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Transcript of Facial Reconstruction - Book
What is Forensic Medicine?
Forensic medicine is also called as Legal medicine or Medical
jurisprudence is a branch of medicine, which deals with the interaction of
medical science with the law. The name “Forensic” comes from “forum”,
the Roman market place where lawyers did their business. Forensic
medicine provides one of the most fascinating of all the many branches of
medicine. All branches of medicine, including Anatomy, Pathology,
Dentistry, Physiology, Biochemistry, Therapeutics, Obstetrics, Paediatrics
and many others, can be called into play to assist in medico-legal problems.
Every speciality in medicine can have forensic aspects at sometime or
another.
What is Death?
Death is not merely the absence of life, as in a stone, but the cessation of life
in a previously viable organism. However, there can be no single definition
of death, as death is a process and not an event. Types of death can be
broadly classified in to two types:
1. Somatic death ---- means that “the person no longer functions as a
unit of society, because he is irreversibly unconscious and therefore
cannot communicate with the environment and is unaware of his own
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or the world’s existence”. The word ‘irreversible’ is vital in this
definition, as otherwise the criteria of somatic death would be fulfilled
when asleep, under anaesthesia or in a temporary coma.
2. Cellular death ---- means “the cessation of respiration and metabolism
of the body tissues, which is soon followed by autolysis and decay”.
This is indisputably true death when it affects the whole body, but
almost never occurs simultaneously, except perhaps in a nuclear
explosion; even when a person is blown up by a high explosive bomb,
the cells of the fragments of skin, bone, etc., live for atleast some
minutes or even hours, which is not so in the case of a nuclear
explosion. Causes of DeathThe causes of the death which are
forensically related can be broadly grouped in to three categories:
Suicidal ---- also called as self-induced death.Ex. Railway track
suicide, Gun shot suicide, CO inhalation, etc., Homicidal ---- this is
the type of death caused by others.Ex. Sexual assaults, Road traffic
accidents, Tortures, etc., Natural ---- this is the type of death, which
occurs due to natural ageing or due to certain pathologies within the
body.Why are we concerned about death?Almost all doctors,
whatever their speciality, come in to contact with death at sometime
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or other in their professional work. The legal and illegal aspects of
this inevitable process form an important part of Forensic
medicine.Commonly used terminologies.Postmortem – after
deathAntemortem – before deathPerimortem – near or around the time
of death.The early changes after death.Within a short time, a
whole spectrum of changes begins to occur, at first on a cellular level,
then becoming obvious to the naked eye. The doctor must be aware
of the general nature of these changes, both to avoid mistaking them
for signs of an unnatural death, and in the determination of how long
the person may have been dead. The changes that take early after the
death are:Rigor mortis --- Most dead bodies become stiff at a variable
time after death, this later passing off to allow secondary flaccidity. It
is due to combination of actin and myosin within skeletal, cardiac and
involuntary fibres irreversibly into a gel, causing the muscle to
become stiff. Rigor mortis tends to appear more quickly in persons
who die during or soon after physical exertion, exhaustion or
electrocution. In the old and in infants, rigor may be absent or hardly
detectable. It is usually detectable in the area of smaller muscles such
as those around eye and mouth, the jaw muscles and the fingers. The
process begins at death, usually becomes manifest within two to four
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hours and advances until approximately twelve hours, when it is
generally complete.Cadaveric rigidity --- is a relatively rare
phenomenon, where rigor mortis sets in immediately after death.
Livor mortis --- It appears as a purple discolouration of the skin on the
dependent parts of the dead body. It is caused by settling of the blood
into the capillaries of the skin as they become dilated after circulation
ceases. Since it depends on gravity, it will be absent in areas of the
body where the weight produces pressure and occludes the capillaries.
Livor mortis formation begins immediately after death, but it may not
be perceptible for as much as two hours. It is usually well developed
within four hours and reaches a maximum between eight and twelve
hours. During this period, if the body is turned over, the lividity that
was originally dependent will shift to the newly dependent areas.
However, after eight to twelve hours lividity becomes fixed and will
remain where it originally formed.Algor mortis --- It is the term for
the normal cooling of the body after death. Rigor mortis, livor mortis
and algor mortis are processes that are independent of one another, but
they generally occur simultaneously.Forensic ArtForensic art is “any
art that is of forensic nature; that is, art used in conjunction with legal
procedures”. A working definition of forensic art is “any art that aids
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in the identification, apprehension, or conviction of criminal
offenders, or that aids in the location of victims or identification of
unknown deceased persons”. Forensic art is often multimedia in
nature; its primary purpose is to present visual information.Is it an
Art or Science?Forensic art is a blend of art and science. This art /
science relationship occurs because forensic art can present scientific
information or use scientific principles in a visual format rather than a
verbal one. Practical examples of the art / science blend may
include:Knowledge of cognitive psychology, behavioural science
interview techniques and facial anatomy used during composite
imagery sessions.Application of craniofacial growth data in the
preparation of child age progression.Pathology, fingerprint, trace
evidence, or other scientific findings incorporated into illustrations for
court presentations.Taphonomic, anthropological, or odontological
data used by the artist when creating postmortem drawings or two-
dimensional and three-dimensional facial reconstructions from skull.
Facial ReconstructionFacial Reconstruction, the most commonly
used term to designate the procedure of projecting a soft tissue based
on skull architecture. Facial Reconstruction from the Skull is the most
accurate terminology for 2-D Facial Reconstruction, whereas, Facial
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Reconstruction on the Skull is the most accurate phrase for 3-D
Facial Reconstruction. Regarding terminology, the term
reconstruction is here considered as preferable to other synonyms
such as reproduction and restoration. The term reproduction implies
a perfect replication, which is never the case, and the term restoration
more aptly applies to soft tissue repairs on damaged but still intact
remains. Facial approximation is perhaps a better description of the
procedure but this term is not in general use. The three major types of
Facial Reconstruction are:2-D Facial Reconstruction --- Type of
reconstruction in which tissue depth markers are used and the facial
approximation is done using pencil drawings.
3-D Facial Reconstruction --- Type of reconstruction in which the
tissue depth markers are placed on the skull and then the facial
reconstruction is done using plasticine (clay) directly on the skull.
Computer Aided Facial Reconstruction --- The skull is scanned or
photographed and a resin cast of the skull is obtained and on which
the reconstruction process is done.
This seminar presentation will cover the procedural steps of 3-D Facial
Reconstruction and Computer Aided Facial Reconstruction.
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3-D Facial Reconstruction3-D Facial Reconstruction
Before attempting Facial Reconstruction, as much information as
possible should be gathered concerning a particular case. Various scientific
specialists may need to be consulted, particularly a skilled physical or
forensic anthropologist. Only through anthropological evaluation to
determine age, sex and ancestry the artist can select the appropriate tissue
depth data as preparation for rebuilding a face on the skull. 3-D Facial
Reconstruction can be done in three ways:
Anatomical method --- In this method, muscles are defined
individually to flesh out the face, and tissue depth data are not
utilized.
Tissue depth method --- Involves use of data gained in
anthropological studies as a guide for building up to the facial
surfaces. All tissue depth data are used.
Combination method --- The most advantageous method for use in
law enforcement is probably a combination of both the anatomical
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approach and the tissue depth approach. Few tissue depth data are
utilized.
In this seminar presentation, Combination method will be dealt with in
detail.
Combination Method
Armamentarium Required
Tools
Sculpture tools: flat wooden spatula, wire tools and pointed
wooden stick
Boley-style gauge (in millimeters)
Metal scale
Plastic brayer or roller
X-acto knife and blades
Materials
Oil-based modelling clay (Plasticine), 10 to 12 lbs
Duco© cement (or other adhesive soluble in acetone)
Cotton balls
Cotton swabs
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Vinyl machine eraser strips
#40 grade sand paper
Aluminium “Gutter Guard” or flexible mesh
Facial Reconstruction is a two-phase process. The steps of the phases for
3-D Facial Reconstruction are:
Technical phase
Receipt of skull & gathering case information
Skull protection & preservation
Gluing the mandible to the cranium
Placement of skull on an adjustable stand
Orientation into the Frankfort Horizontal Plane
Cutting and placement of tissue depth markers
Setting the prosthetic eyes
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Connecting the tissue depth markers to establish facial contours
Artistic phase
Development of the mouth
Development of the eyes
Development of the nose
Development of the cheeks
Development of the ears
Development of the neck
Texturing & surface details
Hair / Wig
Photographing the sculpture
A skull may tell of age, sex, race, and thus in part contribute to cranial
identification, but it may do more; it may provide a further individualization,
for it may give clues to cephalic identification. This is to say that the dead
skull is, in a sense, the matrix of the living head; it’s the bony core of the
fleshy head and face in life. Upon the cranial framework we may build bit
by bit, until details of physiognomy take shape, and a reasonably acceptable
facsimile of a living human head emerges.
Step 1: Receipt of skull & gathering case information
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A case file should be created and maintained for every skull / facial
reconstruction case.
Written documentation of the care, custody, and control of a skull or
any evidence should be done.
Specify whether you receive a complete skull or the specific portions
for incomplete material.
Inventory of the teeth is particularly significant. Even if you are not
familiar with dental charting, you can at least count and note the
number of the teeth received.
It is important that you get the signature of the person from whom you
received the skull, along with the date.
Details like clothing, jewellery, hair specimens, eyeglasses, etc., can
be obtained; as it will be difficult to identify Charlie Chaplin in a
casual dress.
Above all, the skull should be treated with respect. It is what remains
of a living, breathing human life and should not be an object for jokes
and pranks.
Step 2: Skull protection and preservation
Skull should always be handled with care.
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Never pick up a skull in the facial area by placing fingers in to the
orbits of the eyes or in the nasal aperture, its not a bowling ball.
Place the thumb in to foramen magnum and the palm supporting the
base of the skull.
Loose or fallen teeth should be replaced with professional help.
To protect inner structures of nasal aperture from fractures, place a
small cotton ball inside and cover it with some clay.
Orbital bones can be protected by placing cotton roll in to them and
cover with strips of masking tape, this also facilitates easy removal of
clay after the reconstruction procedures.
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Fractures or bullet wounds may need to be taped with masking tape to
avoid being filled with clay.
Prevent the skull from rolling off a table by securing it on a cork ring.
Step 3: Gluing the mandible to the cranium
Once the teeth are secured in the skull, the artist should carefully
evaluate the dentition for potentially useful information before gluing
the mandible to the cranium.
Assessment of the teeth and bite can provide information not only
about the appearance of the mouth area, but in some cases also hints
about the socioeconomic status of the individual during life.
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A clean, open socket usually indicates postmortem loss of a tooth,
while a socket filled in with bone may mean that a tooth has been
missing for a period of years.
In life, the condyle of the ramus is covered by cartilage and there is an
articular disc in the temporomandibular joint; this spacing is simulated
with the help of the clay, cotton, gauze or other materials. Bone-to-
bone gluing should be avoided.
Spacing between the teeth of the two jaws ( Freeway space ) should
be maintained by placing a toothpick on the posterior teeth region and
glued.
Secure the mandible further by adding glue on the occlusal plane.
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In a completely edentulous skull, the mandible can be positioned
using a pencil placed through the mandibular notch, behind the
pterygoid and through the opposite mandibular notch.
If the skull has complete dentures, the dentures can be placed on the
prepared bony area. In life, dentures don’t sit on the bone, so some
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clay should be used to simulate the missing gingival tissue and then
dentures over it.
Step 4: Placement of skull on an adjustable stand
Mount the skull on the adjustable skull stand once it is assembled.
Insert the spring opened wings of the toggle bolt against the inside of
the skull through the foramen magnum and tighten the wing nuts
securely.
Step 5: Orientation into the Frankfort Horizontal Plane
The Frankfort horizontal plane is an anthropological standard position
that closely approximates the natural position of the head in life.
Orbitale, the lowest point on the lower margin of the orbit, is
horizontally aligned with porion, the most lateral point on the root of
the external auditory meatus.
Step 6: Cutting & placement of Tissue Depth Markers
Since every individual skull presents its own challenges, gluing of the
Tissue Depth Markers has to be somewhat tailored to each particular
skull.
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We wish to emphasize the need for accurate cutting and placement of
the tissue depth markers.
Cut vinyl eraser material to the depths for the markers and number
them.
Take care not to cut markers at an angle, but rather straight up and
down.
Landmarks for location of tissue depth markers
1. Supraglabella – Placed above glabella
2. Glabella – The most prominent point between the supraorbital
ridges in the midsagittal plane
3. Nasion – The midpoint of the suture between the frontal and two
nasal bones
4. End of Nasals (Nasals) – The anterior tip or the farthest point out
on the nasal bones
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5. Mid-philtrum – The midline of the maxilla, placed as high as
possible before the curvature of the anterior nasal spine begins
6. Upper lip margin (Supradentale) – Centered between the
maxillary central incisors at the level of CEJ
7. Lower lip margin (Infradentale) – Centered between the
mandibular central incisors at the level of the CEJ
8. Chin-lip fold (Supramentale) – The deepest midline point of
indentation on the mandible between the teeth and the chin protrusion
9. Mental eminence (Pogonion) – the most anterior or projecting
point on the midline on the chin
10. Beneath chin (Menton) – The lowest point on the mandible
11. Frontal eminence – Place on the projections at both sides of the
forehead
12. Supraorbital – Above the orbit, centered on the upper most
margin or border
13. Suborbital – Below the orbit, centered on the lower most margin
or border
14. Inferior malar – The lower portion of the maxilla
15. Lateral orbit – Drop a line from the outer margin of the orbit and
place the marker about 10mm below the orbit
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16. Zygomatic arch, midway – Halfway along the zygomatic arch. It
is generally the most projecting point on the arch when viewed from
above
17. Supraglenoid – Above and slightly forward of the external
auditory meatus at the deepest point
18. Gonion – The most lateral point on the mandibular angle
19. Supra M2 – Above the second maxillary molar; if the second
molar is missing, the marker should be placed in the approximate area
where it would have been
20. Occlusal line – On the mandible in alignment with the line where
the teeth occlude
21. Sub M2 – Below the second mandibular molar; if the second
molar is missing, the marker should be placed in the approximate area
where it would have been
Step 7: Setting the prosthetic eye
Human eye is approximately 25mm in diameter.
Use of plastic prosthetic eye caps is preferred for their realistic
appearance and ease of modelling the eyelids as and then.
Sometimes eyes too can be carved out of clay.
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Choice of colour of prosthetic eye to be used should be based on the
information provided by the anthropologist and may also require some
guess work.
Frontal View Placement
When viewed from the front, the prosthetic eye should be basically
be centered within the orbit, North and South, East and West.
As Krogman states:
“Rotation of eyeball to bony orbit …… the apex of the cornea
when viewed from norma frontalis, is at the juncture of two
lines, one drawn from the medial edge of the orbit
(maxillofrontale) to the lateral margin of the orbit
(ectoconchion); and the orbit line bisecting the orbit between
the superior and inferior margins”.
Lateral View Placement
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Referring to the placement of the eye in the lateral view, Krogman
further states:
“The outer point of the cornea is approximately tangent to a
centrally located line drawn from the superior and inferior
margins of the orbit”.
After the prosthetic eye is correctly positioned on a small stem of
clay, small amounts of clay should be modelled into help secure it in
place.
Step 8: Connecting tissue depth markers to establish facial contour
To reiterate, gluing the tissue depth markers in place and then
connecting them with clay will provide the general shape of the face,
based on the shape of the skull.
By carefully maintaining the accuracy of the thickness of each piece
of clay applied, these strips function as large-scale tissue depth
markers.
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It is important to note that the tissue at the lateral or outside of the eye
is only about 5mm thick; the clay should therefore taper in at the
corner of the eye, clinging close to the bone.
“Back triangle” area formed by tissue depth markers # 15, 16, 17 is
created with larger pieces of clay. As this triangular area of clay is
added, the back portion of the Masseter muscle and a portion of the
parotid gland are being simulated.
The next area covered is the chin. Place a long strip of clay rolled to
the depth of the marker #10 all along the lower edge of the mandible.
This is called as “Jaw strip”.
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“Front triangle” area bounded by tissue depth markers #15, 13 and at
about halfway between #9 and 18. This area can be filled with larger
pieces of clay and smoothed.
The head is filled with larger strips of clay.
Step 9: Development of the mouth
To build the mouth barrel for a closed mouth, you need three
dimensions: the depth of the lips, the vertical thickness of the
vermilion, and the width of the mouth side to side.
o The depth of #7 tissue depth marker determines the depth of the
mouth.
o Measuring the combined height of the enamel of the upper and
lower teeth, i.e., upper CEJ to lower CEJ derives the vertical
thickness for the mouth.
o The width of the mouth is generally determined by measuring
the front six teeth mesio-distally.
A strip of clay to the required depth of the mouth is taken and placed
to fit the width of the mouth.
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A thin line of clay is removed on the strip using a wire tool, so as to
depict the upper and lower lips. Lower lip is always slightly bigger
than that of the upper lip.
Spread the lips from the partition line with a flat wooden tool, pushing
the upper lip upward and the lower lip downward.
The index finger is used to scoop out the philtrum on the upper lip.
Further shaping is done by placing three small dabs of clay on the
upper lip and two small dabs on the lower lip. This helps in giving the
lips a more naturalistic shaping.
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You may also wish to add light lines in the clay lips to represent the
striations within the lips.
Step 10: Development of the eyes
As with the refinement of the mouth, the sculptural development of
the eye should be done keeping in mind the race, age and expression
of the individual being reconstructed.
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Expression may become a factor if you prepare a smiling version of
the reconstruction. Has the mouth been developed in an open or
closed manner? This will affect the degree to which the eyes squint as
well as cheek formation.
To begin forming the eyelids, roll a section of clay to a depth of about
4mm. From this clay, cut four small strips for the eyelids that are
7mm by about 40mm. The ends of each of these eyelid strips must be
angled to form four small trapezoids.
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The lower eyelid strips are applied first and may require several
adjustments to correct the length.
Keep in mind that the eyelids must fit inside the bony orbits.
The eyelids should hug the eyeball as you place them on the lateral
side and come around just to the bottom of the iris.
As they wrap around toward the medial canthus or inner corner of the
eye, they deviate away from the eyeball slightly, creating an S-curve.
Thus, the medial canthus is naturally closer to the frontal plane than
the lateral canthus or outer corner.
After the lower lids are in place, a small ball of clay is placed at the
medial canthus to represent both the caruncle lacrimalis, the pink
tissue at the inner corners of the eyes.
The upper eyelid strips, also started from small trapezoids, should be
slightly longer and more arched than the lower lids.
The upper eyelids should hug the eyeball as we place them on the
lateral side and then come around to the iris.
Then, as they wrap around toward the medial canthus or inner corner
of the eye, they deviate away from the eyeball slightly, as with the
lower lids, coming over the caruncle.
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At the outer sides of the upper eyes, there should be fullness to
represent the forms of the lacrimal gland.
To fill in the remaining areas around the eyes, you must consider the
underlying structures as you connect these areas to the eyelids. The
nasal bones should be covered by clay to a thickness of the #4 depth
marker, because the flesh is close to the bones in that area.
As a rule, the medial canthus of the eye is slightly lower than the
lateral canthus to facilitate the tear drainage process.
Occasionally, it may appear that a person has a lower lateral canthus,
but closer examination usually indicates that, in reality, it is an area of
sagging skin, not truly the eye corner.
The eyebrows may be indicated at this stage, but you will probably
choose to detail them more in the finishing stages.
Step 11: Development of the nose
The nose will be based specifically on the individual skull that you
are reconstructing. You will notice that it is the nose that is usually
the most accurate feature. Certain “rules of thumb” for nose
projection given by Dr.Wilton Krogman are:
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o Frontal view – Soft tissue nasal width is based upon the bony
nasal aperture. For Caucasoids, the nasal aperture is measured
at its widest point and then 10mm is added to get the total
width (5mm on each side). For Negroids, the nasal aperture is
measured at its widest point, and then 16mm are added to get
the total width (8mm on each side). The width for Caucasoids
and Negroids can be averaged for a best guess for Mongoloids.
o Lateral view – It is necessary to first measure the length of the
bony nasal spine. Then, that length is multiplied by 3 and
added to the depth of depth marker #5. The nose projection is
from subnasale to pronasale, approximately three times the
length of the nasal spine.
Applying the skull dimensions to construct the nose:
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o Frontal view – The attachment of the nostrils is generally 4 to
5 mm lower than the bottom or sill of the nasal aperture. The
appropriate nose width measurement should be applied to the
base of the nose by marking the clay with the Boley gauge.
This provides an indication of the total width of the nose. Then
the nose is roughly shaped in clay, adhering to its width.
o Lateral view – The total projection of the lateral nose must be
indicated in the clay profile. A convenient way to accomplish
this is by forming a block of clay that is the length of #5, or
mid-philtrum tissue marker, plus the projection calculation.
The block of clay can then be placed slightly inside the nasal
opening and on top of the nasal spine to form the architecture
of the nose. Then the lateral nose is roughly shaped in clay,
adhering to this projection.
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Step 12: Development of the cheeks
The cheeks can be made more lifelike with attention to their contours.
Consideration should be given to the race, age, sex and expression of
the individual whose face you are reconstructing.
In addition, you should carefully observe the placement of the
zygomatic bones, especially in the lateral view.
The cheeks should be rounded to conform to their more advancing or
receding nature.
The cheeks actually come off of the bridge of the nose, proceeding to
the top edge marker #13, rounding out and down toward the mouth.
The naso-labial furrow at the side of the nose is created with age by
the action of the Zygomaticus muscles pulling the corner of the mouth
up and back. The furrow originates at the top of the alar groove and
becomes more pronounced with age as the tissue sags downward and
forward from the zygomatic bone.
Step 13: Development of the ears
Ears seem to strike fear into many artists. Many opt to cover them
with hair or omit them all together. You should learn to correctly
sculpt an ear, since there will eventually be a case of an individual
31
with short hair and exposed ears. Learning the basic anatomical
structures goes a long way toward demystifying the process of making
ears.
In this method, the ears are first built and then applied to the
sculpture.
For a right ear, form a cylindrical piece of clay about 2 inch long and
5/8 inch in diameter. This piece is the basis for the antihelix.
Hold the clay cylinder in your left hand, and press your right thumb
into the middle of the cylinder while pushing your left hand to create a
“C” or cup shape, creating the concha.
Use a wooden tool to develop the top of the Y-shaped form of the
antihelix by pressing in the triangular fossa.
32
Next roll out a coil of clay about 6 inch long and ¼ inch in diameter.
This coil should be added below the lower part of the Y-shaped
spiraling up, out, and around the perimeter to form the helix.
Blend this coil around the cup-shaped concha form, creating the
schaphoid fossa and then merging it in completely near the bottom at
the beginning of the lobe.
Continue to shape the concha more smoothly and form the
antitragus, intertragal notch and lobe.
Make a mirror image of the ear you have just built, so that you will
have a pair. The ears are ready to be attached to the sculpture adding
the tragus.
To attach the ears to the head, the neck should be developed first and
then several points must be considered in order to get a naturalistic ear
placement.
The external auditory meati or bony ear holes, dictate specifically
where the ears must be positioned.
Ears usually rest at a backward angle of about 15. Particularly
important is that the ears sit behind the angle of the jaw.
33
The ears should attach rather closely to the head at the anterior or
front portion and tip out or away further from the head at the back
portion. The ears should not appear to be glued to the head.
In many people, there is a width of about one finger of space between
the back of the ear and the head.
Once the ear is positioned and smoothed into the head, the small
triangular form of the tragus must be added. The top of the tragus is
just below the helix and rests over the bony auditory meatus.
Since the external ears are a totally soft tissue feature not based on
bone, our best hope is to create anatomically correct, naturalistically
placed features.
34
A rule of thumb in art states that the ears are roughly equal in length
to the nose. With this in mind, you may wish to adjust the finished
ears to correspond somewhat to the finished length of the nose in your
reconstruction.
Step 14: Development of the neck
Hardware cloth may be used to form an armature for the shape of the
shoulders.
A connection between the shoulders and the head may be built with
either flexible aluminium mesh such as that used for gutters or
aluminium foil squeezed around the upright portion of the adjustable
stand.
35
The neck should not appear as a stiff stovepipe, but rather should tilt
forward as it leaves the shoulders due to the curve of the cervical
vertebrae. This angle may be more pronounced in women than in
men.
The two muscles that most affect the appearance of the neck are the
Sternocleidomastoid and the Trapezius. Sternocleidomastoid is more
pronounced in men. Trapezius, in the shape of a large trapezoid,
provides the gentle angle that connects the neck and the shoulders.
The forms of the throat caused by the thyroid cartilage, trachea, and
other structures should be defined in the sculpture as well as the pit of
the neck or suprasternal notch.
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Step 15: Texturing and surface details
Texturing
Once the neck is sculpted onto the shoulders, you are ready to add the
finishing details.
The tissue depth markers are covered with a thin layer of clay and #40
grade sandpaper can be torn in to pieces and used to press into the
clay surface for a skin-like appearance.
Hand stippling with various pointed tools or a toothbrush can also be
used to produce skin texture.
This texture is beneficial in the photography process because it knocks
off some of the sheen of the clay that can cause glare problems.
Most of the face has some sort of visible skin texture, although the eye
area may be more lined, depending on age.
The ears should be left smoother. This may be touched up with a
cotton swab dipped in petroleum jelly.
Eyebrows
The individual hairs of the eyebrows should be indicated and
scratched in the clay with the side of a sculpture tool in a direction
that follows the natural growth pattern of the hair.
37
We have no real basis for the eyebrow colour or configuration other
than matching a hair specimen if one is available.
In general, the eyebrows tuck slightly under the bony ridge at the
bony brow ridge at the medial side (especially in men) and hug the
brow bone toward the lateral side, rising above it at the lateral side
(especially in women).
Colouration
Some reconstruction artists go to great lengths to produce highly
detailed and finished products in lifelike colour. For most law
enforcement reconstruction artists, such processes may not be
possible, financially feasible, or timely and remember that you are not
working for Tussaud’s Waxworks in London.
Simple, though not as attractive, facial colouration may also be
accomplished by use of several types of less expensive media.
Clay colour choice will set the overall skin tone look for the
reconstruction from the onset. Darker clay choices may be indicated
by certain racial characteristics.
Powdered cosmetics are very handy for applying colour to the
eyebrows, the edge of the eyelids, the cheeks or the lips.
38
A light-handed application of cosmetics usually produces a better
appearance than too much makeup, which may detract from the face.
It is likely that you have no clue as to whether or not a woman may
have even worn makeup. However, sometimes reasonable
judgements can be made based on the items found with a body. For
example, elaborate clothing and jewellery may be a better indicator
for more makeup than simple jeans and T-shirt.
Psychological research indicates that 3-D Facial Reconstruction
images are more readily recognized with some inclusion of tonal
distinction, if not actual colour.
Age Indication
The basic facial reconstruction technique favours an age range of 25
to 35 years.
You may have built your entire reconstruction with a certain age
range in mind or you may choose to adjust the age upward or
downward during the finishing stages.
Adding accessories
If any clothing items or accessories are recovered at the crime scene,
they may be evaluated for possible inclusion with the reconstruction.
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Clothing is often highly soiled and damaged and may not be usable
even if recovered.
Hats, eyeglasses, dentures, jewellery, or other items may, however ,
greatly contribute to the individualization of the finished work and
should be used if possible.
Assistance and permission should be sought from crime scene
investigators for the possible cleaning and use of such items.
Step 16: Hair or wig?
Hopefully, you will be fortunate enough to receive a case for
reconstruction in which hair was recovered with the body. Sadly, this
is not always the case, and the odds for identification decrease the
result.
As humans, we place a lot of recognition value on hair and hairstyle
and its absence can interfere with the recognition process.
The selection of the hair and hairstyle for a reconstruction may be
based on a recovered hair specimen or may have to be totally vague or
speculative.
The hair may be added in the form of hair insertion, or in the form of
wig or it may be modelled in clay and coloured in some way.
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If a wig is to be used, it should be selected not only for colour, but
also for texture, volume and length if known.
It is reasonable that the hairstyle be consistent with the styles that
were popular within the time frame of the time of death estimate.
Some Reconstructionists choose to distribute the facial image showing
multiple different hair or wig styles. Practically, this creates
confusion.
If little is known about the hair, focus the attention on facial features.
Cropping tightly in on the face in a photo helps draw attention away
from the hairstyle.
Step 17: Photographing the sculpture
The photography of the reconstruction sculpture may be as simple or
as elaborate as the artist chooses.
If you are a skilled photographer, you may place more importance on
refinement of this part of the procedure, or you can turn the sculpture
over to a professional for the photography work.
One of the greatest benefits of the 3-dimensional method is the
flexibility of the photography.
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The usual five views that are shot are frontal, oblique left, lateral left,
oblique right, and lateral right.
It is advisable to photograph any of the variations that have been
prepared such as open and closed mouth or with and without wig, etc.
In short, any photos of documentation should be made at this time
because the sculpture will likely be disassembled and the opportunity
for further photos will be lost.
As a freelancer, you will need to disassemble the sculpture in order to
retrieve your equipments such as prosthetic eyes, wig and skull stand
soon after the project is photographed.
Superimposition
During the past 130 years, a number of techniques for comparing images of
an individual with their skeletal remains by means of superimposition have
developed. Superimposition comparisons have developed into a useful tool
for assessing identification of unknown skeletal remains. These techniques
fall into three general categories:
Photographic
Video
Computer aided
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The video type of Superimposition will be dealt in detail, as it is a simpler
and much widely accepted method.
Regardless of the technique one uses in superimposition cases, few
critical variables must be considered, as positioning, size,
distortion, features to be used for comparison, and the defining
limits for concluding a possible match or exclusion.
The importance of each of the above variables issues for the results
and accuracy of superimposition.
The basic procedure for comparison requires two cameras, one
directed at the skull and one directed at the comparison
photograph.
The first video camera points directly downward at the skull,
perpendicular to the floor.
A second video camera points at the photographic image, parallel
with the floor.
Insertion of small dowels or soft rubber cylinders into and
projecting from the auditory meati is valuable in aligning the skull
with the corresponding region of the ear in the photographic
image.
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Taping of the video superimpositions is initiated after correct scale
and orientation are determined.
The two primary video techniques used for documenting the
superimposition and for analysis of conformity are
Blending/Fading and Sweeping.
Sweeping technique is preferred to blending or fading technique.
Vertical, horizontal or diagonal sweeps are widely used.
“Box sweep” from the center of the superimposition, which affords
careful comparison of the mouth and lower nasal structures, is
preferable type.
It is not reasonable practice to attempt to analyze the
superimposition in the limited time offered during taping.
For accurate analysis, it is necessary to use a VCR and monitor
that produce high resolution, provide for continuous slow-speed
viewing, and have single frame advancement and a pause function
that maintain the image in a stable format.
Once completed, the comparison is given a ranked score between I
and IV. The ranking is based on a qualitative assessment of the
number and closeness of anatomically matched areas.
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Grade I – Represents a close match with strong concordance in all
anatomical areas available for comparison, and no area dictates
exclusion.
Grade II – Reflects a somewhat less convincing comparison and is
described as a reasonable match with strong concordance in most
anatomical areas and no area dictates exclusion.
Grade III – Is used in those cases where the comparison cannot be
used to definitively exclude a match, but is judged unlikely due to
a number of anatomical areas that exhibit poor concordance.
Grade IV – Is assigned when comparison of one or more areas
indicates definite exclusion.
Computer Aided Facial ReconstructionComputer Aided Facial Reconstruction
The Facial Reconstruction project described here requires three major steps:
A computer tomograph scan
A stereolithography cast of the skull
A skilled technician to model the face in clay using the previous
method and to make the moulds.
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A computer tomograph scan
The first step in making the replica of the skull is to have the skull
scanned using a Computer Tomography (CT) scan.
The detailed 3-D images of the skull are obtained on the monitor.
A stereolithography cast of the skull
After securing the CT scan data, by a resin casting process called
as Stereolithography, two exact resin replicas of the skull are
made.
The picture on the left most shows the amount of the brain that is
present in the cranium.
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Modelling the face on the cast
The facial reconstruction of the individual can be done on the
replica cast of the skull obtained.
Either 2-D Facial Reconstruction or 3-D Facial Reconstruction can
be done taking various factors into consideration.
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Conclusion
Many law enforcement officers have come to know the power of
“Forensic Art”. While not every forensic art attempt is successful, this work
does contribute significantly to many criminal investigations. The
increasing options for image enhancement and modification that computers
allow mean this role is likely to escalate in the future. It is incumbent upon
all who bear the responsibilities of criminal investigations and prosecutions
to understand more about forensic art.
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References
1. Bernard Knight, Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Simpson’s Forensic
Medicine, 11th edition, 1997.
2. Karen T.Taylor, 3-D Facial Reconstruction on Skull, Forensic Art &
Illustration, 1st edition, 2001.
3. Rhine.J.S. and Campbell.H.R., Thickness of facial tissues in American
blacks, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 25(4), 847-858, 1980.
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