeasuredtodeterminethesoiltype.Soilnutrient

levels need to be measured for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and, preferably, also

magnesium,zinc, copper,sulphur and calcium.Otheraspects thatshouldbe included in the

analysis are organic matter (OM), soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and saturation

percentageoftheCECforpotassium,magnesiumandcalcium.

The data should be professionally analyzed to get a good indication of soil fertility (low,

medium, high) and the Jatropha production potential at the site (see also annex A on seed

yields).Thiscanbedonebyasoillaboratoryorbyanexternalsoilscientist.Incasethisisnot

possibleacommercial

soil

testing

kit

can

be

used.


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11

2.2.3 Soilpreparation

Thesoilneedstobeclearedfromvegetationbeforeplanting,andweedsneedtoberemoved.

2.2.3.1 Plantingholes

Whenplantingjatrophaonly,plantingholesshouldbeprepared.Theseholescanbedugwith

an

axe

or

by

drilling.

On

hard

or

compacted

soils,

ploughing

or

deep

ripping

of

the

soils

is

advisable,especiallywhenconsideringintercropping,inwhichcasetheentiresoilneedtobe

prepared.

Incaseofhardcompactedsoils,itisalsopossibletopreparelinesforplantingorseedingwith

adeepripperwhichisachiselploughwithjustonehook.Adeeprippershouldripfrom3050

cm.deep.Thiswillallow therootsystemof thejatrophaseedlingstodevelopwell.Aripper

cannotbemanuallyoperatedbutmustbeusedwithanimaltractionorfixedtoatractor.

Holes for planting should ideally have the following minimum dimensions: diameter of 30

centimetres

and

minimal

depth

of

45

centimetres.

The

holes

should

be

refilled

with

a

mixture

ofsoilandorganicmatter(compost)inaratio1:1.

Artificialfertilizerormanureshouldbeadded.Theamountoffertilizeraddedshouldbeabout

10 20gramsofcommonN:P:K(nitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium)fertilizer(from6:6:6to

15:15:15 or variations between these limits). The fertilizer should be mixed evenly. In case

animalmanureisused,about0.5kgwouldbesufficientperplanthole.Theamountoforganic

matter can vary between 20% and 50%. The formula of the mixture then changes into soil:

compost:manureinaratio2:1:1.Incaseofheavier(moreclay)soilsjatrophacultivationisnot

advised.However, in thatcase sandshouldbeadded to themixture ina ratioofsoil: sand:

organicmatterof1:1:2.

Themixtureshouldbefreefromstonesandlargerobjects.Makingtheholesneedstobedone

justbeforetherainyseason.Plantingshouldstartwhenthesoilshavereceivedthefirstrains.

Morefertilizercandamagetherootsoftheyoungseedlingsandcanbestbeaddedafterone

or two months. About 50 to 100 grams of the same NPK (see before) needs to be evenly

distributedandmixedwiththetopsoilinadiameterofabout50centimetresaroundtheplant.

2.2.3.2 Plantspacing

Spacing inplantationscanvary.Acommonlyappliedplantspacing is inarectangularpattern

of3x2,5meterswith1333plants/ha.Whenplantsgrowtheyneedtohaveenoughspacefor

growthandbranching.Inthispatternthereisenoughspaceforintercroppinginthefirstyear

andeventhesecondyearwhenjatrophadevelopsslowly.Widerspacingleadstolargertrees

thatgrowtallerandhigher,whichhindersharvestingandpruning.Inamorenarrowspacing

2.5 m x 2.5 m or 2 m x 2 m more intensive pruning is necessary to keep the plants from

growingintoeachother.Thisrequiresalotofextralabour.Amorenarrowspacingleadstoa

moreintensiveagricultureandrequiressoilswithgoodnutrientandwatersupply.

Incaseofpermanentintercropping,theplantsshouldbeplantedinrowswithalargerdistance

inbetweenforothercrops.Thedistancebetweentherowsdependsonthespaceneededfor

intercropping,usuallyabout4meters.ThedistancebetweenJatrophaplantswithinarow is

2.5or

3meters.


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12

In case mechanized agriculture is considered, e.g. a tractor, there should be at least 4 m

spacing inbetweentherows,assuming2meters forthetractorand1meterofbrancheson

each side. The spacing between plants within a row can be reduced to 1.5 m in this case

resulting in an overall spacingof 4mx 1.5 m [31]. In living fences, plants should be spaced

about 25 centimetres apart from each other in a single or in double rows. For quick

establishmentit

is

advisable

to

start

from

cuttings

in

the

rainy

season.

Monoculturejatropha itselfis largelyfireresistant,buttheburningofweedsandgrasseswill

kill the plant. [31]. In fire hazard areas it is advised to split plantations into separate

compartments by making fire lanes of at least 2 metres wide. This will prevent fire from

damaging theentireplantation. These fire lanesshouldbekept free from weeds, cropsand

overgrownvegetation.

2.2.3.3 Plantingseason

Thebesttimeforplanting isattheonsetoftherainyseasonwhenthesoilhastakenupthe

firstsoilmoisture.Whenwaterisavailableatlowcosts,itispossibletostartplantingseveral

weeksuptoamonthbeforetherainyseason.

Afterplanting,extrawateringoftheplantsisnecessaryonlywhentherainsarenotsufficient,

anditcanceaseafter3monthsofgrowthwhentheplantshavedevelopedtheirrootsystem.

2.3 Jatrophaplantdevelopment

Toapplyanoptimalmanagementofajatrophaplantation, it is importanttounderstandthe

developmentstagesofthejatrophaplant.

2.3.1 Jatrophadevelopmentstages

Startingfrom

seed,

jatropha

goes

through

various

stages

of

development.

The first is thejuvenile stage. It starts with the seed that soaks up water when planted

(imbibition)andisfollowedbygermination.Thesmallseedlingthencomesabovetheground

(emergence)andstartstodevelopshootsandroots(establishment).Thisjuvenilestagetakes

abouttwoandahalfmonthsunderoptimalconditions.

Thesecondstageistheflowerinductionsensitivephase.Atthisstagetherightenvironmental

conditions (high radiation/ high average temperatures/ high minimum temperatures(>18C)

and sufficient rainfall can trigger flower induction. Flowering is the third stage. After

pollinationthefruitstartfillingandripening,which isthefourthstage.Thetimefromflower

induction

to

harvest

takes

approximately

3

months.

After

harvest

the

plant

may

enter

a

stage

of dormancy where it is insensitive to flowering or it may enter another flower induction

sensitivephase.Thisdependsonstressconditions,buttheexactmechanismisnotyetknown.

Figure22Jatrophadevelopmentstages[28]


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13

2.3.2 Rootdevelopment

Aftergerminationfromseedsjatrophaseedlingsdevelop

onetaprootandfourlateralroots.Therootsystemthus

grows both into the upper and deeper soil layers,

provided the soil is deep enough. Figure 23 shows a

jatropharoot

system

where

the

left

plant

has

developed

athicktaprootgrowingdownvertically.

Incasecuttingsareused,only lateralrootsdevelopand

notaproot.

2.3.3 Floweringandfruiting

Jatrophafloweringisacomplexmatter.It isknownthat

flowering is induced by stress factors, like temperature

fluctuations

and

drought,

but

how

exactly

and

at

what

thresholds this occurs is still unknown. For flower

induction Jatropha plants need to be exposed to high

solar radiation. Plants thatgrow shadedunder trees or

in clouded conditions do not floweror flower markedly less thanplants in the full sun. Ina

climate with distinct seasons Jatropha starts flowering after these periods of stress have

ended,whichcanbeseveraltimesperyear.Inclimateswithanevenlydistributedrainfalland

no large seasonal variation in

temperatures Jatropha may flower

continuously when there are no other

formsofinducedstress.

Under optimal conditions, jatropha

usually flowers about 36 months after

the seeds have been sown. The time

from flower induction to fruit

maturation is 90 days. The female

flowers produce fruits that are first

green, and turn yellow when ripening.

Later the yellow fruit hull turns brown

andblackwhentheydry.

2.4 Plantingmaterialandplantingmethods

One of the first actions to take when starting a Jatropha plantation is to obtain enough

Jatropha plant material and decide how to produce Jatropha plants. Jatropha plants can be

produced by seeds, cuttings, or by micro propagation. These methods and the suitability of

thesemethodsfordifferentconditionsaredescribedbelow.

2.4.1 Geneticandphenotypicalvariation

ProvenancetrialsandresearchintothegeneticsofJatrophacurcasL.hasshownthatthereis

some genetic variation between plants from different provenances (or accessions) that are

growingworldwide.

Natural

genetic

variation

between

provenances

is

largest

in

the

centre

of

origin(CentralAmericaandtheNorthernpartsofSouthAmerica).

Figure23Jatropharootsystem.

Picture:JoachimHeller

Figure24Thevariousstagesoffruitdevelopment.

Theopenfruitsshowstheblackseedsinside


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14

Plantsgrownfromthesameseedsourcecandifferconsiderablyinmorphologicalaspectslike

plant height and seed production. It is not yet known to what extent this morphological

variation can be attributed to genetic or environmental factors. When seeds from a certain

location are collected, variationcan be minimized by selecting seeds (see nextpart on seed

selection).

2.4.2 Seedselection

First of all, it is important to obtain high quality seed material. When ordering seeds one

shouldmakesuretheymatchthefollowingcriteria:

Seeds come from highyielding provenances that grow under similar agroecological

conditionsaswheretheplantationisplanned.

Seedsareaselectionoftheheaviestandlargestseedsfromtheseselectedprovenances.

Seedshaveamoisturecontentofaround7%.

Seedsareyoung(preferablynotolderthan6months).

Seedshavebeenstoredundercool,darkanddryconditions.

2.4.3 Germination

Jatrophaseedsgerminateeasilywhenplantedinsoilatabout2cmdepthandwiththewhite

tipoftheseedfacingslightlydownwardsandtheroundedsideoftheseedfacingupwards.

Jatrophagerminatesinanysoilwithacontinuouslyhighhumidityandsufficientairsupply(in

waterloggedsoilsjatrophaseedswillrot).Pretreatmentofseedsdidnotshowbetterresults

in germination compared to dry seeds directly planted in Mozambique [20]. Seeds with the

above mentioned characteristics will germinate within 78 days under hot (average

temperature>25C)andhumidconditions.Undercoolerconditionsgerminationtakeslonger.

Seedsthatgerminatewithin10daysaremorevigorousandshouldbeused.

Jatrophacanbedirectlyseededinthefieldsorcanbegerminatedinanursery,dependingon

thefactorsthatwillbediscussedhereunder.

Figure25Jatrophaseedgerminating(left)andsmallseedlingsthathavejustemerged(right)(photo:

PeterMoers)

2.4.4 Directseeding

Theadvantagesofdirectseedingaretheoptimalrootdevelopmentofthejatrophaplantsand

lowercosts

for

labour

and

materials

as

compared

to

setting

up

anursery.

A

disadvantage

is

thatthecontentoftoxinsinseedlingsislowinthefirstmonthsandrabbitsandotheranimals


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15

can eat the emerging plants. Directseeding is recommended in case sufficientwater supply

duringgerminationanddevelopmentoftheseedlingscanbeguaranteed,e.g.whensoilshave

taken upenoughmoisturenaturally orby irrigation.Whendirectseeding,competition from

weedsinthefirst3monthsmustbeavoided.

For

optimaljatropha

establishment,

the

seedlings

should

have

access

to

easy

penetrable,

nutrientrichandorganicmatterrichsoiltoadepthofat least45cm. Incaseofcompacted

soils,plantingholesshouldbemadeofabout45cmdeepandabout30cmwideandshouldbe

filledwithloosesoilmixedwithorganicmatterandpreferablyabasicmixoffertilizer/manure.

Seedsshouldbeplantedasdescribedundergermination in theplantingspots inthechosen

plantingpattern(commonis2.5mx3m(seeearlierpartonplantspacing).Oneshouldplant

twoseedsinsteadofoneforeverythirdplantingspotatabout25cmapart(sotherootsystem

ofthetwoseedlingsdoesnotgrow intoeachother).Thiswillresult insomespareseedlings

thatcanbeeasily transferred. Incaseseeds insomeplantingholesdonotgerminateorare

lost, the extra seedlings can be planted there. The extra plants can also be used to replace

plants

that

develop

slowly

compared

to

the

other

plants

or

show

abnormal

growth

(e.g.

strangelyshaped leafs).Thisselectionstep isimportantbecauseslowlydevelopingplantswill

producelessfruitsandseedsandwillhaveloweraverageyields.

Theamountofseedsneededdependson theplantingdensity. Ataspacingof2.5mx3m,

1333 plants are needed, which requires 2000 seeds (including the extra plants for non

germinatingseedsandtocompensateforlostplantsorreplacementoflowqualityseedlings).

Thisequalsaround1.2kgseeds/hawithanaverageseedweightof0.6grams.

2.4.5 Nurseryplanting

Theadvantages

of

growing

jatropha

in

nurseries

are

twofold:

first,

seedlings

can

grow

under

controlled, optimal circumstances and slow or abnormally performing plants can easily be

removed.Anotheradvantageisthatnurseryplantsarestrongerwhenplantedinthefieldsand

can more easily survive when the conditions for establishment are suboptimal (drought,

weeds, presence of browsing cattle and insects). There are, however, drawbacks of nursery

plants. The root development of seedlings is hampered because of growing in the smaller

containers.Thisisespeciallydisadvantageouswhentheseedlingsarenotplantedtimelyinthe

fields (


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16

InMozambiqueanurseryhasgrownseedlingsinaseedbednurseryonarelativelylargescale

andnopolybagswereused.Despitethecuttingoftherootswhentheseedlingsareremoved

fromtheseedbed,theseedlingsareperformingwell[31].

Itiswisetoinvestinchemicalpestanddiseasecontrolinordertokeeptheseedlingsfreefrom

pestand

diseases

that

could

otherwise

be

spread

to

the

fields.

Figure26Jatrophanurserywithseedlings(forapprox.2ha)inpolybagspartlyshadedartificially(left)

orbytrees(right)(photos:PeterMoers)

Aftertheseedlingshaveestablished(11.5months),theyshouldbetransferredtothefieldas

quicklyaspossible.Thesoilrequirements forplantingaresimilarto those fordirectseeding

(seedirectseeding).

2.4.6 Cuttings

CuttingsareafastandcheapwayofpropagatingJatropha.Oneadvantageisthatcuttingsare

cloneswiththesamegeneticcharacteristicsasthemotherplant,and incaseahighyielding

motherplant isselectedthecuttingshavethesameproperties[31].Thedisadvantageisthat

cuttingsdeveloponlylateralrootsandcannotaccessnutrientsandwaterindeepersoillayers.

Cuttingsthereforehavelimiteddroughttolerance.Werecommendthisonlyforlivingfences.

UsingcuttingsforaJatrophaplantationonlyworksonfertileandsoilswithagoodpermanent

watersupplyandabsenceoflongdryperiods.

Cuttings

are

best

made

from

the

thickest

branches

at

the

base

of

the

jatropha

plant.

Best

is

to

make cuttings of at least 30 cm (but 50 cm gives a higher success rate). Cuttings should be

placeddirectlyinwetsoilleaving15cmormoreofbranchabovethesoil.Cuttingscanalsobe

produced in a nursery in polypropylene bags. Soil should be kept wet (therefore the rainy

seasonisthebesttimeforcuttings).Normallythefirstshootsappearafter3to4weeks.

2.4.7 Micropropagatedclones

A technologically advanced method of obtaining larger amounts of jatropha plants is by

micropropagation.Theadvantageisthatyoucancreatelargenumbersofgeneticallyidentical

plantsofonemotherplantwiththedesiredcharacteristics.Similartocuttings,therootsystem

development is not natural and it requires hormonal stimulation to induce roots to grow

verticallyinstead

of

laterally.

This

method

requires

sophisticated

technologies

and

chemicals

and is costly and as such is not recommended for smaller scale plantations. However when


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17

goodqualitymicropropagatedplantsbecomeavailableonthemarketataffordablepricesthis

willbeinterestingforsmallerplantationsaswell.

2.5 Plantationmanagement(agronomy)

2.5.1 Weeding

Jatropha usually survives when overgrown by weeds, but growth and production will be

minimal [31]. It is very important to keep thejatropha fields free from weeds. At regular

intervalsweedsshouldberemovedandleftonthegroundtoprovideorganicmaterialtothe

topsoil.Thefrequencyofweedingdependsonthegrowthoftheweeds.Whenweedsstartto

shadethejatrophaorgrowastallasthejatrophaplantstheyshouldberemoved,aswellas

whentheylimitaccesstothespaceinbetweenrows.Afteronetothreeseasonsdependingon

the agroclimatic conditions the canopies of Jatropha will be so dense that weed growth is

severelysuppressedandlabourforweedingconsequentlydrops[31].

Inmostcasestheamountof labourdeterminesthearea thatcanbekeptweedfree. In the

caseof largescaleplantationswithpartlymechanizedcultivation,around2ha/personcould

besufficientlyfreedfromweeds.Incaseofsmallscalecultivationthisiscloserto1ha/person.

2.5.2 Nutrientmanagement

2.5.2.1 Nutrientrequirements

Jatropha needs sufficient amountsof nutrients in order to grow into a fullsize plant and to

produceseeds.Inthefirst4yearsnutrientsareneededtobuildupagoodplantarchitecture

(roots, stems, leaves). Also in this period an increasing amount of nutrients is needed to

produceflowers

and

fruits.

After

4years,

when

the

plants

have

developed

to

their

final

shape

andsizenutrientsareprimarilyneededformaintenanceoftheplantandforfruitproduction.

Thenutrientsremovedbyharvestingjatrophafruitshouldbereturnedtothefieldsafterthe

energy (mostly lipids consisting of the elements C, H and O and no nutrients) is extracted.

Jatropha fruit shellsandpresscake (or residue from biogas production) arebest returned to

thefieldsasorganicfertilizer,whichclosesthenutrientcycle.Inthatcase,jatrophaplantscan

continuouslyproduceandnoorlittlefertilizationisnecessary.

When fruitshells and presscake (or biogas residue) are not returned to the fields regular

fertilization

with

NPK

(nitrogen/

phosphorus

and

potassium)

and

micronutrients

will

be

necessary. In case of highly fertile soils,jatropha fertilization is not necessary. There are

enoughnutrientsforplantdevelopmentandfruitproduction.

1.Nutrientsrequirementsduringjatrophaestablishment

In the first years, nutrients are needed for maturation and development of highyielding

jatropha plants. Under conditions of poor soil fertility extra nutrients are required for

plantationestablishmentandseedproductioninthefirst4years.


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Table21Annualmacronutrientrequirementstobuildupjatrophastandingstockandfruitsinyears

1 4[29].Productioninyear4,with50%ofrequirednutrientsfromexistingsoilfertility

Year 1 2 3 4 Total

Annualneed kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yr

N 23 34 69 103 229

P2O5

7

11

21

32

71

K2O 34 50 101 151 336

The yearly amounts of different types of fertilizer needed in the first 4 years have been

calculated. This is based on the nutrient requirements given in Table 21 and the nutrient

contentofdifferenttypesoffertilizer.TherequirementsarecalculatedbasedonsufficientN

supplyandingeneraltherequirementsforothernutrientsarealsometwhentheamountsin

thetablebelowaregiven.Thesevaluescountforpoorsoils,whereonly50%ofthenutrients

neededarederivedfromthesoil.Incaseofextremelypoorsoils,morefertilizerisneeded.The

composition of chemical fertilizer in Table 21 and Table 22 is given as the amounts of

Nitrogen:Phosphorus:Potassium(N:P:K)inpercentages.

Table22Annualfertilizerrequirementstobuildupjatrophastandingstockandfruitsinyear14[5]

Typeoffertilizer Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4 Total

Drycowmanure(t/ha) 5 6 12 18 41

Drychickenmanure(t/ha) 1 1.2 2.4 3.6 8.2

Vermicompost(t/ha) 1.2 1.7 3.4 5.2 11.5

Chemicalfertilizer(16416)(kg/ha) 140 210 430 640 1420

Urea(46%Nitrogen)(kg/ha) 44 74 150 224 492

2.Nutrientsrequirementsforseedproduction

Aharvest

of

1MT

of

seeds

is

equivalent

to

the

removal

of

the

following

amount

of

nutrients

(infruitsincludingseeds)[3]:

14.3to34.3kg/haN

0.7to7.0kg/haP

and14.3to31.6kg/haK

SeeannexAforthewithdrawalofnutrientsofonetonofdryseedofjatrophacomparedwith

otheroilseedcrops.

Incase fruitshellsandpresscake (orresidue frombiogasproduction)arenotreturnedtothe

field,thesenutrientsneedtobereplaced.Theyearlyamountsofdifferent typesof fertilizer

necessary

per

hectare

to

replace

the

nutrients

removed

by

harvesting

1

MT

of

seeds

are

shownbelow.The requirementsarecalculatedbasedonsufficientNsupply and, ingeneral,

therequirements forothernutrientsarealsometwhentheamounts inthetablebeloware

given.

Table23Nutrientsneededtoreplacethelossbyharvesting1MTofseeds

Type Amountneeded

Dry(solid)cowmanure 7MT

Dry(solid)chickenmanure 1.3MT

Vermicompost 1.65MT

Chemicalfertilizer(15510) 0.22MT(220kg)

Chemicalfertilizer

(12

210)

0.27

MT

(270

kg)

Urea(46%Nitrogen) 0.072MT(72kg)


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2.5.2.2 Organicmatter

OrganicMatter(OM)levelinthesoilleadstoanenhancedcationexchangecapacity(resulting

inalosebindingofnutrientsintheorganicmatter)andalsoabettersoilstructure.Ithasbeen

demonstrated in a number of trials thatjatropha responds positively to a high OM level.

Organicfertilizersarethereforerecommended.

2.5.2.3 Fertilisation

Thebest timeto fertilize isjustbeforeorat thestartoftherainyseason. It isbest toapply

fertilizer evenly in a circle around thejatropha plant with a maximum of 1 meter from the

plant. In case anorganic (artificial) fertilizer is used, it is best mixed with organic matter or

compost. Applying artificial fertilizer in smaller quantities and with a higher frequency

throughout the year decreases losses due to runoff and deep percolation and increases its

efficiency.

Heavy nitrogen fertilization may lead to strong emissions of the greenhouse gas NO2 with a

strong

global

warming

potential.

This

will

reduce

the

number

of

carbon

credits

that

can

be

earnedinaJatrophaproject.

2.5.2.4 Mycorrhiza

Asimpleandcheapwayof increasingjatrophayields isby theuseofmycorrhiza,whichare

fungi that live in symbiosis with plant roots. Mycorrhiza taps organic substances from the

plant, especially sugars and Bvitamins. In return mycorrhiza make nutrients in the soil

available for the plant and help in water uptake. Mycorrhiza, combined with moderate

fertilization,guaranteesahighnutrientuptakebytheplantandminimizesnutrientslossesby

percolation. The use of mycorrhiza is cheap (about 510 /ha). Mycorrhiza are especially

effectiveinpooranddrysoilswheretheycanincreaseyieldsbyabout30%.

Mycorrhizaarebestapplieddissolved inwaterandappliedintheplantholebeforeorduring

planting.Mycorrhizacanalsobeappliedtoexistingjatrophaplantsbydiggingacircularpitof

around 1020 cm deep at around 40 cm around the stem and applying the water with

mycorrhiza. Afterwards the pit should be covered with soil. It is also possible to coat seeds

withmycorrhizabeforeseeding. Inaddition,theyareeasytoapply inanurserywhenmixed

withthewater.

2.5.3 Pruning

Jatropha flowers form only at the end of branches, pruning leads to more branches and as

such

to

more

potential

for

fruit

production.

Another

important

reason

to

prune

is

to

keep

the

plantsinamanageablesize.Undernaturalconditionsjatrophacangrowintoatreeofabout6

meterstallwithacrownwidthof6meters,whichmakesitveryhardtoharvest.Inaplantation

with a high density (around 1100 plants/ha), it is important to sufficient keep distance

between the plants to avoid competition for light and space. Plants should be kept low to

facilitatemanualpicking.

Withgoodpruningthejatrophaplantsshouldhavestrong lateralbranchesthatcanbearthe

weight of the fruits. In the fourth or fifth year after planting and after several rounds of

pruningtheplantsshouldultimatelyhavesome200250terminalbranches.

Itis

important

to

prune

only

under

dry

conditions

and

best

when

the

plants

have

shed

their

leaves. When pruning make slightly vertical cuts (see pictures) so water runs off and avoid


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making horizontal cuts where water can stack. Pruning in the rainy season and with high

relativeairhumidityincreasestherisksforbacterialorviralplantinfectionandfungalattacks.

Allcutplantmaterialcanbeleftasgroundcoverormulch.

Thefirstpruningisneededafter36monthsandwhenplantshavedevelopedwell(atleast70

centimetrestall).

When

branching

from

the

ground

has

started

naturally

cutting

back

the

main

stem is notnecessary.Cutting themainstem isdoneataheightof3045cmaboveground.

Largerplantscanbecutbackat45cmandsmallerplantsat30cm.

Figure27Branchingafterpruning(photo:

ArthurRiedacker)

Figure28Plantcutback(photo:Arthur

Riedacker)

Afteroneyear,asecondroundofpruningisneededwhenplantshavegrownextensivelyafter

the first pruning. Secondary and tertiary branches should be cut leaving about one third of

branch (as seen from the last branching) on the plant. After two years, a same round of

pruning(asafteroneyear)shouldberepeated.

Onthe longerterm,afterabout8to10yearsandwhenplantsaregrowingverydense, it is

advised to cut back the entire plant to about 45 cm aboveground an allow it to regrow.

Becauseofthewelldevelopedrootsystemtheplantwillgrowbackveryrapidly.

2.5.4 Irrigation

Irrigationcanincreaseyields.Thecostsforirrigationarehighandinmostcases,withcurrent

jatropha seed prices, it is not economically viable. Installation and material costs for the

irrigationof1hectareareatminimum400.Operationalcostspermmofirrigationareinthe

rangeof0.300.40/mm/ha.

Insomecasesafteroneyieldtherainyseasonisjustnotlongenoughtosustainasecondyield.

Withirrigationthegrowthseasoncanbeextendedlongenoughforasecondyield.Thereturns

from an extra yield are maximally around 1500 kg/ha. At a price of e.g. 0.06/kg the extra

return is90.Whenanextra200mmneedstobeappliedthecostsperhectareareatleast

60,

not

yet

including

the

costs

for

installation

of

the

irrigation

system.

Considering

the

extra


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21

manpowerneededforharvesting,andthecostsforextrafertilizationonecaneasilyconclude

thatthebenefitsdonotoutweighthecosts.

Therefore,under normalconditions, irrigation onlymakessense inshowgardensand in the

production of jatropha plants for special purposes, e.g. highquality seed production for

propagation,plant

breeding,

clonal

gardens,

and

scientific

experiments.

2.5.5 Intercropping

The greatest advantage of intercroppingjatropha with annual crops is that the farmers will

applygoodmanagementoftheannualcropsandalsoforjatropha.Jatrophaplantsareoften

neglected in the first year(s) because the production is not interesting from an economic

perspective.

Growingjatropha incombinationwithotherplants isonlypossiblewhensufficientnutrients

andwaterareavailable.Indrylocationswithoutirrigation,intercroppingisnotpossibledueto

competition for water. In soils poor in nutrients, intercropping is only possible with extra

fertilization.ItisalsopossibletogrowfoddercropsinbetweentheJatrophaplantsandallow

grazing. In this case the jatropha plants

should be well established and tall to avoid

damage caused by animals. Jatropha should

notbeintercroppedwithcassava,sinceitisa

possiblehostforseveralcassavadiseases.

It is advisable to start intercropping at the

sametimeasplantingthejatropha.Jatropha

initially might grow slower than the

intercroppedspecies.

In

that

case,

and

when

intercroppedspeciesareplantedclosetothe

jatropha plants, it is recommended to plant

the intercrops a month later sojatropha is

given a head start. Intercropping with

species that provide yield in the first and

second year ensures good management,

especiallyclearingthecropsfromweeds.

Cropsthatcanbeconsideredshouldbeannualorbiannualcropsthatremainrelatively low

andwillnotshadethejatrophaplants.Examplesarecorn,peanuts,beansandpeppers.After1

or

2

years,

thejatropha

plant

canopy

closes

and

there

is

no

more

room

for

intercropped

speciesand itbecomesdifficultforweedstoestablish.Nitrogenfixingspeciessuchasbeans

areatanadvantageinintercroppingsystemssincejatrophaitselfdoesnotfixnitrogen[31].

ThemodelsinChapter6describetheeconomicfeasibilityofintercropping.

2.6 Jatrophahedges

Jatropha isalsocultivatedinhedges.Thehedgesareusedaslivingfence,forerosioncontrol,

demarcationofboundariesand fortheprotectionofhomesteads,gardensandfieldsagainst

browsinganimals

[12].

In

hedges

jatropha

is

often

planted

25

to

50

cm

apart

in

asingle

row

or

adoublerowwith50cmbetweentherows[5].It isrecommendedtoplantabout1jatropha

plant from seed for every meter of hedge. This will ensure that water and nutrients from

Figure29JatrophaintercroppedwithArachis

PintoiandCapsicumchinensisinBelize(photo:

SylviaBaumgart)


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22

deepersoil layersareused[31].Onfertilesoilswithagoodmoisturesupplyyieldsareabout

0.8kgpermeterofhedge[12].Onpoorsoilsthiswillbemuchless.

2.7 Seedyields

Jatrophaseed

yields

depend

on

anumber

of

factors

(see

Figure

210

below):

Figure210Overviewoftheproductionsituationswithindicativedrymatteryieldlevels[24]

Whenallgrowthconditionsareoptimalandonlywaterandnutrientlevelsdeterminejatropha

yield,FACThasestimatedjatrophayieldsandpotentialseedyieldsfordifferentlevelsofwater

andnutrientsupply(seetablebelow).Thesedataaremeanttogiveanindicationonyieldsand

bynomeansguaranteetheseyieldswillbeobtainedinreality.Thetableisbasedonfielddata

FACThascollected since2005. The yield under optimal conditions isbasedondata fromN.

Foidl from the welldocumented proyecto tempate (1992) in Nicaragua, with maximum

yields of 4.5 MT of dry seeds/ha/year (FACT seminar on Jatropha agronomy and genetics,

2007). The 6 MT maximum yield given is based on the assumption that the breeding and

selectioneffortsofthelastyearshaveledtohigheryieldingplantsandtheagriculturalpractice

hasbeen

optimized.

Thefollowingconsiderationsandrestrictionsapplytotheaforementionedinformation:

Jatrophageneticmaterial.Abovementionedyieldsonlyapplytoplants fromselectedseeds

from the highest yielding provenances available that are adapted to local soil and climatic

conditions.

Agroecologicalconditions.These figuresonlyhold forareaswith theoptimal temperatures

andradiationforJatropha.


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23

Watersupply.OptimalwatersupplymeansthatwaterisavailabletotheJatrophaplantatall

timesanddroughtandwaterloggingdonotoccur.Incaseofrainfall,growthiseither:

water limited (drought), gradually reducing the number of harvest from three to one

harvestperyearandreducingthewateravailabilityforgrowthandfruitproduction.

limitedduetonegativeimpactsfromwaterloggingleadingtorootdamage.Thishappens

incase

of

excessive

rainfall

in

combination

with

water

holding

soils.

Soilfertility.Highsoilfertilityismentionedandalsoimpliesgoodsoilstructureandaeration.

Table24ExpectedJatrophaseedyieldsfordifferentwatersupplyandsoilfertility[5]

Watersupply SoilFertility DrySeeds(kg/ha/yr)

Optimal high 6,000

medium 2,500

low 750

Normal high 3,500

medium 1,500

low 500

Suboptimal high 1,500

medium 750

low 250

2.8 Pestanddiseases

Author:FlemmingNielsen

When Jatropha curcas grows as solitary plant in the landscape or in small stands it rarely

showssigns

of

pests

and

diseases.

However,

when

cultivated

in

higher

densities

in

plantations

or hedges this situation changes. Reports of pests and diseases come from all parts of the

world in increasingnumbers.Inmostcasesthesepestsanddiseasesarenotdetrimentaland

sofarfewareofeconomicimportance.

Whenanewcropisintroducedandcultivatedonalargescaleitcantakeyearsbeforethepest

anddiseasepressure is felt.Thiseffect, forexample, isdemonstratedwithseveralnewagro

forestryspecies.Thelowincidencerateofpestsanddiseasescurrentlyobservedinmostareas

canthereforenotbeassumedtolast[3].Pestsanddiseasesthathavebeenreportedtoaffect

jatrophaarelistedinannexA.

Mostofthepestsareofminorimportance.Theimportantpestsvarywithregions:

Africa: Flea beetle (Aphthona spp.) eats the leaves and their larvae penetrate the roots

(Nielsen 2007, Gagnaux2008).The yellow flea beetle (Aphthona dilutipes) appears to cause

moreseveredamagethanthegoldenfleabeetle,sometimesresultingin100%mortality.The

authorhasonlyobservedtheyellowfleabeetleinManicaProvinceinMozambiqueandknows

only of one other observation namely from Malawi where it also causes severe damage.

(TimothyMahoney,Pers.comm.).

Central and South America: fruit feeding true bugs, Pachycoris klugii Burmeister

(Scutelleridae)and

Leptoglossus

zonatus

(Coreidae)

(Grimm

and

Maes

1997).


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24

Asia:The scutellarid bug Scutellera nobilis Fabr. which causes flower fall, fruit abortion and

malformation of seeds, and the inflorescence and capsuleborer, Pempelia morosalis that

causesdamagebywebbingandfeedingon inflorescencesand in laterstagesboring intothe

capsule(ShankerandDhyani2006).

Virus

damage

is

of

major

concern

and

appears

to

be

spreading

fast

inIndia.

In

Africa

virus

presenceisstillrare.

There is concern that, for instance, African Cassava Mosaic Virus may be transferred by

Jatropha curcas, although cases have only been reported in Jatropha multifida. L. Mnch

(1986) states that cassava superelongation disease (Sphaceloma manihoticola/Elsinoe

brasiliensis)canbetransmittedtoJatrophacurcas.Forthesereasonsitisadvisednottoplant

cassavaandJatrophacurcasinthesamefield(Heller1996).

Commonbean(Phaseolusvulgaris)issusceptibletoJatrophaMosaicVirus(Hughesetal2003).

Itistransmittedbywhitefly(Bemisiatabaci)(Rajetal2008).

2.8.1 Controlmeasures

Researchonbiologicalcontrolmeasuresisongoing,butcurrentlythereisnoknowledgeabout

theefficiencyofvariousmethods,sospecificrecommendationscannotyetbemade (Grimm

1999, Raj et al 2008). However, methods that work with other crops may be efficient in

jatropha too. It is also likely that local methods can be developed in many cases so

experimentationisencouraged.

ChemicalpesticidesareusedsuccessfullyagainstmajorpestsinJatrophacurcas,including:

Pesticides containing Chlorpyrifos or Cyphenothrin are efficient against Aphthona spp.

(fleabeetle)

(F

Nielsen

pers.

obs.)

Captafol at3000 ppm is recommendedas adip for the eradication of superelongation

disease(Lozanoetal1981)incassavacuttings.ItislikelytobeefficientforJatrophatoo.

Collar rot can be controlled with 0.2% Copper Oxy Chloride (COC) or 1% Bordeaux

drenching(FACTSeminar2007)

Bark eater (Indrabela sp.) and capsule borer can be controlled with a mixture of vitex,

neem,aloe,CalatropisorRogor@2ml/litofwater.Alternatively,sprayingEndosulfan@

3 ml/lit of water can be used (Paramathma et al 2004, FACT Seminar 2007). Many

countrieshavebannedendosulfan.

2.8.2 Preventivemeasures

1. Use resistant jatropha varieties. Presently there is no systematic knowledge about

resistantvarieties.However,nondiseasedplantsshouldbeselectedas"motherplants"

forseedsandcuttings.

2. Don'tplantJatrophacurcaswhenthepestpressureishigh.Highpestpressureisnormally

foundtowardstheendoftherainyseasonwhentemperaturesandtherelativehumidity

ishigh.Arecentstudy(Gagnaux2007)foundthatJatrophacurcasplantedwhenthepest

pressurewashighshowedincreasedinfestationratesyearsafterplanting.


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25

3. Sanitarymeasures:

i) Disinfect tools used for cutting and pruning. Alcohol, chlorine and household

cleaners like Lysol are quite efficient but may not be feasible for small farmers.

Cleaning with water, grass or sand is not very efficient for removing latex but is

betterthannothing.Ifafireisavailableflamingmaybethemostefficientlowcost

method.

ii) Ifpossibleavoidusingthesamecutting&pruningtoolsforcassavaandjatropha.

iii) Uproot diseased plants. Inspection should preferably be done at least weekly

duringthefirstfewmonths.Ifnurseriesareused,inspectionand"rogueing"should

be part of the routine. Whiteflies, which are responsible for spreading important

viruses,donotfeedonwiltedleaves,sotheywillusuallynottouchuprootedplants.

However,thereareotherfactors,soitisadvisabletodrytheuprootedplantsata

distancefromthefieldortoburyorburnthem.

iv) Minimise damage to the Jatropha plants to reduce the risk of microorganisms

entering. Prune with sharp tools only and always cut at an angle. Avoid creating

horizontalcutswherewaterwilldrainslowly.

4. Largedensestandsofanycropincreasetheincidenceofpestanddiseases.Trytouse:

i) Widerspacinge.g.3by3orrowplantingwithatleast4mapart

ii) Manysmallfieldsseparatedandisolatedfromeachotherinthelandscape

iii) Boundaryplantinginsteadofplots

iv) Mixedcropping

5. Jatrophapresscakehaspesticidalpropertiesandcanbe usefulasapesticide toprotect

recentlyestablishedjatrophabecauseyoungjatrophaplantshavelowlevelsoftoxins.

2.9 References

1. Dataonvermicompost.http://assamagribusiness.nic.in/NEDFi/map30.pdf

2. Dataondrycowmanure.

www.umaine.edu/animalsci/Issues/Nutrient/Nutrients%20from%20Manure.ppt

3. Achten,W.M.J.,Verschot,L.,Franken,Y.J.,Mathijs,E.,Singh,V.P.,Aerts,R.,Muys,B.,2008.

Jatrophabiodieselproductionanduse.BiomassandBioenergy32:10631084.

4. DaeyOuwens,K.,Francis,G.,Franken,Y.J.,Rijssenbeek,W.,RiedackerR.,Foidl,N.,

Jongschaap,R.,

Bindraban,

P.,

2007.

Position

Paper

on

Jatropha

curcas,

State

of

the

Art,

SmallandLargeScaleProjectDevelopment.FACTFoundation,Eindhoven,Netherlands.

5. Y.J.Franken,FACTFoundation

6. GagnauxP.C.A.(2008)IncidnciadaentomofaunaassociadaculturadeJatrofa(JatrophacurcalL)emMoambique,Thesis,UniversidadesEduardoMondlane,Mozambique

7. GrimmC,MaesJM.ArthropodfaunaassociatedwithJatrophacurcasL.inNicaragua:a

synopsisofspecies,theirbiologyandpeststatus.In:GubitzGM,MittelbachM,TrabiM,

editors.Biofuels

and

industrial

products

from

Jatropha

curcasProceedings

from

the

symposiumJatropha97,Managua,Nicaragua,February2327.Graz,Austria:Dbv

Verlag;1997.p.319.


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8. Gbitz,G.M.,Mittelbach,M.,Trabi,M.,1999.Exploitationofthetropicaloilseedplant

JatrophacurcasL.BioresourceTechnology67:7382.

9. Grimm,C.(1999).Evaluationofdamagetophysicnut(Jatrophacurcas)bytruebugs.

EntomologiaExperimentalis

et

Applicata.

Aug.

92(2):

127

136.

{a}

Institute

of

Forest

Entomology,ForestPathologyandForestProtection,UniversityofAgriculturalSciences,

Vienna,Austria

10.Heller,J.1992.UntersuchungenbergenotypischeEigenschaftenundVermehrungsundAnbauverfahrenbeiderPurgiernu(JatrophacurcasL.)[Studiesongenotypiccharacteristicsandpropagationandcultivationmethodsforphysicnuts(JatrophacurcasL.)].Dr.Kovac,Hamburg.

11.Heller,J.,1996.Physicnut.JatrophacurcasL.Promotingtheconservationanduseof

underutilizedandneglectedcrops.InstituteofPlantGeneticsandCropPlantResearch,

Gatersleben/

International

Plant

Genetic

Resources

Institute,

Rome.

12.Henning,R.K.,JatrophacurcasL.2007.In:vanderVossen,H.A.M.&Mkamilo,G.S.

(Editors).PlantresourcesofTropicalAfrica14.Vegetableoils.PROTAFoundation,

Wageningen,Netherlands/BackhuysPublishers,Leiden,Netherlands/CTAWageningen,

Netherlands.pp.103108.

13.HughesJDA,ShoyinkaSA(2003).OverviewofvirusesoflegumesotherthangroundnutinAfricainPlantvirologyinsubSaharanAfrican,ProceedingofPlantVirology,IITA,Ibadan,

Nigeria.EdsHughesJDA,Odu.B.pp553568.

14.Janssen,

B.H.,

1991.

Nutrients

in

soil

plant

relations

(in

Dutch:

Nutrinten

in

bodem

plant

relaties).Collegereader.WageningenUniversity.

15.Jongschaap,R.E.E.,Corr,W.J.,Bindraban,P.S.,Brandenburg,W.A.,2007.ClaimsandFacts

onJatrophacurcasL.PlantResearchInternationalB.V.,Wageningen/StichtingHet

GroeneWoudt,Laren.

16.Kar,A.K.andAshokDas.1988.NewrecordsoffungifromIndia.IndianPhytopathol.41(3):505.

17.Lozano,J.D.,Bellotti,A.,Reyes,J.A.Howeler,R.,Leihner,D.andDoll,J.(1981)FieldProblemsinCassava.CIAT,CaliColombia.

18.Meshram,P.B.andK.C.Joshi.1994.AnewreportofSpodopteralitura(Fab.)Boursin(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)asapestofJatrophacurcasLinn.IndianForester120(3):273274.

19.Mnch,E.1986.DiePurgiernu(JatrophacurcasL.) Botanik,kologie,Anbau.Diploma

thesis.UniversityHohenheim,Stuttgart.

20.NielsenF(2007)FNResearchProgressReportNo.1,2007,Project:JatrophaoilforlocaldevelopmentinMozambiqueSubtitle:BiofuelfordevelopmentandCommunalEnergy

SelfSupplyReportingperiod:January2007July2007

21.Paramathma,M.,Parthiban,K.T.andNeelakantan,K.S.2004.Jatrophacurcas.ForestCollege&ResearchInstitute,TamilNaduAgriculturalUniversity,Coimbatore.48p.


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22.Phillips,S.1975.AnewrecordofPestalotiopsisversicolorontheleavesofJatrophacurcas.

IndianPhytopathol28(4):546.

23.RajS.K.,SnehiS.K.,KumarS.,HandM.S.andPathreU.(2008)Firstmolecular

identificationofabegomovirusinIndiathatiscloselyrelatedtoCassavamosaicvirusandcausesmosaicandstuntingofJatrophacurcasL.AustralasianPlantDiseaseNotepp.6972

24.Source:RudyRabbinge,presentedduringFACTseminarMay2008.

25.ShankerC.,DhyaniS.K.(2006)InsectpestsofJatrophacurcasL.andthepotentialfortheirmanagement.CurrentScience(Bangalore)91,1623.Contact:Shanker,Chitra;NatlResCtrAgroforestry,GwaliorRd,Jhansi284003,UttarPradesh,India

26.Singh,I.D.1983.Newleafspotdiseasesoftwomedicinalplants.MadrasAgric.J.70(7):490.

27.U.S.Dept.Agr.HandbookNo.165.1960.HardinesszonesoftheUnitedStatesandCanada,p.ii.InIndexofPlantDiseasesintheUnitedStates,U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington,D.C.

28.FACTFoundation,Y.J.Franken

29.W.Rijssenbeek,FACTFoundation

30.Agriculturalvalueofsoiltypes:http://www.recreationalland.co.uk/soilclassification.htm

31.FlemmingNielsen,FACTAdvisor/BananaHill


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3 HARVESTING

Mainauthor:WinfriedRijssenbeek,withcontributionsofTitusGalema

3.1 Introduction

Theharvestingofthejatrophaseedsisadifficultprocessduetotheripeningcharacteristicsof

thejatrophafruit.Duetotheseripening issues,theharvestingofjatropha ismainlydoneby

hand.Theharvestingprocessbecomesaverylabourintensiveprocess,andhasahighimpact

on the production costs of jatropha oil. Harvesting, therefore, is an important aspect to

consider in the entire production process. There have been many attempts to improve this

process by mechanisation. These mechanical improvements are still under development,

however,andhavebeenappliedonlyinpilotprojects.

To

provide

insight

into

the

major

issues

of

the

harvesting

process

of

jatropha,

this

chapter

discussesthefollowingaspects:theharvestinganddryingoffruit,thedehullingandstorageof

seeds,andthebasicplanningissuesofaplantation1.AnnexBprovidespracticaltipsandrules

ofthumbregardingtheharvestingpractice.

3.2 Harvestingtechnologies

One of the main impediments to producing biooil from thejatropha plant, is the relatively

high cost of harvesting. These high costs, compared to other oilproducing crops, have a

numberofcauses:

Thejatropha fruit ripens over a long period, requiring weekly picking for weeks up to

manymonths

ayear.

Theunevenripeningofthefruitmeansonlysomeofthefruitofabunchcanbeharvested

atonetime:(i.e.yellow,brownandblackfruitsareripeandcanbepicked).

Thejatrophafruitcansofaronlybehandpicked.Thisrequiresalotoftime,aseachfruit

issmall(e.g.threeseedsinafruitweighabout2grams).

Theproductionofjatrophafruitonahectarebasisismoderate:i.e.thedensityoffruitsin

thefieldislow,requiringmoretransportdistancesinthefield.

Allinall,thereisarelativelylowyieldperhectare,alongharvestingseason,asmallfruitsize

that requires a lot of hand picking and transport of the pickers, and thus is very labour

intensive.

Thissection firstelaborateon theactualpickingratesanda labourcost threshold.Next the

possible mechanical harvesting solutions are discussed, followed by the ongoing technology

developments.

3.2.1 Manualpickingofjatrophaseeds

Itisgoodtofirstknowthatthedefinitionofpickingisnotalwayswelldefined.Forexample,is

itthepickingproper?Ordoesitalsoincludebaggingtothedryingarea?Andtransporttothe

pressingplant?Italsoisnotalwaysclearifitconcernsdryseedorfreshseed.Dataofgeneral

1Thetermplantationisusedforfieldwithjatropha,notintheconnotationofEstateplantation.We

refertothepreviouschaptersonhowjatrophacanbegrownassinglecropashedgeorintercropped.


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pickingratesarefoundinanumberofstudies.Theindividualdatashowalargevariation,but

anaverageofallthesefigureshowever,providesusefulindications,asshownbelow:

Nicaragua50kg/dayto80kg.Thebestpickers inNicaraguaharvestupto30kgoffruit/

hour,whichwouldmeanapproximately18kgofseeds/hr,or144kg/day.

Tanzania assumption: Picking seeds. Between 2 and 10 kg of seeds can be picked per

hour,(it

depends

on

the

density

of

the

plants).

Tanzania:collectionofseeds:2kgofdryseedsin1hour.

Tanzania52kg/dryseedperday.

Indiaassumption:Hoursnecessarytoharvesttheseeds125/MT.Thiscomesto64kgdry

seed/day

India:8kgofdryseeds/Ihrwork

Sudan:12kgofdryseeds/4hrwork

Indonesia:60kgofdryseeds/8hrday(modelbased)

Congo:4050kgofdryseeds/day

Brazil:ca48kgdryseed/day

Nicaragua:64kgdryseed/day

Honduras:40

kg

dry

seed/day

Theexamplesshowthatthepickingratesvaryconsiderablybycountryandwithinacountry.

Lowfiguresmightbemeasured inareasoffieldhedgesor lowyieldplantations,whereseed

density might be low and picking difficult because of height. If all the data are analyzed it

becomesclearthat1)there isa largevariation inpickingefficiency,2)thatpickingefficiency

variesbetweenwildstands(lowyieldingharvestsof2030kgperpersonperday)andwell

managedplantations(highyieldingfrom4070kgperpersonperday).

How does this affect costs? In a number of case studies where relatively high picking rates

were

used

(60kg

dry

seed/day),

the

operating

costs

of

a

jatropha

plantation

of

approx

US$600

perhaperyear, includeroughlyUS$200 inharvesting,morethan30%oftheoperatingcost.

Currently, under the presumption that only manual harvesting is possible, it appears that

jatropha is not a good choice for planting for a country where the labour costs exceed

approximatelyUS$4/day. This ruleof thumb is based onexperience in several projectsover

theperiod19962009.Thealternativeismechanicalpicking,andalthoughnotfullydeveloped,

thismightbringdowncostsinthefuture.

3.2.2 Mechanicalharvestingsolutions

At the inceptionofmostcropdevelopments,pickingwasdonebyhand.Butwith increasing

labour costs, mechanical systems were developed and allowed for substantial expansion of

areas.For

jatropha,

this

development

is

also

taking

place.

The

obvious

way

of

looking

at

the

problem iscomparingplantswithsimilarsizeoffruitandripeningpatternsandhowtheyare

mechanicallyharvested.Thenextstepistotrytoadaptthetechnologytojatropha.Plantswith

similarsizedfruitareanumberofnuttrees,likewalnut,andfruittreeslikeapricotandcherry.

Alsooliveandgrapescanbecompared,buttoalesserextent.

Jatrophafruitarebestharvestedwhenyellow.Seedsfromdriedfruitshaveslightly loweroil

content,whilegreen fruitare low inoil.JatrophaseedsbuildupFreeFattyAcids (FFA)once

theyhaveripenedandlieontheground.Severalmechanicalharvestingtechniquesforplants

with a similar fruit size and shape asjatropha exist. These techniques are discussed below,

togetherwiththesuitabilityforharvestingofthejatrophafruits:


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Treeorstemshakers Amechanicalgripsystemisputtothestemandthenitisshaken

sothatallripefruitsfalldown.Forjatrophathismightworkifthegrip/toolhastheability

to open the fruit when drying, or when the yellow fruit will fall down when shaken.

Experiencetellsthatshakingdoesnotalwaysprovidetheexpectedresult.

Netstopreventfruitsfallingontheground Thesenetspreventthefruitfrombruising

androtting

on

the

ground.

For

jatropha,

such

nets

can

be

interesting

ifthe

yellowing

or

ripefruitwouldeasilybeshakenoffwhilethegreenoneswouldnot.Jatrophafruit,once

ontheground,willlosetheirseeds.Seedsdonoteasilydecayontheground.Netsneed

tobe relatively smallgaugeas the fruit/seedsare ofsmalldiameterof less than 6 to 8

mm.Thedisadvantageofnetsisthecollectionofleavesandotherdebristhatconcentrate

especiallywhentheseasonoffruitingislong.

Strippers Inthiscasethebranchesarerakedandallfruitarestrippedoffthebranches.

ThisposesaproblemintheripeningoftheJatrophafruit.Ifthefruitripenoveralonger

period,thestrippingofthebranchesisnotadequate.Thestrippingalsowouldrequirethe

branches to be strong and flexible enough not to break. Unlessjatropha plants can be

designedsuchthattheripeningisconcentratedinoneperiod,thismethodisnotfeasible.

Robotswithpickingarms

R&Din

robots

is

moving

fast

and

in

high

yielding

fruit

they

can

befeasibleastheproductpriceallows.Forjatropha,robotswithpickingarmsareunlikely

tobesuccessfuldueto1)lowdensityofyieldoverthesurfaceandintime2)lowcostsof

theendproduct.

Vacuumcleaners Onecanalsochoose to forego thebestoilcontent. In thiscase, its

possible to vacuum clean the soil of the seeds on a regular basis. In this method one

shoulddesignthemachinesuchthatthesuctionforceallowsonlytheseedstobe lifted

andtaken,leavingthesoilaggregatebehind.Next,usingaseparatorlikeacyclonemight

separatetheseedsfromotherdebris.Thismethodmightworkforjatropha,ifthevariety

reallydropsthefruit.

Otheroptions

Thereare

chemicals

that

might

allow

fruit

to

be

less

fixed

on

the

terminal.

Thesemightbesprayed,butagainthecostsmightbeprohibitive.

Combinations of these systems Of the above methods, combinations can be made.

Theseoptionsmightalso includetheuseofhandpicking, inwhich thepickerswouldbe

movingonachariotalongthejatrophabushlines.

It is tooearly tosaywhat thebest methodsareandwhatcombinationsmightworkbest. If

plantsarenotselectedormodifiedtoconcentrateripeninginashortperiod,itislikelythata

manualpickingwithtractorchariotsmightbeastep,vacuumcleaningmightalsodevelop,or

carefullystripping.

Research&

development

into

mechanical

harvesting

has

advanced

with

companies

rushing

to

developmechanicalharvesters.AtJatrophaWorldMiami2008,apresentationwasgivenbya

group of companies like Viridas PLC and DreamFuels Ltd. DreamFuels Ltd has developed a

prototypeofamechanicalharvestingmachineforJatrophaplantations,whichtheyplantouse

intheirnewlyestablishedplantationinLaBelle,Florida.

Viridas PLC, a Brazilian company, has developed a prototype mechanical harvesting for

jatrophaplantationsbasedonthe"shakers"used intheolive industry.Basedonstatisticsfor

the olive industry, one worker can hand pickjust over 4 kilos per hour .With a mechanized

shakerpicker,oneworkercanpick635kilosperhour.Oncemechanicalharvestinghasbeen

developed,itholdsatremendouspromisetoreducelabourintensityandcost.


42/172

32

Recently,attheHamburgJatrophaseminar,Nov2008,neithercompanyannouncedanynews,

sothestatusoftheirmechanicalharvestingdevelopmentsisunknown.

3.3 Seedextractionfromfruits

Author:Titus

Galema

The next activity after harvesting is dehulling of thejatropha fruit, which is the process of

removing the fruit shell from the seeds. Considering the shape, texture and size ofjatropha

fruititcanbeconcludedthatnocomplicatedtechnologyisneededtoseparatethefruitshells

from the seeds inside. The description given hopefully provides some ideas to handle the

dehullingissuewithlocalsolutions.Dehullingcanbedonemanually,semimechanizedorfully

mechanized. Manually dehulling is a timeconsumingactivity that can be mechanized easily.

Theprocessexistsoutoftwosteps:crushingandseparation.

Dehulling

can

be

done

with

fresh

(yellow)

fruits

or

with

dry

(brown)

fruits.

The

shell

of

a

fresh

jatrophafruitisapproximately5mmthick,whiletheshellofthedriedfruitisapproximately1

mmthick.Dehullingthe largersizedfreshfruithastheadvantageofprovokingmorefriction,

whichresults inahigherdehullingefficiencythandehullingofdryfruit.Thefruitshellscome

outofthedehullermixedwiththeseedsandtheyneedtobeseparated.

A few methods are known and discussed below. At this time there is a scope for further

developmentoftechnologiesinrelationtologistics.

3.3.1 Dehulling

Thedehullingprinciple isbasedonprovokingslightpressureand frictiononthefruitswithin

thedehuller

that

results

in

the

opening

and

coming

loose

of

the

FACT Foundation Jatropha Handbook 2010

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