Facebook in the Lives of Oxford Postgraduates
Transcript of Facebook in the Lives of Oxford Postgraduates
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The Role of Facebook in the Lives of Oxford Postgraduates:
A Case Study
Elizabeth Ashley Gasten
Dissertation submitted to the University of Oxford in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of MSc in Educational Research Methodology
September 2008
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ABSTRACT
The study presented here examines the use ofFacebook, a social networking site, by a
group of Oxford postgraduate students. As new internet technologies become an entrenched
part of society, with students as dedicated users on the forefront of adoption, understanding the
role these technologies play in their lives becomes increasingly important for those who work
with them. The aim of this research was to examine how students used Facebookfor academic
purposes as well as for creating and maintaining social networks, and to explore the impact it had
on their sense of community and identity. Underlying these questions is the notion of
affordances, offering insights into why these students use this technology in certain ways.
Employing a case study approach, the research attempts to explore the topic through a
combination of methodologies, with the goal of looking at it from the students own perspective.
Questionnaires provided preliminary information and allowed selection of a smaller number of
participants for in-depth interviews. A form of virtual ethnography, whereby online spaces were
explored post interview to increase understanding, is also included.
Findings suggest that, although students saw no place for Facebookin the classroom, it
was none the less having a large impact on their university experience. Devoted users of
communication technologies, nearly all participants used Facebookintensively. The formation
and maintenance of support networks, both of past friends and current peers, was highly
important to these students, and something they felt Facebookparticularly afforded. They were
also highly cognizant of the displays of connection Facebookprovided, and manipulated various
applications to demonstrate ties and affiliations. In contrast to previous research, this study finds
that these students were not overly concerned with overt creation and expression of identity, or
with issues of privacy, which they managed through the presentation of limited information and
the careful selection of those who viewed their profiles.
The value and implications of this study are two-fold. First, it offers insights into how one
group of students make social networking a part of their university experience, which, potentially,
could be of value to those who work with young people. Secondly, it explores research methods
potentially suited to this area, and generates possible themes and hypotheses on which to base
further research.
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Everything that went into this work is dedicated to the memory of my best friend, who
taught me its ok to be yourself, that stubbornness can be a good thing, and to always
follow your nose, wherever it may lead you. Thanks, Kerby.
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
I owe thanks to many people for their support over the past year.
To my supervisor, John Furlong, for his constant support and feedback, and for
continually opening my mind to new dimensions. To Russell Francis for his contagious
enthusiasm on the subject. To many other members of the Department of Education;
Chris Davies for his continual support of my interest in learning technologies, Ingrid Lunt,
Geoffrey Walford, Geoff Hayward, and Maria Evangelou for their invaluable teachings and
feedback throughout the programme
To my parents, for the unconditional support of an unconventional daughter. To Chris
Pearson who showed me that I both could and should go back to school. And to all my
friends, for their help with my research and their help in polishing off a pint. And to
Adam Shaw, for continually making my world a brighter, if somewhat more bizarre, place.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction................................................................................1
II. Review of the Literature............................................................4
The New Internet...............................................................4
Social Software...................................................................5
Facebook............................................................................7
Themes in the Research.....................................................9
III. Questions Driving the Study....................................................19
IV. Methodology...........................................................................21
Data Collection Tools........................................................23
Participant Selection.........................................................26
Gathering Data..................................................................30
Data Analysis.....................................................................32
Ethical Considerations.......................................................35
Strengths and Limitations.................................................37
V. Findings.....................................................................................39
Findings from the Questionnaire......................................39
Findings from Interviews and Virtual Ethnographies.......44
VI. Discussion.................................................................................55
Research Questions and Literature...................................55
Implications and Directions for Future Work....................61
Bibliography ..................................................................................66
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
Appendix 2: Interview Guide
Appendix 3: Completed CUREC Approval
Appendix 4: Participant Information and Informed Consent
Appendix 5: Information Presented on a Facebook Profile
TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. Overview of applications and ideas inherent in Web 2.0
Table 2. Demographic characteristics of students participating in the study
Table. 3 Summary of interview participants
Table 4. Time spent engaged in types of activity online
Table 5: Number of students reporting using various tools for communication
Table 6. Use ofFacebookfeatures
Table 7. Students attitudes towards Facebook
Table 8. Coding scheme for interview transcripts
Figure 1. Timeline of the introduction of various social networking sites
Figure 2. Example of a Facebookprofile
Figure 3. Percentage of students indicating amount of time spent online per day
Figure 4. Wall posts showing progression of information exchanged
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I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been astronomical growth in the number of people
connecting to and actively using the internet. For students in particular it has become an
entrenched part of daily life. Todays university students come equipped with desktop
and laptop computers, mobile phones, iPods, GPS systems, and a seemingly endless
supply of other technologies. As mobile computing and wireless internet develop to meet
consumer demands, it is these students who are on the forefront of adoption; the idea of
ubiquitous wireless access through laptops or mobile phones is one they are quickly
embracing. It is obvious that these ideas and technologies are becoming incorporated
within the mundane realities of everyday life (Beer and Burrows 2007). This paradigm
shift has potentially huge implications for the next generation, and for the people and
institutions that engage with these youths.
Social networking software is one internet application that has become
particularly popular among university students. In most cases, social networking is a web
based service, whose inherent features allow users to:
...construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a
list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse their
list of connections and those made by others within this system (boyd & Ellison
2007: 211).
Within the sphere of social networking, one particular site, Facebook, has
emerged as the most popular, with over 90% of university students maintaining a profile
on the site (Ellison et al. 2006). This ubiquity of use makes it clear that Facebookhas
become an important part of students lives, and as such, the potential impact on
education is enormous. Within Facebook, the interaction of various types of media
makes it a powerful form of communication. The ability to develop networks and affinity
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groups, exchange personal and public messages, and adopt applications to meet specific
requirements gives Facebookthe potential to fulfil many different needs and students are
quickly recognizing these affordances.
Despite the near ubiquitous presence ofFacebookin the lives of todays students,
research in the area of social networking is still in the most nascent of stages. In this
thesis I will argue, through a discussion of literature and a small scale case study, the
importance of coming to understand how and why Facebookis being so highly utilised by
students. The research I conducted explored the experience of one group of
postgraduate students at the University of Oxford who are high level users ofFacebook.
Employing a case study methodology, and using questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and
a form of virtual ethnography, this research examines how these students are using
Facebook, their feelings and attitudes towards it, and begins to consider why this tool has
become so important in their lives. The impetus for this research comes from two main
areas. The first is a personal interest in both emerging technologies and the role they
play in students lives. As a teacher and as a student, I was very aware of the fact that
students were quick to embrace social networking technologies. It became apparent to
me that the amount of time devoted to online interaction meant that this was something
important to the student experience, especially as many students seemed to join
Facebookat the urging of their peers. The second reason I chose to conduct research in
this area was due to the gap I perceived in the literature surrounding Facebook. As will be
discussed in the literature review, though there are several studies that look at adoption
rates or privacy issues, there are very few studies that explore Facebookfrom the point of
view of the student. I believe this is of utmost importance in beginning to understand
how Facebookis impacting students lives and university experiences.
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This dissertation is meant to form a preliminary study, exploring methodologies
and generating possible hypotheses for use in my proposed doctoral research. As this is a
new and rapidly developing field, data and methodological strategies are continually
emerging and being refined. I feel that the novel combination of methods I use in this
study, combining elements of Learner Experience methodology, a case study approach,
and a form of virtual ethnography, may suggest a strategy particularly suited to this area,
or, equally as valuably, suggest which methods may not be appropriate. Further to this, I
hope to begin to contribute to the body of knowledge in the area of social networking. I
believe that the data I generate, though limited in scope and generalisability, may suggest
theories worthy of future study.
Chapter two presents a review of literature surrounding the topic. Starting with
an overview of the technologies involved, it then explores themes that emerged from the
empirical research conducted into social networking. The questions on which the current
study are based are presented in chapter three. A detailed explanation of the
methodology used , including specific instruments and justifications for their choice are
presented in chapter three. With this is a discussion of the ethical considerations
surrounding the chosen methods, and an analysis of possible strengths and limitations of
the study. Findings are presented in chapter five, and discussed in chapter six. Within
the discussion, the relation of the findings to the literature and to the research questions
will be explained, and possible implications and directions for future work will be
examined.
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II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The New Internet
The recent massive adoption of internet technologies (Madden and Fox 2006) has
coincided with a shift in the nature of the internet; the rise of the new, so called, Web 2.0.
The term Web 2.0 is generally attributed to Tim OReilly, whose definition is based on
ideas such as . . . consuming and remixing data from multiple sources, including
individual users, while providing data and services in a form that allows remixing by
others, creating network effects through an architecture of participation (OReilly 2005:
Online). One of the key principles of Web 2.0 is that, although it is inherently tied to the
development of hardware and networking, it is more a revolution of ideas, processes, and
applications. Laying the foundation for this was the move from a static, read-only web,
to a new read/write web, exemplified by applications such as social software, wikis,
blogs, and mash-ups (Alexander 2006). In a report commissioned by the Joint
Information Systems Committee (JISC), Anderson (2007) gives a comprehensive overview
of both the technologies implicit in, and the big ideas behind, Web 2.0 (Table 1).
Key Applications Big Ideas
blogs wikis tagging and social bookmarking multimedia sharing audio blogging and podcasting RSS and syndication
user generated content the power of the crowd data of epic scale architecture of participation network effects openness of information
Table 1. Andersons overview of applications and ideas inherent in Web 2.0
The ideas of user generated content and architectures of participation appear to be
foundational parts of the new web (see, for example, Brey 2005 or Hilton 2006). What
has catapulted Web 2.0 from being purely a technical development to a near societal
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revolution has been the transference of these ideas into mainstream culture. Media
theorist Henry Jenkins uses the term participatory culture to encapsulate these ideas:
A participatory culture is a culture with relatively low barriers to artistic expression
and civic engagement, strong support for creating and sharing ones creations...one in
which members believe their contributions matter, and feel some degree of social
connection with one another (at the least they care what other people think about
what they have created). (Jenkins et al. 2006: Online)
Students are one group with a particularly high level of participation in Web 2.0, so
much so that it has potentially huge impact for the people that work with them. Hartman
et al. (2007) look at the increasing move towards learner centred pedagogy, pointing out
that this shift in modes of participation in education is forcing university faculty to evolve
along with the internet or face becoming extinct. An interesting, if slightly farfetched
article by Barnes and Tynan(2007) takes a speculative fiction approach in tracking the life
of a student in the near future, showing how new Web 2.0 technologies could be used
not just to support traditional teaching, but to completely change the way universities
operate. And Hilton (2006) looks at the disruptions these new ideas are having on higher
education, asking whether they present a sunrise or perfect storm. Whichever view we
take, it is essential that research around this area is conducted to allow us to both
examine the ways students are internalising these new concepts, and how they are using
both the ideas and the technologies to enhance their educational experience.
Social Software
While Web 2.0 is comprised of a range of applications, one specific type, social
software, has generated particular amounts of interest; from users, the media, and the
public in general. The term social software was first coined by Shirky (2003) to refer to
all uses of software that supported interacting groups. Further to this, Coates (2005)
considers social software as software which supports, extends, or derives added value
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from human social behaviour message boards, musical taste sharing, photo sharing,
instant messaging, mailing lists, social networking. While these definitions give a
snapshot of both practices and technologies inherent in social software, boyd (2007)
perhaps captures the wider picture with her comment that social software is about a
movement, not simply a category of technologies. This idea fits neatly into the paradigm
of the new web evolving from ideas rather than hardware.
When speaking colloquially of social software, most people are referring to a
specific subset of social software applications. Though the precise nomenclature has
been debated (boyd & Ellison 2007, Beer 2008), the term social networking site (SNS) is
what is generally used to describe these applications. Such sites are the most common
method of putting ones self on the internet, and often serve as a portal for the
presentation of self online. Their popularity has made them prominent in the media and
it seems rare today to find people who arent at least somewhat familiar with sites such
as Facebookor MySpace. With the first primitive examples of these sites being released
in 2000, social networking software is still a relatively new phenomenon. Figure 1. gives
an overview of SNSs and their release dates.
Fig. 1. Timeline of the introduction of various social networking sites (boyd & Ellison 2007)
For a phenomenon with a relatively short history, the uptake and adoption rate of
these applications has been astounding. A recent study by Ofcom (2008) found that 22%
of adult internet users in the UK over age 16 have set up their own profile on at least one
social networking site. This translates to nearly 8.5 million users, as reported by the
Guardian (Sweeny 2008). And users access these sites fairly frequently, with 87% logging
on at least once a week, and half at least every other day. The entrenchment of this
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technology into the daily lives of so many has potentially massive implications for society.
As boyd (2007) says, it is altering the organisation of social life. And as we move into an
age where young people have grown up with online social networking as part of the
cultural mainstream, this new organisation of social life will move toward becoming a
societal norm.
Facebook
Although there are a plethora of social networking sites, certain ones have
achieved a much higher level of prominence than others. The two most highly utilised
SNS sites are Facebookand MySpace (Ofcom 2008). Although these sites have similar
features (profiles, lists of connections, various methods of interaction, the ability to share
media, etc) most users seem to choose one over the other. The choice of a location for
ones primary social networking profile seems to be influenced by many factors, including
age (MySpace is popular with younger users, Facebookwith a more mature audience) and
geographic location (MySpace shows a higher proportion of users in the United States,
while Facebookhas a higher proportion in the UK) (Ofcom 2008). As this present study is
being conducted in the UK with users over 18 years of age it seems rational to use
Facebookas the primary example of a social networking site.
For those not familiar with Facebook, Golder et al.(2007) provides a detailed
overview. Briefly, Facebookusers create a profile, filling in a framework with contact
details, interests, and a picture of ones self. The networking side comes through the
addition of friends; users friend other users, creating inter-linked social networks.
Friends can view each others profiles, and interact in many ways: public asynchronous
chat via the wall, private messages, and pokeing are examples. In addition to profiles,
Facebooksupports groups where users with similar interests can interact, and events
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which usually promote offline gatherings. Recently, the expansion ofFacebookto include
applications and chat functionality has expanded the possibilities of use. Chat allows
real time, synchronous discourse between users. Applications are small programs
embedded into ones page, and have been developed for every possible desire one could
have; from virtual bookshelves, to quizzes, to growing computer generated plants.
Figure 2 provides an example of a Facebookprofile main page.
Fig. 2. An example of a Facebookprofile
In the UK, Facebookhas the highest rate of adoption of any social networking site.
Of SNS users, 62% maintain a profile on Facebook(Ofcom 2008). One demographic with
a particularly high rate of participation is university students, who have quickly embraced
Facebook, adopting the technology in huge numbers. Various studies quote consistently
high percentages of student users: 85% (Stutzman 2006), 90% (Golder et al. 2007), 94%
(Ellison et al. 2006). Although these studies make a clear point about the important role
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Facebookis playing in the lives of students, they fail to examine why this may be so; what
particularly it is about Facebookthat makes it such a highly utilised application.
Themes In The Research
Although the presence ofFacebookin students lives is clearly recognized,
research into why this may be is still in its infancy. Large scale empirical studies have
lookied at such things as rates of adoption (Stutzman 2006), use in academia (Selwyn
2007), size of networks (Lampe et al. 2006), and user demographics (Baron 2007).
Though this type of information is useful in generating statistics, it fails to delve to the
level of understanding of the phenomenon required to assess, and possibly make use of,
the impact it is having on students. A number of themes seem to guide the more
detailed studies and writings in this area: the potential impact on education, the
formation and presentation of identity, the development of online networks, the relation
between online and offline worlds, and issues of privacy and safety.
Academic Relevance
In what are mainly theoretical musings rather than empirical studies, a few
authors have focused specifically on the implications ofFacebookin education. Bugeja
(2006) looks at Facebookfrom the viewpoint of a professor, discussing the potential
challenges faced by academics in relating to and engaging students who are such high
level users of these new technologies. He specifically mentions the distractions that can
occur when technology is used as a learning tool, and the issue of disclosure of private
information that can detrimentally affect students identities as serious learners. On the
more positive side, he also argues that Facebookcan promote critical thinking in learners
about their learning, and therefore, if used properly, may help engage students in the
academic experience. A slightly more practical article is presented by Berg et al. (2007)
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who examine the ways in which the multi-functionality of social networking sites could be
appropriated by universities in order to offer services to students, both academic and
supportive, in ways that would perhaps better engage them. This view is taken even
further by Selwyn (2007) who believes that this technology not only could, but needs to
be incorporated into higher education, encouraging a radical overall and wholesale
restructuring of universities and university education.
Along with theorising, Selwyn has also conducted empirical research into the use
ofFacebookin universities. He completed a large scale study of undergraduates, looking
at how Facebookis being used to support academic work (2007). In an analysis of wall
postings, he found, not surprisingly, only 4% were directly related to academic studies. Of
this small number, he defined five themes: recounting and reflecting on university
experience, the exchange of logistical information, the exchange of academic
information, displays of disengagement with studies, and what he descriptively calls
banter. While making an interesting point about Facebookhaving more of a role in
social support rather than a direct relation to academic study, the large scale quantitative
nature of this research (data mining from nearly 70 000 wall posts) fails to create a
picture of why this may be so.
The place ofFacebookin education, especially in negotiating the divide between
students and educators, was explored in an interesting experiment conducted by Mazer
et al. (2007). Their work examined how the amount and type of disclosure of personal
information on a Facebookprofile affected students opinions of their instructors.
Generally, participants judged profiles with high disclosure as the teacher that would
provide higher levels of motivation and a more positive environment. However, in
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answer to more open ended questions, participants expressed the view that having a high
level of personal disclosure on Facebookmay impair a teachers credibility.
Identity
One aspect ofFacebookis that users must create and present an identity (profile)
as a prerequisite of adoption of the application. Much of the related literature traces
back to the notion of presentation of self, introduced by Erving Goffman (1959).
Goffman uses the metaphor of the stage, arguing that people present themselves, either
consciously or not, in a variety of roles dependent on the audience and the context.
Certain characteristics may be emphasized or hidden in order to convey the desired
impression. On Facebook, users can manipulate the information they share in a variety of
fields, continually refining their on-line selves. How users do this has spawned a fair bit
of research, undertaken in various ways and looking at different aspects of identity
creation.
The deterministic quality of self presentation on line is nicely summed up by boyd
(2008): One cannot simply be online; one must make ones presence visible through
explicit and structured actions. Though the vast majority of her research has revolved
around one small scale ethnographic examination of early adopters of the site Friendster,
boyd has produced copious writing related to social networking. One point she makes
repeatedly is the mediated nature of sites like Facebook; ones online identity must be
created within the structures imposed by the site. Rather than simply reflect
presentation of self in everyday life, online communities evolve their own contexts which
mediate the performance of identity, shaping how users are both able, and how they
choose, to present themselves.
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Baron (2007) conducted a small scale survey of 60 undergraduates, presenting a
descriptive study of how users present themselves through Facebookand instant
messaging. Along with demographic information, she specifically, she looks at how self is
presented through the use of status updates on instant messenger software. Somewhat
unfortunately, she doesnt expand this to examine the use of status updates on Facebook,
which would seem to be a similar method of presentation. The important point she does
conclude is that ones identity on Facebookcan be more an expression of who one wants
to be rather than whom one really is.
This idea is taken up by Zhao, Grasmuck, and Martin who argue:
... Facebookidentities were not the identities users established in the offline
world, nor were they close to the identities users would construct in a more
anonymous online environment; rather, they were the hoped-for possible
identities users would like to, but have not yet, been able to, establish in the
offline world. (Zhao et al. 2008: 1834)
Their study looked at the profiles of 63 undergraduate students, analysing the
information shared in certain fields, and using this to make judgements regarding the
identities created by the users. They conclude that all users attempt to project a socially
desirable self, emphasising traits such as popularity, well roundedness, and
thoughtfulness. They also make the point that, in this type of presentation, most users
claim their identities implicitly rather than explicitly, using photographs, quotes, and
group/friend affiliations to aid in their construction of self. Though they generate a fair
bit of interesting data, the subjective nature of their interpretations impairs the credibility
of the study. Simply assuming certain photographs, quotes, or listed characteristics are
selected to convey certain impressions could be specious; following up these assumptions
by conducting interviews with participants could help validate their findings.
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One emergent theme in relation to identity creation is the problem users face in
knowing precisely to whom they are presenting themselves. Audience members will
change over time, especially as the users life situation and offline networks shift. As
boyd & Heer (2006) describe, Projections into the persistent digital public are accessible
to anyone present now or later. Thus even if one can evaluate the audience at a given
time, it is impossible to gauge future potential audiences. How this fluidity can serve as a
positive influence on shaping a persons online identity, or as a challenge to be overcome,
is an interesting area for continued research.
Networking
The networking aspect of social networking software comes from the creation of
ties to other users; on Facebook, these are known as friends. Although the term friend
connotes a relatively close relationship in the offline world, online friends may range from
close confidants to people never met in person, with some users often having tens of
thousands of online friends. As boyd (2004) discusses, friendship online doesnt truly
imply closeness or trust, rather a somewhat specious, though publicly articulated, display
of connection. These displays of connection are the subject of both theoretical
exploration and some empirical research, often considering the ways software can
mediate relationships.
Early in the evolution of social networking sites, Donath and boyd (2004)
introduce the idea of public displays of connection, describing how networks online
grow as friends recruit friends, articulating these links in a visible public manner. They
regard these online social networks as having similarities to more traditional offline
networks :
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sources of emotional and financial support, and of information about jobs, other
people, and the world at large...[they] have a profound effect on the way people
work, the opportunities they have, and the structure of their daily life. (Donath &
boyd 2004: 71)
As online communication grows, the construction of these networks is increasingly
being conducted online through computer mediated environments. Donath and boyd use
signalling theory as a lens to focus their discussion, noting that visible signals are often
correlated with specific underlying characteristics, and this is especially true in the online
environment, which lacks many of the possible signalling devices found in face to face
communication. From this they conclude that online, these public displays of connection
help to both ensure honest self presentation and reassure others of the reliability of
signals, as ones connections are linked to ones profile; they have both seen it and,
implicitly, sanctioned it (2004). However, the question of how these newly formed
online networks will, or even can serve the same purposes as offline social networks, is
one that is just starting to be recognised and addressed.
One theme emerging within this area is the lack of distinction made between
Facebookfriends; it is impossible to know how close a relationship exists simply based on
a friend link. As links between friends on Facebookare unnuanced and decontextualized
(Donath and boyd 2004) it is important look further than simple friend connections to
establish the relationships between users. Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2006) undertook
a large survey study looking at how students use ofFacebookrelates to social capital.
They discuss the difference between bridging social capital (weaker ties based on
acquaintanceship) and bonding social capital (stronger ties which imply a close mutual
relationship). By measuring intensity ofFacebookuse through number of friends and
time spent online, and correlating this with measures of attitude both towards Facebook
and college experience in general, they conclude that social networking sites can increase
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social capital, especially the weaker ties inherent in bridging social capital. This isnt a
revolutionary idea; the very nature ofFacebookin sharing basic information with a large
number of people can easily be seen to lead towards the establishment of a loose
network of acquaintanceship.
Golder, Wilkinson, and Huberman (2007) examined how often online friends truly
interacted, undertaking a prodigious study which looked at messages and pokes
exchanged between nearly 4.2 million users at 496 universities in North America over a
two year period. They posited that the exchange of messages or pokes represented a
higher investment than simply friending someone, and was an active, socially meaningful
gesture. Not surprisingly, they found that only 15% of friend dyads actually exchanged
messages, and that factors such as being at the same school or being established friend
pairs increased the likelihood of reciprocal exchanges. Unfortunately, these large scale
studies seem to be the only examination into the types of connections afforded by social
software; as Ellison et al. (2006) stress, there is little academic work examining online
social networks. Further, Donath (2008) raises an important question, asking if this
formation of many weak links will eventually shift peoples social world form one focused
on a few important relationships to one consisting of an immense number of weak
relationships. It is these types of questions, looking at how social networking software
could fundamentally impact the culture of the next generation, which deserve closer
examination.
Offline to Online
Closely tied to the discussion of the formation of online networks is the question
of how these connections relate to offline relationships. Although in the past many have
regarded the internet as a way of meeting new people, research findings seem to suggest
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that most users see Facebookas a way to enhance relationships established offline, and
tend to friend people they already know from other contexts (see, for example, Selwyn
2007). Boyds (2008) discussions also touch on this topic, and her ideas of a collapsing of
contextual boundaries in which an online profile has to be tailored for presentation to
widely varied offline contacts neatly sums up some of the problems inherent in the
merging of these two different worlds.
Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampes (2007) work also moves into this area; the concept
of creating social capital online that is then used to enhance offline life reflects these
overlapping boundaries. One of their key findings is that students view the primary
audience for their profile to be people with whom they share an offline connection.
They go on to say that participants overwhelmingly used Facebookto keep in touch with
old friends and to maintain or intensify relationships characterised by some form of
offline connection. The large scale study commissioned by Ofcom (2008) also defined
three main motivations for using Facebook, all of which involved offline relationships:
keeping in touch with peers, linking up with old friends, and managing existing
relationships. What may be interesting is to follow this up with an examination of which
offline contacts students put forth effort into developing or maintain relationships with,
and what features ofFacebookhelp them to do so.
In the early days of the internet, most authors were engaged in exploring the
differences between the online and offline world. Turkle (1996) spends a great deal of
time describing the differences in identity and interaction seen in the real versus the
online world. The media also plays up this stereotype, with examples of people meeting
online who are then disappointed in what they find when they eventually meet in real
life. However, it seems that the generation of users who have embraced social
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networking have chosen not to fall into this pattern, and are instead integrating the two
worlds into one. How seamlessly this is, or can be, done is definitely an interesting future
topic.
Privacy
Social networking sites are inherently public spaces. You would be hard pressed
these days not to have heard of or engaged in the debates that rage around the issue of
privacy and security inherent in putting oneself online. The media seem to have a
fascination with the area, with everyone from the New York Times to Cosmo magazine
producing some sort of story. And yet, when looked at through well designed research, it
seems this may all be a sort of overblown fear mongering. Although nearly all of the
studies that look at Facebookuse inevitably contain questions on issues of privacy and
security (Selwyn 2007, Mazer et al. 2007, Joinson 2008 for example), few seem to find it
an issue needing deeper study, especially when the users are adults competent enough to
make informed choices. And they do; today, most users of social network sites seem to
understand the risks inherent in their behaviour, make choices accordingly, and are
accepting of the consequences.
One of the first and most widely cited studies of privacy concerns on Facebook
comes from Acquisti and Gross (2006). They surveyed students at one American
university, combining this with data mined from profiles. They found that, although most
students claimed to have a high level of privacy concerns, and most knew that settings to
manage profile visibility existed, they did not use a great number of strategies to restrict
the data visible on their Facebookprofile. Instead, they chose to control the information
they shared. Interestingly, students also explained that a social network was based on
the idea of information sharing, with privacy concerns being overridden by the need to
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share ...enough information so that necessary/useful to me and other people to benefit
from Facebook. It is important to keep in mind that, at the time this study was
conducted, Facebooknetworks were clearly delineated; only members of certain
universities could have a profile, and it could therefore be assumed that the majority of
those with access to ones profile were of a similar peer group. As Facebookhas
expanded and profiles are now available to anyone, it is likely that attitudes may have
shifted somewhat.
boyd (2008), in an article reflecting on this point, suggestively entitled Facebooks
Privacy Trainwreck, discussed how the expansion ofFacebookbeyond the college
community, and concurrent change in site features, led to a backlash of users against the
site. Suddenly people became more aware of the information they were projecting.
Facebookwas quick to respond with increased levels of privacy settings, a trend that has
continued as the site continually seems to offer more ways to control who has access to
different parts of ones profile. Although this area of privacy and security is highly
charged and integral to the continued prominence ofFacebook, affecting how users
choose to portray themselves and interact online, I felt it far too large to be adequately
addressed in this small scale study. Instead, I chose to examine how and why students
use Facebook, with the belief that privacy concerns, if valid, would emerge through these
topics.
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III. QUESTIONS DRIVING THE STUDY
After reviewing recent work in this area, the need for further research that starts
to describe and explain the role that social networking software is taking in the lives of
students becomes apparent. Particularly, there seems to be a paucity of studies
examining the phenomenon from the students own viewpoint. The need for studies that
allow students to share their experiences, motivations, and perceptions relating to the
role of technologies in their lives has recently been identified (Mayes 2006). Such studies,
valuable in their own right, also provide a new platform of understanding on which
further research can be developed. This present research aims to begin to fulfil this need,
with a study that looks at the ways in which students have appropriated Facebookin
order to enhance their university experience, and explores their perceptions, experiences,
and responses to this phenomenon. The research questions guiding the study are:
What is the experience of Oxford university postgraduates using Facebook?o How is Facebookaffecting these students academic work?o How is Facebookaffecting these students social support systems?o How is Facebookaffecting these students sense of identity?
The meta question allows me to examine the students experience and voice, looking at
how they are using Facebook, and at their beliefs, motivations, and rationalisations
surrounding it. The first sub-question is designed to explore if students feel there is any
impact, positive or negative, ofFacebookon their actual studies. The second sub-
question explores the social aspect of social networking. The development of online
communities has changed the way people relate, and has provided a new forum for
presentation of self. How this has affected students experiences of the university
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experience is an area in need of further understanding. The third sub-question looks at
how on-line presentation of self is affecting students perceptions of their identity and
what strategies they employ to manage how others perceive them. Woven throughout
these questions in my study is the idea of affordance; what particularly is it about
Facebookthat has caused these students to adopt it in such large numbers, and what
other forms of technology, communication, and interpersonal relations has it replaced in
their lives.
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IV. METHODOLOGY
The essence of good research design is that the methods employed must be
appropriate to the questions asked (Robson 2002). This chapter will present the
questions driving the research, and describe the methodology employed in this study. A
description of these methods will be given, along with justification for these choices.
Selection of a site and the recruitment of participants will be discussed, as will the
particular strategies and instruments employed in data collection. Methods of data
analysis will be explained. The chapter will conclude with a discussion of the ethical
considerations surrounding this project and reflection on the accuracy and
trustworthiness of the data obtained.
In an area of study as novel and evolving as this, the researcher has the flexibility,
even a mandate, to explore the phenomenon from different perspectives using different
methodologies. As described in the literature review, there have been a variety of
different approaches taken to the study of social networking software, especially with the
overlap of disciplines involved, making this area currently particularly methodologically
rich. Studies from anthropologists and sociologists often use ethnographic methods with
participant observers becoming members and spending time interacting in online
communities (boyd 2004). Those from a technical background employ quasi-experiments
and examinations of the affordances of software architectures (Mazer Murphys and
Simonds 2007). And many researchers base their work on wide scale surveys, yielding
reams of seemingly similar numerical data (Selwyn 2007, Stutzman 2006). This lack of
prescription allows the researcher some degree of freedom and innovation with their
choice of method.
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The intent of this study was to examine the role ofFacebookin the lives of
students, looking specifically at their experiences and reflections. For this, a research
design based mainly on qualitative strategies seemed most appropriate, as, according to
Punch (2005), qualitative strategies have the advantage of capturing the lived experience
of the participants. Merriam states that case studies are a particularly suitable
methodology for... extending the knowledge base of various aspects of education...these
problems in which understanding is sought in order to improve practice. (1988, xiii). As
one of the foci of this study is on understanding the phenomenon ofFacebookfrom the
viewpoint of the users, I felt a case study approach particularly suited to this research.
Also influential on the design of my study was Learner Experience methodology.
Recently, JISC published a study entitled LEX: The Learners Experience of e-Learning
(Mayes 2006). Their detailed methodology report described practices of data collection
that develop a holistic picture of the learner, and allow the learners voice to be heard.
They offer six guiding principles for such a learner centred methodology:
open ended methods mixed mode triangulated access beliefs , explanations, and intentions talk about learning with students authentic contexts
They suggest that these principles are best met through naturalistic data collection
strategies, including in-depth interviews using artefacts or activities to guide responses.
Case studies have a unique strength in being able to deal with a variety of evidence (Yin
2003). Using the strategies suggested by the learner experience methodology within a
case study approach would provide the sort of rich understanding of the experiences of
these particular students which I hoped to gain. I chose three specific methods of data
collection: questionnaires, in-depth interviews conducted while viewing the students
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Facebookprofiles, and a type of retrospective virtual ethnography (Francis 2007) in
which I explored participants Facebookprofiles myself after conducting interviews. Each
of these methods will be discussed further below.
The benefits of using multiple, varied strategies of data collection is reinforced by
several authors in their discussions of the advantages of mixed method designs.
Hammersley and Atkinson(2007) discuss three approaches to multi method research: use
of different types of data to triangulate findings, using one strategy to facilitate research
using a second strategy, and using two strategies in different aspects of the research to
complement each other. The practical advantages of all three of these approaches
became increasingly clear as my study progressed and, using this guidance, I was able to
draw on the various types of data generated to create a detailed and holistic picture of
the role Facebookwas taking in the lives of my participants.
Data Collection Tools
Questionnaires
I chose to begin my research with the use of a questionnaire for three primary
reasons. First was to provide basic demographic information on participants, and to gain
an overview of how these students used a variety of modern technologies, including
social networking software. I felt this important, as with a questionnaire I could gather
data from many more students than I could complete in depth interviews with. Robson
(2002) corroborates this point, in discussing how questionnaires are a relatively
straightforward way to study attitudes and beliefs, that they are highly standardised, and
they can easily generate data from a large number of individuals. The second purpose of
the questionnaire built upon this feature of standardised data. I used comparisons
between participants to select interviewees (as will be discussed under Participant
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Selection below.) The final purpose of the questionnaire was to provide slightly more
detailed information on students use of, and attitudes towards, Facebookwhich could
then be used to formulate some tentative preliminary hypotheses and to guide the
development of questions to be used during interviews.
The questionnaire I employed had three main sections: basic demographic
information, questions on participants use of technologies, and a specific section on
participants use of, and attitudes towards, Facebook. The design, layout, and content
were created with reference to several sources in regards to what constitutes an effective
questionnaire (see, for example, Converse and Presser (1986), De Vaus (1991) or Robson
(2002) ). For the most part, participants were asked to select from answers provided;
lists of possible technologies or interval scales delimitating time periods where
appropriate. This was done for two reasons; to ensure that responses were standardised,
permitting some between subject comparisons to be carried out, and in consideration of
the time required to complete the questionnaire, with the knowledge that more in-depth
responses could be elicited during interviews. Attitudes towards Facebookand social
networking were measured using a Likert type scale, asking students to tick boxes they
felt best described their viewpoint. Areas such as the use ofFacebookto make or
maintain friendships, attitudes towards privacy, and the place ofFacebookin college life
were addressed in this section. The questionnaire is presented in its entirety in Appendix
1.
Interviews
The primary method of data collection in this study was the in-depth interview.
Kvale (1996) states that interviews attempt to understand the world from the subjects
point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples experiences, to uncover their lived
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world. This idea, central to the learner experience methodology as well, a fits closely with
the research questions driving my study, and my desire to understand students
perspectives on the role ofFacebookin their lives.
I chose to use lightly structured, in-depth interviews. A brief list of questions was
used to guide the interview (see Appendix 2). Employing a guide ensured that I
addressed the key points I wished to in each interview, and allowed a slight degree of
standardisation and comparison to be drawn between participants. However, within
each interview, I was particularly careful to follow up topics that seemed particularly
relevant, or particularly interesting, to the participant; a key point in understanding
personal experience. This is a distinct advantage of such open ended interviews; as May
states, it allows the meanings that individuals attribute to events and relationships to be
understood on their own terms... it thereby provides a greater understanding of the
subjects point of view.(2001: 120) This was highly observable in my interviews, as
several participants chose to speak in-depth about aspects of the experience with
Facebookthat I had not previously expected, and many of the themes that emerged in my
findings came from these parts of the interviews.
Virtual Ethnography
In a study such as this, where there is emphasis on methodological exploration
and developing directions for future work as well as on answering the questions posed,
employing a design that is flexible and open to amendment throughout the research
process is invaluable (Robson 2002). As my data collection and analysis progressed, I
found myself frequently viewing the Facebookprofiles of participants, in order to clarify a
point made during an interview or to see if an emergent theory was supported by this
documentary evidence. Hine (2000) has employed the term virtual ethnography to
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describe the study of internet spaces as cultures or cultural artefact. Her description of
virtual ethnography as a methodology moves far deeper into the ethnographic tradition
than my study has, particularly as she discussed how researchers can become active
members of specific online communities, while I used profiles more as a sort of
documentary evidence. Building on Hines work, Francis (2007) uses the term
retrospective virtual ethnography to particularly describe exploring online spaces (such
as Facebookprofiles and networks) after completing interviews, with the intention of
adding understanding to data gathered in the interview. These emergent and evolving
strategies have promise in becoming useful methods of data collection for research in this
area.
Participant Selection
In qualitative research, the basic ideas behind the sampling strategies vary
considerably, and reflect the purposes and questions guiding the study. (Punch 2005:
187). This statement provides researchers with the flexibility to choose settings, cases,
and participants for qualitative research in a manner that is logically derived from the
purposes of their study. Hammersley and Atkinson (2007) also suggest the need for
pragmatism in selection of site. Within the case study methodology, the case needs to
be defined as a bounded system. This can take many forms: an individual, social group,
organisation, role, nation or event (Davies 2007). Bassey (1999) describes types of case
studies suited to educational research. His category theory-seeking and theory-testing
(corresponding to Stakes (1995) instrumental case study, or Yins (2003) exploratory case
study) focuses on an issue, with the particular case chosen as it is expected to be both
demonstrative of and in some ways typical of other similar cases. As my intentions were
to examine Facebookuse among Oxford postgraduates, choosing one specific Oxford
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postgraduate college formed a well bounded case. I chose Linacre College for several
reasons, resulting from, and even helping to generate, the research questions of my
study. As a member of this group myself, I could not help but observe the vast
proliferation ofFacebookinto the lives of Linacre students. I felt this group of highly
educated, well resourced, and technologically proficient students would make a good
selection for an examination ofFacebook. As well, as a member of the college, I knew I
would be able to recruit participants, and to select certain students whom I knew were
using Facebookin interesting ways. Stakes comments on case selection seem particularly
supportive of this choice of case:
My choice would be to examine that case from which we feel we can learn the
most. That may mean taking the one most accessible or the one we can spend the most
time with. Potential for learning is a different and sometimes superior criterion to
representativeness (2005, p. 451).
Within Linacre College, I went about recruiting participants through a combination
of self selected and snowball sampling. First, I emailed the population of the college
asking for volunteers to take part in the study. I provided a brief outline of the project,
detailing what involvement would require. I had a target of obtaining twenty five
participants for the survey. From the email request, I had sixteen respondents express a
desire to participate. The further nine students were recruited in person, through my
requesting their participation, or through asking students to provide the names of others
who may be interested in the project, or who were known to use Facebookin interesting
ways. Though I had no thoughts of generating a representative sample, I did give
consideration to gender, age, area of study, and degree type when recruiting participants,
aiming for a sample that varied across these areas. Table 2 below provides a brief
demographic outline of the students who completed the questionnaire.
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Gender Age Degree Type Area of Study
1 F 23 M. Phil Linguistics and Philology
2 F 26 M. Sc Visual Anthropology
3 M 25 D. Phil Material Science
4 F 24 M. Sc Social Anthropology
5 F 24 D. Phil Plant Sciences
6 M 25 D. Phil Clinical Medicine
7 M 28 M. Sc Forced Migration
8 F 30 D. Phil Neuroscience
9 M 34 M. Phil Development Studies
10 F 27 D. Phil Clinical Psychology
11 M 37 D. Phil Clinical Medicine
12 M 29 D. Phil Oriental Studies
13 M 24 D. Phil Medicinal Chemistry
14 M 27 D. Phil English
15 M 28 D. Phil Neuroscience
16 F 30 D. Phil Microbiology17 M 32 D. Phil Chemistry
18 F 26 D. Phil Immunology
19 F 24 D. Phil Physiology
20 F 33 D. Phil Sociology
21 M 25 M.B.A Business
22 M 31 M. Sc Environmental Change and Management
23 M 24 D. Phil Biology
24 F 26 D. Phil Inorganic Chemistry
25 F 27 D. Phil Pharmacology
Table 2. Demographic characteristics of students participating in the study.
One of the functions of the questionnaire was to provide a basis on which to
select participants for interviews. Selection here was purposive. Rapely (2004) suggests
four guidelines when choosing interviewees: finding knowledgeable informants, getting a
range of views, testing emerging themes, and extending results. I chose students who
seemed to use Facebookin different ways, and who displayed a variety of different
attitudes towards Facebook. As the interviews progressed, I began to choose
interviewees based somewhat on the data I had already gathered, using the
questionnaire data to select participants who could provide data particularly relevant to
emergent theories. I began with a target of completing ten interviews. However, as I
began conducting the interviews, I found them to be much more in-depth, longer, and
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comprehensive than expected. Following the principle of not collecting more data than
you can analyse (Bassey 1999) I chose to complete eight interviews. Table 3 below
presents a summary of the interview participants.
Name Age Gender Area of Study DegreeType
Reason for selection
Josephine 23 F Linguistics and
Philology
M. Phil Technology refuser,
though active on
Facebook, using it
frequently for
communication, profile
updates, and picture
sharing.
Ariel 27 F Pharmacology D.Phil Very large number of
friends, activecommunicator on
Facebook, though rarely
updates profile.
Eric 25 M Material Sciences D.Phil High user of technology,
though very light user of
Facebook.
Steve 32 M Inorganic Chemistry D. Phil States his primary
reason for being on
Facebookis to keep
track of what others aredoing, rarely uses it to
communicate or update
profile.
Piper 33 F Sociology D. Phil Very high level
consumer of technology
Tyler 24 M Biology D.Phil Active user, maintains a
Facebookprofile and
groups for the college
common room.
Richard 37 M Clinical Medicine D.Phil Nominally a Facebookrefuser, though
maintains a profile for a
pseudonym
Jasmine 26 F Visual
Anthropology
M.Sc Average user
Table. 3 Summary of interview participants
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Gathering Data
The first step in my data collection was testing the instruments to be used. I chose
to pilot the study on two participants, administering the questionnaire and conducting
interviews based on a preliminary outline of topics generated in reference to the research
questions and the literature review. Based on their feedback, and on the type of data
generated, I made minor adjustments to the questionnaire. I reviewed these changes
with the volunteers, who seemed confident that this had produced a highly effective
instrument. The subjects covered during interviews proved to be a good initial guide for
developing more specific interview question. What did arise during piloting was the
immediate generation of unexpected themes and responses to questions, which, I felt,
put me in a slightly more informed position from which to begin the data collection phase
of my project. Although data from the pilot stage is not officially included in my findings,
it is impossible not to let the knowledge gained influence my thinking and the progression
of the project. Therefore, I acknowledge the contribution of the pilot participants to the
overall study.
Administering the questionnaire to those that had consented to take part in my
study was the next step. Twenty five students were given the questionnaire, either
through college post, by hand, or completed while I was present. I considered the
potential bias created by my being present while administering the questionnaire to some
participants and not others, especially as some participants did ask questions for
clarification. However, as the goal of this research was to generate a holistic
understanding of the students rather than a strictly regulated data set, I felt that this
guidance would help rather than mar my results. The decision between a paper based or
internet based questionnaire was also a consideration. I decided to use paper based,
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partly due to the fact I was familiar with administering this type of instrument and felt
confident in using it, and partly due to technical difficulties during this time period that
made me dubious of my ability to as easily access online information. I was lucky to
receive an excellent rate of participation; all students who were given a copy of the
questionnaire did return it, and all were completed thoroughly without any missing
pieces or evidence of misunderstandings.
Once the questionnaires had been returned, I began analysing the data generated.
Although at this stage the primary function of the questionnaire was to create profiles of
each participant for selection of potential interviewees, patterns in the data were readily
apparent and I spent some time examining emerging themes. I felt that my increasing
level of understanding would be beneficial to conducting the most efficacious interviews
possible. Once the interview guide had been further refined, I used the questionnaire
data to select interview subjects and began the process of interviewing.
Participants were contacted by email or in person with requests for an interview. I
explained to them that it would take between a half and one hour of their time, and could
be conducted in a location of their choosing. Generally, students were happy to
participate. Twelve agreed to take part, but due to time constraints, I chose to conduct
eight interviews. Two other students I spoke with informally, and though this data was
not recorded and transcribed, I did include insights gained as part of the data generated
and relevant to the findings of the study.
I began each interview by explaining the project, and sharing my research goals
with the participant. The shortest interview took twenty minutes; the longest one hour
and ten minutes. Interviews were conducted in a variety of locations: coffee shops, the
college common room, and participants homes and offices. Of the eight interviews, six
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were conducted in front of a computer, providing the participant an opportunity to
demonstrate their use ofFacebook. These participants were happy to walk me through
their Facebookprofiles, and I found this afforded an excellent opportunity to conduct
some naturalistic observation which added yet another dimension to my data collection.
All interviews were recorded, and immediately afterwards I reviewed the recording,
making notes of particularly interesting themes, or memos of pieces of data I wished to
examine in further detail. Interviews were nearly fully transcribed; conversation that had
deviated completely from the relevant topic was omitted from transcription. Data
analysis, as described below, was then begun.
During the data transcription and analysis, I found myself repeatedly accessing the
Facebookpages of participants. At the time, I did not consider this an official strategy of
data collection. I would simply view Facebookpages, adding notes to interview
transcripts to clarify certain parts of the conversation, or adding commentary to confirm
or elaborate on aspects of emergent themes. As this practice became more frequent, I
became more methodical in my use of this online data, printing out hard copies of the
participant profiles and using these for reference instead of the constantly evolving
Facebookpages. I felt that the data obtained through questionnaires and interviews
represented a snapshot of each participant, taken at a certain point in time and
representing their views and experiences at that time. In contrast, Facebookpages are
inherently non-static, with some users changing their profile daily. I felt that, in order to
achieve some standardisation, it would be best to utilise data that came from the same
time frame as the interviews.
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Data Analysis
The use of multiple data collection instruments resulted in the generation of a
great deal of raw data. Although there is no one prescribed method for the analysis of
qualitative data, certain authors, such as Corbin and Strauss (1990), Miles and Huberman
(1994) or Silverman (2000), have proposed strategies and guidelines that have proven to
be efficacious in transforming and interpreting qualitative data in a standardised way. I
chose to follow the data analysis procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman
(1994), as their approach based on the three interacting components of data reduction,
data display, and conclusion drawing/verification are particularly suited to the types of
data generated in this study, and their approach is commonly cited by other authors
discussing qualitative research (Punch 2005, Yin 2003).
Miles and Huberman (1994) share a classic set of analytic moves, which offer
guidance throughout the data analysis process:
Affixing codes to data Noting reflections in the margin Identifying common phrases, relationships, patterns, and themes Elaborating a set of generalisations Confronting these generalisations with constructs or theories
Following these steps, I first generated a list of possible codes. Suggestions for these
codes came from data generated by the questionnaire, themes previously identified in
the literature, and preliminary reflection on interview data, with consideration of the
research questions used to guide the relevance (Table 8 presents the codes used, in
reference to the findings). I then proceeded to break the interview transcripts into
chunks, or blocks of text with similar meaning, a procedure suggested by Edwards (2007)
to help reduce data into meaningful and manageable units. Codes were then assigned to
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each chunk, with memos in the margins recording further thoughts and reflections. I
particularly focused on memos which suggested ideas about the codes and possible
relationships, a strategy suggested by Robson (2002). After this initial coding, I was able
to confirm the validity of some codes, generate new codes to account for themes I hadnt
originally considered, and began to perceive some relationships between codes. This
allowed me to generate higher level categories, or emergent themes. I referred to the
data generated by the questionnaires, and to the Facebookprofiles of participants, as a
means of triangulation to support these emergent themes. I then proceeded to recode
the data, using a combination of these categories and codes.
One of the data analysis strategies that Miles and Huberman (1994) consider
essential to valid qualitative analysis is the use of well thought out displays. The display
that seemed most appropriate was a matrix, or what Miles and Huberman term a
conceptually ordered display: a table with columns representing cases, and rows
representing categories and codes. This format allowed me to easily develop a profile of
each case by reading down a column, and to examine each category by reading across the
rows. One of the strengths I found in this method was the ability to both gain an idea of
the relative importance of a specific category or code based simply on the amount of data
included, and also to quickly scan across rows to note phrases or concepts occurring
repeatedly between cases. This allowed me to sketch a conceptual map, permitting
visualisation of connections between themes, data, and questions, and helped me begin
to draw tentative conclusions with regards to each question. Again, I followed the advice
given by Miles and Huberman regarding evaluating early conclusions: follow up surprises,
triangulate, formulate if-then hypotheses, and check rival explanations. I examined the
themes that seemed unexpected, referred to the data from questionnaires, checked the
emerging theories against Facebookprofiles, pondered the implications of my
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hypothesised conclusions, and considered possible alternate interpretations. Through
this iterative process, I gained a level of confidence in my findings.
Ethical Considerations
According to Punch (2005), all social research involves ethical issues, and thorough
research projects must examine these potential issues and how they will be dealt with. In
completing this project, I spent time considering a number of ethical issues. The main
guidelines this project adheres to are those provided by British Educational Research
Association (BERA 2004). Ethicial approval was obtained through the University of
Oxfords Central University Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix 3). Following Lunt
(2007), I considered seven key areas in evaluating the ethics of this project, each labelled
and outlined below.
1. Voluntary informed consent
Each potential participant was provided with both a Participant Information letter to
keep and a Declaration of Informed Consent to sign and return (see Appendix 4). I also
spent time reviewing these documents with participants, especially those who agreed to
further participate in the interview phase of the project. Finally, I contacted any person
for whom potentially identifying information was included in this work (specifically in
screen captures ofFacebookpages), and obtained additional consent to share this
information.
2. Avoid deception
One of the main ethical concerns I had was my role as both researcher and Facebook
friend in the networks of most of my participants. I clearly explained this dual role to
participants, and asked for their further consent in viewing their profile in light of my
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research agenda. All participants felt comfortable with this, and I was careful to
continually maintain anonymity in all aspects of the research.
3. Maintain participants right to withdraw
At every stage, participants were free to decline to participate, or to withdraw completely
from the study. Although I had some participants refuse to participate in the interview
phase, all made it clear this was due to logistical constraints rather than ethical troubles.
4. Avoid harm
I considered any potential impact on participants that may result from being part of my
study. Beyond issues relating to privacy (discussed below), threat of harm seemed quite
limited, a point reinforced through discussion with subjects participating in the pilot
phase of the study.
5. Respect privacy
Privacy concerns are an inherent part of research in public spaces, such as Facebook.
Indeed, privacy concerns are of high importance to users ofFacebook. I took several
measures to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. Although the name of the university
and college were identified in the study, all personal names and identifying data were
removed. In instances where there was potential for certain participants to be identified,
for example due to their sharing of their role in college during interviews, further consent
was obtained before using this information in publications. Throughout the study, data
was stored under pseudonyms, with the correlative list password protected on computer,
and hard copy information stored in secure locations.
6. Consider disclosure
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The knowledge that certain morally ambiguous practices or situations conducted by
participants and shared through Facebookmay come to my attention during the study did
occur to me. However, as participants in this study are mature adults, I felt that, unless
evidence of harm to others was evident, it was neither my duty nor place to disclose such
information. Luckily, no such incidents occurred, and I felt comfortable with virtually all
of the information disclosed to me during the research.
7. Aim to debrief participants
Throughout the study, participants expressed a keen interest in the results of the
research. I have made it known to participants that I am happy to provide them with a
copy of the findings, either in the form of the entire dissertation, or a brief summary of
the project.
In addition to these guidelines, as a researcher I consider it my duty to continue to
develop awareness of ethical issues surrounding social research. Consideration of the
role of research, the practices undertaken in conducting research, and the presentation of
findings to the community were areas of both reflection and discussion throughout this
research project.
Strengths and Limitations
Within the case study tradition there are present and enduring questions
regarding the concept of external validity or generalisation. Generalisation is often seen
as the aim of quantitative studies, but whether such generalisations can be made from
qualitative research is the subject of debate. Stake (1995) believes we can make
naturalistic generalisations from qualitative work; provided the research is sufficiently
rich, the reader can make their own judgements on the applicability to other situations.
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Guba and Lincoln (21989) argue that knowledge is constructed and situational, and that
law-like generalisations cannot be made. Gomm, Hammersly, and Foster (2000) seem to
walk a middle line, suggesting the idea of transferability, dependent on careful
evaluation of the research and the possible similarities to other cases.
What is integral to any degree of generalisation is the level of internal validity
maintained in a study. Case study research has often been criticised due to its common
reliance on interview data. Interviews are inherently a construct, relying on language and
interaction between the interviewer and interviewee (Walford 2008). As such, the data
yielded is subject to bias and interpretation. Silverman (2000) suggests two ways to
strengthen internal validity: triangulation and respondent validation. Yin (2003), in
reference specifically to the case study method, stressed the importance of testing
hypothetical constructs against findings, particularly in examining possible alternate
explanations and cases that do not support hypotheses.
Although I doubt the generalisability of this current study to a larger population, I
feel that the strategies I employed did lead to a degree of internal validity. The multiple
methods of data collection allowed triangulation; hypotheses were supported by
questionnaire, interview, and virtual ethnographic data. A thorough review of the
literature had given me a range of theories that could have proven applicable to my
research questions. I was careful to consider these alternate explanations in conjunction
with my findings. I also chose participants who displayed a wide variety of attitudes
towards Facebook, whom I felt could provide data that may challenge my hypotheses.
Finally, as I began to develop confidence in my findings, I spent time discussing the
emerging conclusions with several of the participants in the study.
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However, as in any research, I feel there were limitations to this study, and things I
would do differently in the future. My role as a member of Linacre College and a high-
end user of technology and Facebookdefinitely gives me a certain perspective on the
subject. Although I spent time reflecting on my views, it is highly possible that this has
introduced certain bias into my research. I also felt that the use of a lightly structured
interview was perhaps too open ended; interviews often deviated from the set topic,
yielding data that, while interesting, simply generated too many possible theories and
hypotheses. While these provide excellent basis for future research, as a neophyte
researcher I found it difficult to separate them out of the present findings.
Returning to the issue of generalisability, I feel that my work perhaps has
relevance in the area of transferability which Gomm, Hammersley, and Foster (2000)
suggest. My findings do suggest some trends that could influence study in other similar
situations. Linacre College proved to be a good choice of site for this preliminary case
study, however if I were to repeat the study, I would look at including a second college.
This would allow between case analyses, and would, I feel, lead to and increasing level of
theoretical generalisability of my conclusions.
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V. FINDINGS
This section presents the results of data collection and analysis, the findings of this
study. As the study was conducted primarily in two stages, questionnaire followed by
interviews/virtual ethnographies, the findings from each are presented separately below.
A discussion of how these findings, including how they serve to answer the research
questions and the implications for the body of knowledge in this area will be discussed in
the following chapter.
Findings From The Questionnaire
The first method of data collection employed was a questionnaire, distributed to
25 students. The questionnaire was designed to collect demographic information about
the participants, and to briefly examine their use of technology and social software and
their attitudes towards Facebook. The purpose of this was three-fold: to gain an overview
of how students were using technology and social software, to provide a profile of each
participant as a basis for selection for interviews, and as a method of generating
preliminary codes with which to begin data analysis.
The questionnaire showed that the students surveyed were high level users of
technology, with all students owning their own computer, and 48% owning more than
one. All students also owned a mobile phone; 48% used their phones as a means of
connecting to the internet. Also popular among these students were digital cameras
(68% owning) and iPods (60%). Many students noted the emerging trend of convergence
of technologies; 40% owned devices that combine most of these features into one. They
also spent a great deal of time online, with 52% of the students spending more than eight
hours each day connected to the internet (Fig. 3). And they were starting to adopt the
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idea of ubiquitous access; while they still primarily connected to the internet from their
home or place of work, 44% accessed wireless from remote locations at least
occasionally.
Figure 3. Percentage of students indicating amounts of time spent online per day
Exploring what theyre doing with their time online, students engaged in a range
of activities (see Table 4 below). Much of their time was dedicated to furthering their
academic and personal interests; with 58% of the students saying that while online they
nearly always were engaged with learning, while another 76% engaged in some form of
learning quite frequently. A great deal of their time was also dedicated to
communicating with others. Nearly all of the students reported that they engaged in
direct communication (such as email, social software, instant messaging, or Skype) quite
frequently or nearly always. Students also used the internet for day to day life
management, and, unsurprisingly, for amusement.
Never Once in
Awhile
Sometimes Quite
Frequently
Nearly
Always
Work related directly to
academic studies
20% 36% 44%
Direct communication with
others
4% 16% 40% 40%
0%
12%
8%
28%
16%
36%
Amount of Time Spent Online Per Day
Less Than 1 Hour
1 - 3 hours
3 - 6 hours
6 - 8 hours
More than 8 hours
Nearly always connected
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Daily life management 20% 16% 64%
Engaged with learning or
hobbies
12% 26% 40% 12%
Amusement 12% 24% 60% 4%
Table 4: Percentage of students indicati