FAA - Helicopter Instructors Guide

HELICOPTERINSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE

2002

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATIONFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Aviation Safety Program

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Section F—Emergency Procedures . . . . . . . . . .1-28

Autorotative Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-28

Power Recovery from Practice

Autorotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-29

Autorotations with Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-29

Power Failure in a Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-30

Emergency Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-31

Settling with Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-31

Retreating Blade Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-31

Ground Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-32

Dynamic Rollover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-32

Systems or Equipment Malfunctions . .1-32

Antitorque System Failure . . . . . . .1-32

Governor Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-33Recovery from Low Rotor RPM . . . . .1-33

Chapter 2—Exam BriefingsSection A—General Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-1

Certificates and Documents . . . . . . . . . . . .2-1

Weather Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3

National Airspace System and Charts . . . . .2-3

Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-3

Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5

Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5

Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5

Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5

Class E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6

Special VFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6

Class G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6

Other Airspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-6

Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-7

Performance and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . .2-8

Weight and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-9

Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10

Helicopter Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10

Flight Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-10

Powerplant and Related Systems . . . . .2-11

Rotor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12

Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-12

Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13

Flight Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-13

Equipment Operation and Procedures . .2-14

Minimum Equipment List . . . . . . . . . . . .2-14

Aeromedical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-15

Airport and Heliport Operations . . . . . . . .2-16

Chapter 1—Instructional TechniquesSection A—Ground Operations and

Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1

Preflight Check and Engine Starting . . . . . .1-1

Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2

Rotor RPM and Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2

Height/Velocity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2

Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness . . . . . . .1-3

Low G Conditions and Mast Bumping . .1-3

Section B—Hovering Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-4

Vertical Takeoff to a Hover and Hovering . .1-4

Hovering Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5

Hovering Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-6

Hovering Sideward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-7

Hovering Rearward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-7

Vertical Landing from a Hover . . . . . . . . . .1-8

Section C—Primary Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-9

Straight-and-Level Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-9

Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-10

Climbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-11

Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-12

Climbing and Descending Turns . . . . . . . .1-12

Coordination Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-13

Section D—Heliport and Airport Operations . . .1-14

Collision Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14

Runway Incursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14

Traffic Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14

Normal and Crosswind Takeoff from

a Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14

Normal and Crosswind Approaches to

a Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-16

Go-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-17

Section E—Advanced Flight Maneuvers . . . . . .1-18

Maximum Performance Takeoff . . . . . . . .1-18

Running Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-19

Rapid Deceleration or Quick Stop . . . . . .1-19

Steep Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-20

Shallow Approach / Running Landing . . .1-21

Slope Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-22

Slope Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-22

Confined Area Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .1-24

Pinnacle Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-24

Pinnacle Takeoff and Climb . . . . . . . . . . .1-25

Night Flying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-26

Cross-Country Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .1-26

CONTENTS

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Collision Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-17

Emergency Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-18

Night Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-20

Regulations, The Aeronautical Information Manual, and NTSB 830 . . . . . . . . . . . .2-21

Section B—Student Pilot Briefings . . . . . . . . . .2-23Solo Cross-Country Briefing . . . . . . . . . .2-23

Section C—Private Pilot Briefings . . . . . . . . . .2-25Section D—Commercial Pilot Briefings . . . . . .2-26

Advance Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-26Pinnacle/Platform Operations . . . . . . . .2-26Slope Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-27Confined Area Operations . . . . . . . . . .2-27Running or Rolling Takeoff and

Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-28Rapid Deceleration (Quick Stop) . . . . .2-28

Section E—Flight Instructor Briefings . . . . . . .2-30Fundamentals of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . .2-30

Chapter 3—Flight ReviewWho Needs a Flight Review . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1

What are the Requirements of the .

Flight Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1

Prereview Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1

Make, Model, or Type of Helicopter

Flown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1

Nature of Flight Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2

Recency of Flight Experience . . . . . . . . . . .3-2

Agreement on Conduct of Review . . . . . . .3-2

Ground Training Considerations . . . . . . . . .3-2

In-flight Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2

Postreview Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2

Sample Flight Review Plan

and Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-3

Sample List of Flight Review Knowledge,

Maneuvers, and Procedures . . . . . . . . .3-4

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PREFLIGHT CHECK AND ENGINESTARTINGA safe flight begins on the ground. In addition to theplanning that precedes a flight, it is the responsibilityof the pilot in command to ensure the helicopter is in anairworthy condition and the required documents areonboard. Many instructors use the acronym AROW asa memory aid for the required papers.

AAirworthiness certificate

RRegistration certificate

OOperating limitations

WWeight and balance data (current data)

The student pilot must receive thorough instruction onall items covered in the preflight inspection. Each itemon the checklist should be covered in detail, explaininghow a discrepancy is recognized and what itssignificance is to safety.

No matter how many times a procedure is repeated, itshould be conducted by referring to the appropriatechecklist. Use of a checklist provides an organizedprocedure for completing an operation, as well asensuring every significant item is covered. As theinstructor, you should accomplish the first few preflightinspections, while the student reads the checklist andwatches. Thereafter, the student should accomplish theprocedure with you looking on and asking questions todetermine his/her understanding of each item and itssignificance.

The interior preflight and engine starting proceduresare simple and straightforward but should still beconducted while referring to the checklist. Obviously,the engine cannot be started while reading eachindividual item, so the checklist is read to prepare forstarting, then rechecked to ensure each item has beenaccomplished. There is a temptation to ignore thechecklist when pressed for time, but that is when itbecomes most important to use it. A sense of urgencymakes it easy to forget an item. The results of such anomission can be embarrassing at best, and disastrous at

This chapter is intended to aid the instructor in teaching the maneuvers and procedures required of an applicant fora helicopter rating. Most maneuvers in this chapter are broken into three parts. First is a brief description of themaneuver. The second part consists of focus points, which are the techniques on how the student should fly themaneuver. The last part is common student difficulties. You might find it helpful to refer to the Rotorcraft FlyingHandbook (FAA-H-8083-21) for additional information on each maneuver.

To aid you with this chapter, it is recommended that you refer to the FAA Practical Test Standards for acceptableguidelines for each maneuver. In the initial stages of training, no student should be expected to meet this level ofproficiency, but before the practical test, a student should be able to consistently perform well within these stan-dards. In addition, all maneuvers should be performed within the guidelines set forth in Title 14 of the Code ofFederal Regulations (14 CFR) section 61.43.

Each student should be encouraged to strive for better than the quoted standards, and as the instructor, you shouldnever settle for minimum performance. The quality of early training, and the standards of performance and safetythat you establish will have a dramatic effect on the student throughout his or her flying career. In the finalanalysis, the kind of pilot a student becomes is largely a result of your efforts.

SECTION A—GROUND OPERATIONS AND SAFETYCONSIDERATIONS

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worst. It is imperative to clear the area before enginestart and main rotor engagement. The engine and flightcontrol check just before takeoff should beaccomplished meticulously and verified by use of thechecklist. This is the last opportunity to detect an actualor potential discrepancy. No student should be allowedto witness or participate in a hasty takeoff anddeparture because students tend to pattern their behav-ior after their instructor. Too many accidents have beencaused by something that could have been caught on acareful preflight. The engine shutdown, parking, andtiedown procedures are designed to prolong engine lifeand prevent damage to the helicopter while it is parked.They should, therefore, be performed carefully, whileemphasizing the importance of each checked item tothe student.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONSGood manners are an essential part of helicopteroperations. If not operated with consideration fornearby persons and property, a helicopter can be anuisance, or even worse, a hazard. A considerateattitude must be cultivated by example and instructionfrom the beginning of training. For example, thehelicopter has the unique capability of being able toland and take off near a crowd of people. In the process,its downwash can stir up debris and blow it at highvelocity for a considerable distance, causing possibleinjury to people and damage to property. Anotherpotential hazard is the possibility that people on theground may walk into turning rotors. The tail rotor, inparticular, is hard to notice. Therefore, it is mandatorythat a student understands the potential hazards toothers and the pilot’s responsibility to prevent them.The rotor tip-path plane isn’t always easy to see, and itmay be difficult to judge its distance from fixedobjects. A beginning student should be encouraged tomaintain more than adequate clearance from all objectsand to be constantly aware of both main and tail rotor-tip paths.

ROTOR RPM AND AIRSPEEDNo discussion of safety considerations would becomplete without at least a mention of the two itemsmost vital to safe operation in a helicopter—rotor r.p.m.and airspeed. Although both are discussed many timesduring training, it is important for the student tounderstand not only that there are limits to both, but whythose limits have been specifically defined. The studentmust understand and be able to explain that the limits forpowered operation are dictated by the operating limitsof the engine. At low r.p.m., the engine cannot developfull power, and the high limit is imposed by enginestructural limits. Also, point out that if the engine androtor r.p.m. are allowed to get too low, tail rotor r.p.m. isalso greatly reduced. This could possibly lead to aninability to keep the helicopter from turning. At the low

limit on the rotor tachometer, the rotor may not produceenough lift to sustain level flight. The high limit of rotorr.p.m. is imposed to protect the structural integrity of therotor and drive components.

Stress to your students that low rotor r.p.m. can alsolead to blade stall. If the rotor r.p.m. decays to the pointwhere all the rotor blades stall, the result is usuallyfatal, especially when it occurs at altitude. The dangerof low rotor r.p.m. and blade stall is greatest in smallhelicopters with low blade inertia. It can occur in anumber of ways such as simply rolling the throttle thewrong way, or pulling more collective pitch than poweravailable, or when operating at a high density altitude.

Explain that when the rotor r.p.m. drops, the blades tryto maintain the same amount of lift by increasing pitch.As the pitch increases, drag increases, which requiresmore power to keep the blades turning at the properr.p.m. When power is no longer available to maintainr.p.m., and therefore lift, the helicopter begins todescend. This changes the relative wind and furtherincreases the angle of attack. At some point, the bladesstall unless r.p.m. is restored. If all blades stall, it isalmost impossible to get smooth air flowing across theblades.

Emphasize that any time the rotor r.p.m. falls belowthe r.p.m. limits while power is still available,simultaneously add throttle and lower the collective. Ifin forward flight, gently applying aft cyclic loads upthe system and helps increase rotor r.p.m. If there is nopower available, immediately lower the collective andapply aft cyclic.

The student must also understand the limits of highspeed in the helicopter and the reasons for imposingthem. Top speed of a helicopter is usually limited byretreating blade stall, the symptoms of which are mainrotor vibrations, nose pitch up, and a rolling tendency,usually to the left in a helicopter with a counterclock-wise main rotor blade rotation. High gross weight,maneuvering, and turbulence all tend to aggravate theretreating blade stall condition.

Point out to your student that retreating blade stall canbe avoided by adhering to the never exceed speed(VNE). The decrease in VNE speed with increasingdensity altitude must also be thoroughly explained.

HEIGHT/VELOCITY DIAGRAMThe student must be thoroughly familiar with theheight/velocity diagram and its significance. Emphasisshould be placed on understanding the performancelimitations for safe autorotations at high and lowairspeeds. Before solo, determine, by questioning, thatyour student completely understands the reasons forthe crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocitydiagram and the profiles required to avoid them.

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LOSS OF TAIL ROTOR EFFECTIVENESSLoss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) must also bediscussed. LTE is not related to equipmentmalfunction, but rather is the result of the tail rotor notproviding the adequate thrust required to maintaindirectional control. LTE may occur at airspeeds lessthan 30 knots and can be caused by a number offactors, including main rotor disc interference,weathercock stability, and tail rotor vortex ring state. Italso depends upon wind direction and speed, altitude,and helicopter design. To help reduce the onset of LTE,make sure the student understands the limitations ofthe training helicopter and those circumstances underwhich LTE is most likely to occur. For moreinformation on LTE, refer to Chapter 11 in theRotorcraft Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-21).

LOW G CONDITIONS AND MAST BUMPINGFor cyclic control, small helicopters depend primarilyon tilting the main rotor thrust vector to producecontrol moments about the aircraft center of gravity,causing the helicopter to roll or pitch in the desireddirection. Pushing the cyclic control forward abruptlyfrom either straight-and-level flight or after a climb canput the helicopter into a low G (weightless) flightcondition. In forward flight, when a push-over isperformed, the angle of attack and thrust of the rotor isreduced, causing a low G or weightless flightcondition. During the low G condition, the lateralcyclic has little, if any, effect because the rotor thrusthas been reduced. Also, in a counterclockwise rotor

system, there is no main rotor thrust component to theleft to counteract the tail rotor thrust to the right, andsince the tail rotor is above the CG, the tail rotor thrustcauses the helicopter to roll rapidly to the right. Pointout to your students that if they attempt to stop the rightroll by applying full left cyclic before regaining mainrotor thrust, the rotor can exceed its flapping limits andcause structural failure of the rotor shaft due to mastbumping, or it may allow a blade to contactthe airframe.

Since a low G condition could have disastrous results,stress to your students that the best way to prevent itfrom happening is to avoid the conditions in which itmight occur. This means avoiding turbulence as muchas possible. If turbulence is encountered, forwardairspeed should be slowed and any control inputsshould be small. If turbulence becomes excessive,consider making a precautionary landing. Even if theyare not in turbulent conditions, students should avoidabrupt movement of the cyclic and collective.

A low G condition can be recognized by a feeling ofweightlessness and an uncontrolled roll to the right. Ifthis condition is encountered, have the studentimmediately and smoothly apply aft cyclic. Do not lethim or her attempt to correct the rolling action withlateral cyclic. Applying aft cyclic loads the rotorsystem, which in turn produces thrust. Once thrust isrestored, left cyclic control becomes effective, and thehelicopter can be rolled to a level attitude.

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position varies with wind and the amount anddistribution of the load.

• Initially, students will probably overcontrol thehelicopter. Excessive movement of any flightcontrol requires a change in the other flightcontrols. For example, if the helicopter drifts toone side while hovering, students will naturallymove the cyclic in the opposite direction. Whenthey do this, part of the vertical thrust is diverted,resulting in a loss of altitude. To maintainaltitude, they must increase the collective. Thisincreases drag on the blades and tends to slowthem down. To counteract the drag and maintainr.p.m., they need to increase the throttle.Increased throttle means increased torque, so theymust add more pedal pressure to maintain theheading. This can easily lead to overcontrollingthe helicopter. However, as their level ofproficiency increases, problems associated withovercontrolling decrease.

• To maintain a hover over a point, have thestudent look for minute changes in thehelicopter’s attitude and altitude. When thesechanges are noticed, they should make thenecessary control inputs before the helicopterstarts to move from the point. To detect smallvariations in altitude or position, their main areaof visual attention needs to be some distance fromthe aircraft, using various points on the helicopteror the tip-path plane as a reference. Looking tooclose or looking down leads to overcontrolling.Obviously, in order to remain over a certain point,they should know where the point is, but theirattention should not be focused there.

• As with a takeoff, altitude is controlled with thecollective and a constant r.p.m. with the throttle.Use the cyclic to maintain the helicopter’sposition and the pedals to control heading. Tomaintain a stabilized hover, they must makesmall, smooth coordinated corrections. As thedesired effect occurs, they must remove thecorrection in order to stop the helicopter’smovement. For example, if the helicopter beginsto move rearward, they need to apply a smallamount of forward cyclic pressure. However,they must neutralize this pressure just before thehelicopter comes to a stop, or it will begin tomove forward.

• After they gain experience, students develop acertain “feel” for the helicopter. They will feel

VERTICAL TAKEOFF TO A HOVER ANDHOVERINGA vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying thehelicopter from the ground vertically to a skid height oftwo to five feet, while maintaining a constant heading.Once the desired skid height is achieved, the helicoptershould remain nearly motionless over a reference pointat a constant altitude and on a constant heading. Themaneuver requires a high degree of concentration andcoordination.

FOCUS POINTS

• Prior to any takeoff or maneuver, make sure thestudent ensures the area is clear of other traffic.

• Head the helicopter into the wind, if possible.Place the cyclic in the neutral position, with thecollective in the full down position. Increase thethrottle smoothly to obtain and maintain properr.p.m., then slowly raise the collective. Usesmooth, continuous movement, coordinating thethrottle to maintain proper r.p.m. Do not jerk thecollective up or hesitate too long when light onthe skids, because this may cause groundresonance in some helicopters.

• As the collective is increased, the helicopterbecomes light on the skids, and torque tends tocause the nose to swing or yaw to the right unlesssufficient left antitorque pedal is used to maintainthe heading. (On helicopters with a clockwisemain rotor system, the yaw is to the left and rightpedal must be applied.)

• As the helicopter becomes light on the skids,make necessary cyclic pitch control adjustmentsto maintain a level attitude. Unless compensatedfor in the helicopter design, translating tendencyrequires constant left cyclic in helicopters withcounterclockwise rotating main rotor blades.Many helicopters are designed to hover in a leftskid-low attitude to correct for right drift.

• When airborne, use the antitorque pedals tomaintain heading and the collective to ensurecontinuous vertical assent to the normal hoveringaltitude. When hovering altitude is reached, usethe throttle and collective to control altitude, andthe cyclic to maintain a stationary hover. Use theantitorque pedals to maintain heading. When astabilized hover is achieved, check the engineinstruments and note the power required to hover.Also note the position of the cyclic. Cyclic

SECTION B—HOVERING FLIGHT

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example, the instructor can operate the pedals andcollective while the student experiments with thereactions produced by cyclic inputs.

TENSIONTension is the natural result of a student’s efforts toperform satisfactorily. This stage of training requires agreat deal of patience on the part of the instructor and alot of positive reinforcement in the form ofencouragement for the student. When tension builds toa point where the student is incapable of performingwith an acceptable degree of proficiency, you shouldtake over and allow the student to relax for a minute orso. Usually, it is best to land and talk it over to avoidcomparing the student’s performance with yours. Aftera little encouragement and some constructive criticism,another takeoff can be performed.

HOVERING HEIGHTMany beginning students have a tendency to hover toohigh or too low. Hovering too high can create ahazardous flight condition, while hovering too low canresult in occasionally touching the skids to the surface.To help alleviate this problem, continually reinforcewhat the correct height should look like.

HOVERING TURNSA hovering turn is accomplished by manipulating theantitorque pedals while the helicopter remains over adesignated spot at a constant altitude. The turn shouldbe made at a slow, constant rate through varyingdegrees of heading.

FOCUS POINTS

• A hovering turn is initiated in either direction byapplying antitorque pedal pressure toward thedesired direction. It should be noted that during aturn to the left, the student needs to add morepower because left pedal pressure increases thepitch angle of the tail rotor which, in turn,requires additional power from the engine. A turnto the right requires less power. (On helicopterswith a clockwise rotating main rotor, right pedalincreases the pitch angle and, therefore, requiresmore power.)

• As the turn begins, use the cyclic as necessary(usually into the wind) to keep the helicopter overthe desired spot. To continue the turn, add moreand more pedal pressure as the helicopter turns tothe crosswind position. This is because the windis striking the tail surface and tail rotor area,making it more difficult for the tail to turn intothe wind. As pedal pressures increase due tocrosswind forces, increase the cyclic pressureinto the wind to maintain position. Use thecollective with the throttle to maintain a constantaltitude and r.p.m.

and see small deviations, so they can make thecorrections before the helicopter actually moves.A certain relaxed looseness develops, andcontrolling the helicopter becomes second nature,rather than a mechanical response.

• Prior to performing hovering maneuvers, youshould review low rotor r.p.m. recoveryprocedures with your student. For more informa-tion, see Section FEmergency Procedures.

COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

FAILURE TO PROPERLY POSITION CONTROLSThe beginning student rarely knows how to positionthe controls so the helicopter breaks free from theground in a level attitude with no tendency to turn.Have the student check the tip-path plane of the rotorbefore raising the collective, looking forward and toeach side, to see that it is level.

VISUALIZING ATTITUDEThe problems of visualizing attitude in the early stagesof training can be compounded in hovering flight bylooking at a point too close to the helicopter. This is anatural tendency when trying to stay over a spot. Thestudent should pick a point well in front of thehelicopter so the horizon is within normal peripheralvision. This makes it easier to perceive the helicopter’sattitude while keeping the exact position in view.

OVERCONTROLLINGThe natural tendency to overcontrol is accentuated bythe responsiveness of the helicopter and the student’seagerness to get back over the takeoff spot immedi-ately. While the ultimate objective in hovering is to stayexactly over a spot, the problem of overcontrolling canbe alleviated by simply having the student stay within ageneral area, with the stated objective of gentlystopping any drift which develops.

RPM CONTROLIn the initial attempts at hovering, the student usuallydoes not check r.p.m. and make the necessarycorrections. On helicopters equipped with a governoror correlator, r.p.m. control is considerably easier.Periodically call attention to it, and point out thatchanges in engine r.p.m. can also be heard.

COORDINATIONIt is not uncommon for a student, particularly a studenttransitioning from fixed-wing aircraft, to attempt togain altitude by applying rearward cyclic pressure, orattempt to turn by using lateral cyclic. To correct thistendency, many instructors operate one or two of thecontrols while allowing the student to concentrate onthe reaction produced by the remaining control. For

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• After the 90° portion of the turn, pedal pressure isdecreased slightly to maintain the same rate ofturn. Approaching the 180°, or downwind,portion, opposite pedal pressure must beanticipated due to the tail moving from an upwindposition to a downwind position. At this point,the rate of turn has a tendency to increase at arapid rate due to the weathervaning tendency ofthe tail surfaces. Because of the tailwindcondition, hold rearward cyclic pressure to keepthe helicopter over the same spot.

• Because of the helicopter’s tendency to weather-vane, maintaining the same rate of turn from the180° position actually requires some pedalpressure opposite the direction of turn. Ifopposite pedal pressure is not applied, thehelicopter tends to turn at a faster rate. Theamount of pedal pressure and cyclic deflectionthroughout the turn depends on the wind velocity.As the turn finishes on the upwind heading, applyopposite pedal pressure to stop the turn.Gradually apply forward cyclic pressure to keepthe helicopter from drifting.

• Control pressures and direction of applicationchange continuously throughout the turn. Themost dramatic change is the pedal pressure (andcorresponding power requirement) necessary tocontrol the rate of turn as the helicopter movesthrough the downwind portion of the maneuver.

• You can have your students make turns in eitherdirection; however, in a high wind condition, thetail rotor may not be able to produce enoughthrust, which means they will not be able tocontrol a turn to the right in a counterclockwiserotor system. Therefore, if control is everquestionable, have them first attempt to make a90° turn to the left. If sufficient tail rotor thrustexists to turn the helicopter crosswind in a leftturn, a right turn can be successfully controlled.The opposite applies to helicopters with clock-wise rotor systems. In this case, start the turn tothe right. Hovering turns should be avoided inwinds strong enough to preclude sufficient aftcyclic control to maintain the helicopter on theselected surface reference point when headeddownwind.

COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIESIn addition to the difficulties already discussed under“Takeoff To A Hover,” there are some difficultiesassociated specifically with the hovering turn.

IMPROPER RATE OF TURNUntil the student has gained some experience inhovering turns, the amount of pedal required for the

desired rate of turn is not known. The result is a turnthat is either too slow or too fast, often varying rapidlybetween the two. The first hovering turns should bepracticed in calm or light winds, so a certain pedalinput results in a specific rate of turn.

COMPENSATING FOR CROSSWINDStudents usually fail to anticipate the effect of the windas the helicopter turns. The student must understandthat, throughout the turn, the cyclic is displaced intothe wind, resulting in an apparent cyclic rotationopposite to the direction of turn. Also, pedal input mustbe increased as the turn approaches the crosswindposition, then decreased as the downwind position isapproached. Passing the downwind position, thestudent should anticipate an increase in the rate of turnas a result of the wind force.

COORDINATIONBefore attempting hovering turns, you should explainand demonstrate the effects of pedal inputs. Forexample, explain how a left pedal input causes a rightdrifting tendency, which must be compensated for byusing left cyclic. Even more noticeable is the effect onengine r.p.m. Left pedal input causes a decrease inr.p.m., and right pedal input causes an increase. As thestudent gains an understanding of these effects, thetendency to overcontrol the antitorque pedals shoulddiminish.

HOVERING FORWARDForward hovering should be accomplished at hoveringaltitude and at a speed no faster than a brisk walk withheading remaining constant. The forward track shouldbe defined by markings on the ground or by thealignment of two reference points.

FOCUS POINTS

• Before hovering in any direction, maintain a highenough skid height to allow for adequate groundclearance. Risk of dynamic rollover is greatestduring any hovering maneuver.

• Apply forward cyclic to start the forward motion,then release some cyclic pressure to prevent thehelicopter from accelerating. Hold enoughforward cyclic pressure to keep forward motionat a rate no faster than a brisk walk. Any speedfaster than this requires a higher skid height toallow adequate ground clearance for the tail skidwhen bringing the helicopter to a stop usingrearward cyclic.

• As the helicopter begins to move forward and liftis diverted, add a little power to compensate forthe loss of lift.

• Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constantgroundspeed and path over the ground with the

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cyclic, a constant heading with the antitorquepedals, altitude with the collective, and the properr.p.m. with the throttle.

• To stop the forward movement, apply rearwardcyclic pressure until the helicopter stops. Asforward motion stops, return the cyclic to theneutral position to prevent rearward movement.Forward movement can also be stopped bysimply applying rearward pressure to level thehelicopter and letting it drift to a stop.


ALTITUDE CONTROLThe student may not understand that an airspeed ofabout five knots requires the most power to maintainaltitude as ground effect diminishes and translationallift has not begun to help. As the helicopter begins tomove forward in a calm wind, it also tends to sink. Thestudent may think this is caused by too much forwardcyclic, and the resulting correction causes thehelicopter to stop. Point out that a slight amount ofincreased collective is required as forward motionstarts. This usually alleviates the problem.

SIDEWARD DRIFTDrift to the side of the planned ground track can be theresult of concentration on trying to maintain theheading and altitude. If the ground track is beingmaintained by reference to a line on the ground, thestudent may be looking too close to the helicopter andmay not notice changes in the attitude.

HOVERING SIDEWARDSideward flight begins in a hover and is performed at aconstant heading, altitude, and airspeed.

FOCUS POINTS

• The risk of dynamic rollover is highest duringsideward hovering maneuvers. Maintainadequate skid height.

• Before starting sideward flight, make sure thestudent clears the area. This may require someclearing turns. Then have him or her pick twopoints of reference in a line in the direction ofsideward flight to help maintain the properground track. These reference points should bekept in line throughout the maneuver.

• The maneuver is begun at a normal hoveringaltitude by applying cyclic toward the side inwhich the movement is desired. As the movementbegins, return the cyclic toward the neutralposition to keep the groundspeed at a slow rate(no faster than a brisk walk). Throughout the

maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed andground track with cyclic. Maintain heading,which in this maneuver is perpendicular to theground track, with the antitorque pedals, and aconstant altitude with the collective. Use thethrottle to maintain the proper operating r.p.m.

• To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclicpressure in the direction opposite to that ofmovement and hold it until the helicopter stops.As motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutralposition to prevent movement in the oppositedirection. Applying sufficient opposite cyclicpressure to level the helicopter may also stopsideward movement. The helicopter then drifts toa stop.


SPEED CONTROLIn sideward flight, lateral cyclic input controls speed. Ifthe student is looking primarily to the side in an attemptto maintain the track, roll attitude can be difficult tomaintain. Scan must be continuous if the correctattitude is to be maintained. The student mustcontinuously check to the side, then look in front tocheck attitude. This is followed by a check of the r.p.m.,then a look back to the side.

DRIFTDrift can also be an attitude problem. If the studentconcentrates too much to the side, pitch attitude candeviate from level, resulting in drift from the desiredtrack.

HEADINGAs the helicopter begins to move sideward, the nosetends to weathercock into the direction of flight. Again,this may not be noticed if the student is concentratinghis or her attention in the direction of flight.

HOVERING REARWARDRearward hovering is conducted using reference pointsahead of the helicopter to maintain track. Altitude andheading should remain constant, and groundspeedshould be no faster than a brisk walk.

FOCUS POINTS

• Before beginning the maneuver, make sure thearea behind the helicopter is clear.

• Pick out two reference points in front of, and inline with, the helicopter as if hovering forward.The movement of the helicopter should be suchthat these points remain in line.

• Begin the maneuver from a normal hoveringaltitude by applying rearward pressure on the

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cyclic. Once the movement has begun, positionthe cyclic to maintain a slow groundspeed (nofaster than a brisk walk). Throughout themaneuver, maintain constant groundspeed andground track with the cyclic, a constant headingwith the antitorque pedals, constant altitude withthe collective, and the proper r.p.m. withthe throttle.

• When hovering backwards, the helicopter is tiltedso the tail is low to the ground. Therefore,maintain a higher-than-normal skid height.

• To stop the rearward movement, apply forwardcyclic and hold it until the helicopter stops. Asthe motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutralposition. Also, as in the case of forward flight andsideward flight, use opposite cyclic to level thehelicopter and let it drift to a stop.


SPEED CONTROLThe student may not realize that it takes a steeper pitchattitude to start the helicopter moving than it does tocontinue motion at a steady speed. If the nose is notmoved down slightly as the desired rearward speed isattained, the helicopter continues to accelerate.

HEADINGThe faster the helicopter travels rearward, the greaterthe tendency for the nose of the helicopter to swingaround toward the direction of flight. With the taildirectly into the relative wind, there is little tendencyfor it to weathervane, but if the relative wind is a littlebit to one side, the tail tends to continue to thedownwind side. The resulting heading correctionrequires a fairly large pedal input, which may cause anovershoot to the other side, and the process must berepeated with opposite pedal input. Speed must bereduced to regain control.

VERTICAL LANDING FROM A HOVERThe helicopter is stabilized in a hover directly over thelanding spot, then gently lowered onto the ground. Itshould not be drifting in any direction at the pointof touchdown.

FOCUS POINTS

• Look outside and ahead of the helicopter.Focusing on the ground through the chin bubbleleads to overcontrolling and makes it difficult toland on the desired spot.

• Always keep the r.p.m. within limits. This allowsfor a quick transition back to a hover if thelanding is not suitable. Never allow thehelicopter to settle to the ground, which mightoccur if you reduce the throttle below the r.p.m.limits.

• To prevent an overspeed, correct techniquerequires simultaneously lowering the collectiveand reducing the throttle.

• Do not abruptly lower the collective once groundcontact is made. First, make sure the ground issufficiently stable to support the helicopter. Thisrequires a slow and deliberate lowering of thecollective. The cyclic may be moved in a smallcircular motion to determine that the helicopter isfirmly on the ground before lowering the collec-tive fully.

• Once the helicopter is firmly on the ground, thecollective should be lowered completely.


ATTITUDE CONTROLThe closer the helicopter comes to the ground, the morelikely it is for the student to focus on a point almostdirectly beneath the helicopter. Without proper attitudetechnique, the student may overcontrol when thehelicopter begins to drift, and the situation may go frombad to worse. The student must be taught to look wellout in front of the helicopter and then gently lower ituntil touchdown is felt, not seen.

RPM CONTROLDuring the landing, rotor r.p.m. tends to increase due tothe effects of the increased ground effect and decreasedcollective pitch. After touchdown, for those helicoptersnot equipped with a governor, the throttle may need tobe reduced to avoid an overspeed.

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STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHTIt is important that the student be able to maintain aconstant heading, altitude, and airspeed. Explain anddemonstrate that straight-and-level flight is actually aseries of small corrections needed to maintain the orig-inal attitude and heading following natural deviationscaused by inadvertent control inputs or turbulence. Theattitude required to maintain straight-and-level flightshould be clearly defined using all available visualaids. One aid is the distance between the horizon andthe tip-path plane of the rotor system.

Roll attitude can be determined by using the tip-pathplane or a canopy crossbar and its relation to thenatural horizon. Prominent objects on the groundshould be used for heading reference. This also helps inforcing the student to look outside instead ofconcentrating too much on the instruments. While thestudent is gaining proficiency in straight-and-levelflight, power is usually not adjusted once it is set inorder to maintain the desired cruise r.p.m.

FOCUS POINTS

• It is important that the student learns to recognizethe correct attitude for various flight maneuvers.The attitude of the helicopter determines theairspeed and is controlled by the cyclic. Altitudeis primarily controlled by use of the collective.To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-pathplane must be tilted forward to obtain thenecessary horizontal thrust component from themain rotor. This generally results in a nose-lowattitude. The lower the nose, the greater thepower required to maintain altitude, and thehigher the resulting airspeed. Conversely, thegreater the power used, the lower the nose mustbe to maintain altitude.

• Teach the students that when in straight-and-levelflight, any increase in the collective, whileholding airspeed constant, causes the helicopterto climb. A decrease in the collective, whileholding airspeed constant, causes the helicopterto descend. A change in the collective requires acoordinated change of the throttle to maintain aconstant r.p.m. Additionally, the antitorquepedals need to be adjusted to maintain headingand to keep the helicopter in longitudinal trim.Note, in this guide, all throttle discussions referto helicopters without a governor or corollator.

• To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight,instruct the student to apply forward pressure on

the cyclic and raise the collective as necessary tomaintain altitude. To decrease airspeed, thestudent needs to apply rearward pressure on thecyclic and lower the collective as necessary tomaintain altitude.

• Once the correct attitude is found for level flight,altitude and airspeed remain constant with aconstant power setting. Small adjustments mayneed to be made to compensate for turbulence,but make sure the student does this with outsidereferences and not by focusing on theinstruments. Also, heading is easier to maintain ifthe student is looking outside at some point inline with the intended flight path.

• Looking outside fulfills another very importanttaskscanning for other traffic and obstructions.

• To prevent overcontrolling, teach controlpressures and not movements. This is especiallytrue in the first few lessons when the student isreally concentrating on control input and how thehelicopter reacts.


VISUALIZING ATTITUDEThe forward seating position and the excellentvisibility in most helicopters may make it difficult for astudent to visualize the attitude of the helicopter. It isimportant that you provide all the assistance possible toensure the student can determine an attitude by somevisual reference. Each instructor may develop differentmethods of teaching attitude references.

OVERCONTROLLINGOvercontrolling the helicopter is the most commondifficulty for the beginning student due to two factors.First, the student fails to notice the attitude deviationuntil it has become rather large; and second, in theattempt to recover to the level attitude, too muchcontrol is applied because the student is not preparedfor the helicopter’s quick response to control inputs.Generally, the beginning student does not know whento remove control input and usually holds it until afterthe required attitude is passed. This results in anovershoot, followed by another large controlapplication, another overshoot, and so on. Explain thatcontrols are operated by pressure rather thanmovement, and that it is not necessary to returnimmediately to the level attitude. As soon as thestudent understands these two items and loses the senseof urgency, overcontrolling diminishes. It is alsohelpful to remind the student that when a deviation

SECTION C—PRIMARY MANEUVERS

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from the desired attitude is noticed, the propertechnique is to first stop the deviation, then make asmooth correction to return to the original attitude.

TRIMFor helicopters with electric trim for reducing controlpressures, it is imperative to have the helicopterproperly trimmed before the student takes control,otherwise the term “control pressure” is meaningless.When the helicopter is out of trim, some controlpressure must be held just to maintain the desiredattitude, and any instruction to relax control pressurecan only lead to confusion.

COORDINATIONMost beginning students have difficulty relating theeffect one control has on another. The most obvious ofthese is the change in torque as power is changed,requiring the use of antitorque pedal pressure as poweris varied. Less obvious is the effect of a power changeon pitch attitude in forward flight due to gyroscopicprecession and differential lift on the advancing andretreating blades. As power is increased with thecollective, the nose tends to pitch up; as power isdecreased, the nose pitches down. As speed isincreased, the nose of the helicopter tends to rise andbegin a roll toward the retreating blade. These effectscan be most disconcerting to the student unless theinstructor thoroughly explains and demonstrates them.

SCANTo correct a deviation, it must first be recognized. Mostbeginning students tend to devote all of their attentionto a specific problem. For example, full attention maybe devoted to an altitude problem while the helicopterdrifts off heading or the airspeed changes. Studentsmay also fail to see other aircraft or obstacles in thevicinity if their attention is fixed on a single item. Someinstructors find it helpful to call out or point to theitems that should be included in the scan pattern. Thishelps the student build a good habitual scan. It isimportant that the student be taught to include theengine instruments in the scan, so an impending engineproblem does not go undetected.

KINESTHESIAThe sense of motion and pressure changes throughnerve endings and muscular sensations is scientificallynamed “kinesthesia,” but is commonly called “seat-of-the-pants flying.” This sense can be developed morerapidly if you call attention to the sensations as theyoccur. Development of this sense enables a student tobecome aware of changes in the helicopter’s attitudemore quickly. Additionally, the sound of the engine,rotor, and transmission give valuable clues as tochanges in r.p.m.

TURNSTurns are practiced to develop skill in establishing andmaintaining a desired angle of bank, while holding thepitch attitude that is appropriate to the desiredmaneuver. Level turns are practiced first, using bankangles of approximately 15 to 20 degrees.

FOCUS POINTS

• Before making any turns, make sure the studentclears the area in the direction of the turn, as wellas above and below the helicopter.

• To enter a turn from straight-and-level flight,apply sideward pressure on the cyclic in thedirection the turn is to be made. This is the onlycontrol movement needed to start the turn.Antitorque pedals are not used to assist the turn.Use the pedals only to compensate for torque tokeep the helicopter in longitudinal trim.

• How fast the helicopter banks depends on howmuch lateral cyclic pressure is applied. How farthe helicopter banks (the steepness of the bank)depends on how long the cyclic is displaced.After establishing the proper bank angle, returnthe cyclic toward the neutral position.

• Use the collective and throttle to maintainaltitude and r.p.m. As the torque increases, applymore pressure to the proper antitorque pedal tomaintain longitudinal trim. Depending on thedegree of bank, additional forward cyclicpressure may be required to maintain airspeed.

• Keep scanning the area for traffic and otherobstructions in the direction of turn.

• Use outside references when rolling out of a turn.To prevent an overshoot, start the rollout beforereaching the desired heading.


ATTITUDEVisualization of the bank angle is one of the mostcommon problems for students. The angle between thetip-path plane and the horizon, or any other referenceon the helicopter, may be used as aids. As the bankangle is established and the perspective changes, thereis a tendency to use the center of the canopy as the pitchreference. It must be emphasized that the correct pitchreference is directly in front of the student. The pitchreference point should remain stationary as thehelicopter is rolled into the bank, with the helicopterappearing to pivot around the pitch reference. Thecorrect pitch attitude is confirmed by reference to thealtimeter in a level turn. If the student attempts to

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maintain altitude solely by reference to the altimeter,overcontrolling usually results and the student begins“chasing” the altitude.

LEANING AWAY FROM THE TURNThere is a natural tendency to keep the body, or at leastthe head, level. If the student is allowed to lean awayfrom the turn, perspective changes, making it evenmore difficult to maintain the correct attitude.

FAILURE TO CLEAR THE AREAThe student is frequently so occupied with problemsassociated with maintaining altitude, airspeed, bankangle, etc., that the responsibility of seeing andavoiding other aircraft is neglected. Clearing the areain the direction of the turn must be included in the itemsyou call out while talking the student through themaneuver.

ROLLING OUT OF THE TURNDifficulties associated with rolling out of a turn areusually related to scan problems. The student who ispreoccupied with other factors often loses track ofheading. Select a prominent landmark and instruct thestudent to anticipate the roll-out by an amount equal toabout half the bank angle.

CLIMBSThe objectives in practicing climbs are to achieveproficiency in establishing a climb attitude andairspeed, setting climb power while maintaining aspecified r.p.m., and coordinating the use of flightcontrols. Proficiency is also gained by understandingthe techniques used in leveling off at a designatedaltitude and establishing level cruise flight.

FOCUS POINTS

In both climbs and descents, focus on:

1. Transitioning from one pitch attitude to another.

2. Coordinating the controls as a result of a power change.

• The correct climb attitude is one that maintains aspecific airspeed, so reference is made to the air-speed indicator. Changing the power requires allthe controls to be changed, but the coordinationto do this takes time for the student to learn.

• To enter a climb from cruising flight, apply aftcyclic to obtain the approximate climb attitude.Simultaneously increase the collective andthrottle to obtain climb power and to maintainr.p.m. In a counterclockwise rotor system,

increase the left antitorque pedal pressure tocompensate for the increased torque. As theairspeed approaches normal-climb airspeed,adjust the cyclic to hold this airspeed. Throughoutthe maneuver, maintain climb attitude, heading,and airspeed with the cyclic; climb power andr.p.m. with the collective and throttle; and longi-tudinal trim with the antitorque pedals.

• To level off from a climb, start adjusting theattitude to the level flight attitude a few feet priorto reaching the desired altitude. The amount oflead depends on the rate of climb at the time ofleveloff (the higher the rate of climb, the more thelead). Generally, the lead is 10 percent of theclimb rate. For example, if the climb rate is 500feet per minute, lead the leveloff by 50 feet.

• To begin the leveloff, apply forward cyclic toadjust and maintain a level flight attitude, whichis slightly nose low. Maintain climb power untilthe airspeed approaches the desired cruisingairspeed, then lower the collective to obtaincruising power and adjust the throttle to obtainand maintain cruising r.p.m. Throughout theleveloff, maintain longitudinal trim and headingwith the antitorque pedals.

• Always clear the area above and below beforeinitiating a climb.


ATTITUDEAs in straight-and-level flight, students frequently havedifficulty visualizing and establishing the properattitude for the climb. Use whatever references areavailable in the helicopter such as tip-pathplane, canopy crossbars, or any other structuralreference point.

OVERCONTROLLINGThe difficulty in establishing the correct climb attitudemay be the result of overcontrolling. Since establishingthe correct airspeed is usually accomplished by a seriesof pitch attitude adjustments, students may not hold theattitude long enough for the airspeed to stabilize. Thisleads to excessive maneuvering while chasing theairspeed. At this point, frustration and tension begins tobuild. When it becomes apparent the student is gettingfrustrated, you may want to have your student return tostraight-and-level flight, or you may take over for abrief demonstration while the student relaxes.

COORDINATIONIn the process of beginning a climb, all controls areutilized. Each control input causes something else to

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change, and the beginning student may have difficultynot only in accomplishing the actions in the propersequence, but also in compensating for control inputs.During the leveloff, some students have a tendency todecrease power before lowering the nose to cruisingattitude. Talk the student through the maneuver toremove any doubt about what is to be accomplished, aswell as how and when it is done.

SCANThe scan pattern mentioned in straight-and-level flightbecomes more important when the flight condition isconstantly changing. Several things are happening atonce, and the task becomes more difficult unless thestudent has rehearsed the actions and reactions.

DESCENTSThe objectives in practicing descents are to gainproficiency in establishing the pitch attitude necessaryto maintain the desired airspeed, setting power asrequired to maintain the desired rate of descent whilemaintaining a constant rotor r.p.m., and correcting forchanging torque. Generally, descents should bepracticed initially at the airspeed and rate of descentnormally used on the approach to landing. Cruisedescents can be covered later when you get intocross-country training.

FOCUS POINTS

• To establish a normal descent from straight-and-level flight at cruising airspeed, lower thecollective to obtain proper power, adjust thethrottle to maintain r.p.m., and increase rightantitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading ina counterclockwise rotor system, or left pedalpressure in a clockwise system. If cruisingairspeed is the same as, or slightly above,descending airspeed, simultaneously applythe necessary cyclic pressure to obtain theapproximate descending attitude. If cruisingspeed is well above descending airspeed,maintain a level flight attitude until the airspeedapproaches the descending airspeed, then lowerthe nose to the descending attitude. Throughoutthe maneuver, maintain descending attitude andairspeed with the cyclic, descending power andr.p.m. with the collective and throttle, andheading with the antitorque pedals.

• To level off from the descent, lead the descentaltitude by approximately 10 percent of the rateof descent. For example, a 500 feet per minuterate of descent would require a 50 foot lead. Atthis point, increase the collective to obtaincruising power, adjust the throttle to maintain the

desired r.p.m., and increase left antitorque pedalpressure to maintain heading (right pedalpressure in a clockwise rotor system). Adjust thecyclic to obtain cruising airspeed and a levelflight attitude as the desired altitude is reached.

• Always clear the area above and below beforeinitiating a descent.


ATTITUDEAgain, visualization of pitch attitude may be difficultfor the student in the initial stages, so make use of anyavailable reference points on the helicopter. Also, thestudent may not realize pitch attitude is the primarycontrol of airspeed in the descent and may not refer toairspeed to confirm the correct attitude.

COORDINATIONThe student may have difficulty adjusting throttle andantitorque pedals while simultaneously adjusting thecollective to set descent power. Emphasize that poweris to be changed slowly and smoothly to minimizecoordination problems.

SCANIt is common for a student to concentrate on one factorto the exclusion of others. Two areas students havedifficulty with are maintaining a constant angle ofdescent during training and leading the leveloffsufficiently. This difficulty often results in recoverybelow the desired altitude.

CLIMBING AND DESCENDING TURNSClimbing and descending turns are practiced to furtherdevelop control and coordination. They also providethe practice required for departures and landingapproaches.

FOCUS POINTS

• Before making any turns, clear the area in thedirection of the turn, as well as above and belowthe helicopter.

• The turn and climb or descent are usuallyinitiated simultaneously, however, it may beeasier to establish each maneuver separately atfirst until the student gains proficiency. Forexample, to enter a climbing turn, first establishthe bank for the turn, then enter a climb. Toestablish a descending turn, first establish adescent, then enter the turn. It is not importantwhich maneuver is done first, and with practice,they become simultaneous.

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ATTITUDECombining turns with climbs and descents introducesnew attitudes, and the initial perception of theseattitudes may be difficult for the student tocomprehend. A thorough briefing and demonstrationminimizes this problem. The first climbing anddescending turns should be established by beginningthe climb or descent, and then rolling into the bank toreduce the number of simultaneous control movementsrequired. As proficiency is gained, the student may berequired to assume the new attitude by simultaneouslyadjusting power, pitch, and bank.

SCANAs with the previous maneuvers, the scan pattern iseasily interrupted by concentrating on a specific aspectof the maneuver. During early practice of climbing anddescending turns, you should call out all itemsrequiring attention, even though no correction isrequired. As proficiency improves, it should benecessary to call attention only to the items that requirecorrective action.

COORDINATION EXERCISESOnce level flight, turns, climbs, and descents have beenintroduced, coordination exercises should be practicedto assist the student in developing subconsciouscoordinated control and proficiency. For example, a

good exercise to teach compensation for powerchanges is to make airspeed changes while maintainingstraight-and-level flight. At a safe altitude, and whilemaintaining a constant r.p.m., altitude, and heading,have the student reduce airspeed to 40 knots bysimultaneously applying aft cyclic and reducingpower. Now, instruct the student to accelerate toapproximately 80 knots by increasing forward cyclicand power. The maneuver may be repeated, asnecessary, for proficiency.

Another exercise that develops smoothness and coordina-tion is rolling from a medium bank to the left into amedium bank to the right, then back to the left andcontinuing the series while maintaining a constant baseheading and altitude. Each of these exercises helps developsmoothness, coordination, and an active scan pattern.

If a student is having trouble coordinating r.p.m. andmanifold pressure, an exercise in throttle/collectivecoordination can be used. For instance, have thestudent maintain a constant attitude while disregardingaltitude. Now, instruct the student to change themanifold pressure with the collective while holding aconstant r.p.m. with the throttle. Then, reverse theprocedure by having the student change the r.p.m. withthe throttle while maintaining a constant manifoldpressure with the collective. This exercise allows thestudent to concentrate on throttle/collective coordina-tion without devoting attention to other factors.

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COLLISION AVOIDANCEFrom the first flight, you must make the student awarethat it is every pilot’s responsibility to see and avoidother aircraft. Explain the blind areas in the helicopteryou are flying, as well as those in other aircraft.Develop in your students a habit of checking for otheraircraft during their regular scan pattern. All radio andradar aids should be used to the fullest extent possible,but with the realization that they are only aids, andvigilance should not be relaxed. Radar trafficadvisories are very helpful, but there is evidence thatindicates some pilots become complacent when in theradar environment and relax their vigil. Also, no turnshould ever be made without first looking in thedirection of the turn to see that the airspace is clear ofother traffic. In the vicinity of an airport, all possibleaids should be used, and looking for other aircraftshould occupy more of the student’s scanning time.Landing and anticollision lights should be turned on tomake the helicopter more visible, especially in thevicinity of an airport.

RUNWAY INCURSIONSStress upon your students that even though helicoptersdo not regularly use runways for takeoffs and landings,runway incursions need to be understood anddiscussed. Your students need to listen carefully to anyclearances and instructions from ATC andacknowledge them in full. They should also be awareof their position and the position of other aircraftand obstructions.

During flight training, instructors often use runways topractice maneuvers and procedures. Extra vigilancemust be exercised under these circumstances as theinstructor and student may become so focused on theirparticular maneuver or procedure that they becomeinattentive to the surroundings.

TRAFFIC PATTERNSThe student must be able to describe the traffic patternsused by both helicopters and fixed-wing airplanes,naming the legs and specifying pattern altitudes. Thestudent must also demonstrate the ability to fly trafficpatterns at uncontrolled fields while avoiding the flowof fixed-wing traffic and complying with towerinstructions at controlled airports.

FOCUS POINTS

• Learn the correct procedures for fixed-wingaircraft at controlled and uncontrolled airports.This provides an understanding of where toexpect fixed-wing aircraft and how to avoid themin the traffic pattern.

• Pay attention to any wind indicators, such aswind socks, flags, and smoke.

• Typically, traffic patterns in a helicopter areflown lower and closer than those flown by fixed-wing aircraft. The typical traffic pattern altitudeis 500 feet to 800 feet for helicopters, while formost fixed-wing aircraft it is 800 feet to 1,500feet.

• For training purposes, a rectangular courseshould be flown to teach wind drift correction.


DRIFT CORRECTIONYour student might fail to notice the effect of wind,especially on the downwind and base legs, resulting ina distorted pattern. If this problem persists, it may benecessary to review and practice some groundreference and tracking maneuvers.

SPACING FROM OTHER AIRCRAFTIt is difficult for beginning students to estimatedistances from other aircraft, to estimate the spacerequired to avoid interference, and to decide whethertheir own aircraft and another are on a collision course.Point out that with converging aircraft, if the otheraircraft’s relative position is not changing, then bothaircraft are on a collision course. In this case, thequickest way to change relative position is to turntoward the other aircraft’s tail. When two aircraft areapproaching head on, then each pilot should alter theircourse to the right.

ALTITUDE AND AIRSPEEDThis problem is usually caused by a failure to scan.Concentrating on the intended landing spot, or onanother aircraft, can lead to small attitude changes,which cause deviations from the desired altitude orairspeed.

NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFFFROM A HOVERA normal takeoff from a hover is the transition fromhovering flight into a climb over a specified groundtrack. During the climb, airspeed and altitude should besuch that the crosshatched or shaded areas of theheight/velocity diagram are avoided.

FOCUS POINTS

• Bring the helicopter to a hover and make aperformance check, which includes power,balance, and flight controls. The power check

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should include an evaluation of the amount ofexcess power available. The balance condition ofthe helicopter is indicated by the position of thecyclic when maintaining a stationary hover. Windwill necessitate some cyclic deflection, but thereshould not be an extreme deviation from neutral.Flight controls must move freely, and thehelicopter should respond normally.

• Visually clear the area all around.

• Start the helicopter moving by smoothly andslowly easing the cyclic forward. As thehelicopter starts to move forward, increase thecollective as necessary to prevent the helicopterfrom sinking and adjust the throttle to maintainr.p.m. The increase in power requires an increasein the proper antitorque pedal to maintain head-ing.

• Maintain a straight takeoff path throughout thetakeoff.

• As the helicopter accelerates through effectivetranslational lift, it begins to climb and the nosetends to rise due to increased lift. At this point,adjust the collective to obtain normal climbpower and apply enough forward cyclic toovercome the tendency of the nose to rise.

• Hold an attitude that allows a smooth accelera-tion toward climbing airspeed and a commensu-rate gain in altitude so the takeoff profile does nottake the helicopter through any of the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocitydiagram.

• As airspeed increases, the streamlining of thefuselage reduces engine torque effect, requiring agradual reduction of antitorque pedal pressure.As the helicopter continues to climb andaccelerate to best rate of climb, apply aft cyclicpressure to raise the nose smoothly to the normalclimb attitude.

CROSSWIND CONSIDERATIONS DURING TAKEOFFSIf the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, thehelicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages ofthe maneuver. In this case, the cyclic is held into thewind a sufficient amount to maintain the desiredground track for the takeoff. The heading is maintainedwith the use of the antitorque pedals. In other words,the rotor is tilted into the wind so the sidewardmovement of the helicopter is just enough tocounteract the crosswind effect. To prevent the nosefrom turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it isnecessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure onthe side opposite the rotor tilt.

After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, crabthe helicopter into the wind as necessary to maintaincoordinated flight over the desired ground track. Thestronger the crosswind, the more the helicopter has tobe turned into the wind.


ATTITUDE CONTROLAs in most other maneuvers, smooth, positive attitudecontrol is the key to success in the takeoff. If thestudent is properly briefed and understands thechanging forces during the takeoff, it is possible toanticipate and correct deviations promptly.

At about five knots, ground effect diminishes and thehelicopter begins to sink. Depending on availablepower and instructor technique, power should be addedto prevent this sink. Any power change requires anantitorque pedal adjustment, which in turn requires acyclic adjustment to accommodate the increasedtranslating tendency. If the student does not make theseadjustments, the ground track will not be straight.Shortly after forward movement is initiated,translational lift is encountered and the nose pitches up.This requires forward cyclic to keep the helicopteraccelerating.

HEADING CONTROLPedal control requirements also change during thetransition into a climb. From the hover, if additionalpower is added in helicopters with counterclockwisemain rotor blade rotation, the left pedal requirementincreases. As speed increases, directional stabilityincreases, so the need for left pedal decreases.

CROSSWIND CORRECTIONSIf the takeoff is made in a crosswind condition, thestudent may not be aware of the corrections requiredduring the climb unless he or she is briefed in advance.In the hover and during the initial portion of the climb,cyclic must be applied toward the wind, and downwindpedal applied to keep the helicopter heading straightalong the ground track. As speed and altitude aregained, the cyclic is used to establish a crab. Failure tocorrect for the crosswind results in a downwind driftfrom the specified ground track.

TRAFFICThe student may concentrate so completely onachieving the stated objectives that conflicting trafficgoes unnoticed. Instructing students to look well aheadof the helicopter and to scan for traffic not only helpstheir awareness of other traffic, but also helps improveattitude control.

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NORMAL AND CROSSWINDAPPROACHES TO A HOVERAn approach is defined as the transition from trafficpattern altitude to either a hover or to the surface. Inday-to-day operations, approaches in a helicopter maybe dictated more by existing conditions than by formalpatterns. For training, however, a formal pattern is usedto give the student a basis upon which to build themodified patterns a particular situation may require.Downwind, base, and final approach legs should beflown in accordance with the patterns you outline. Anormal approach uses a descent profile of between 8°and 12° starting at approximately 300 feet aboveground level (AGL).

FOCUS POINTS

• For the beginning student, each approach shouldbe started at approximately the same position andat the same airspeed and altitude. This allows aconsistent basis for the student and instructor toevaluate each approach. To accomplish this, con-centrate on each leg of the traffic pattern so thehelicopter arrives at the point where the approachis started at the correct position, speed,and altitude.

• After intercepting an approach angle of 8° to 12°,begin the approach by sufficiently lowering thecollective to get the helicopter descending downthe approach angle. With the decrease in thecollective, the nose tends to pitch down,requiring aft cyclic to maintain the recommendedapproach airspeed attitude. Adjust antitorquepedal as necessary to maintain longitudinal trim.

• Maintain entry airspeed until the apparentgroundspeed and rate of closure appear to beincreasing. At this point, slowly begindecelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothlylower the collective to maintain approach angle.Use the cyclic to maintain a rate of closureequivalent to a brisk walk.

• At approximately 25 to 40 feet AGL, dependingon wind, the helicopter begins to lose effectivetranslational lift. To compensate for this loss,increase the collective to maintain the approachangle, while maintaining the proper r.p.m. Theincrease of collective pitch tends to make thenose rise, requiring forward cyclic to maintain theproper rate of closure.

• As the helicopter approaches the recommendedhover altitude, increase the collective sufficientlyto maintain the hover. At the same time, apply aftcyclic to stop any forward movement, whilecontrolling the heading with antitorque pedals.


GROUND TRACKThere can be no basis upon which to build unless theapproach path is consistent. Therefore, the student muststart the pattern from the same indicated airspeed,altitude, and distance from the landing spot. Thereafter,the student should be encouraged to maintain thecorrect pattern so each approach does not present a newset of circumstances. During initial training, windconditions should remain constant so a consistentpattern can be made. As experience is gained, thestudent should be briefed on the pattern changesrequired for different wind conditions.

ALTITUDEThe same comments concerning ground track areapplicable to altitudes on downwind, base, and the turnto final approach. Changing altitude requiresmodifications in some other parameter, resulting in adifferent approach pattern. Therefore, turns to each legof the approach should be made from the same spot andat the same altitude during a single training period.

AIRSPEEDAirspeed control is important if the student is toestablish and maintain a consistent approach. Thus, itis important for the student to be aware of, and adhereto, recommended approach airspeeds.

APPROACH ANGLEThe student must understand the reason for utilizing astandard approach path. It is to establish the finalapproach leg at a distance and altitude that requires thesame angle to the landing spot on each approach. In thismanner, the student learns to visualize the correctapproach angle, making it easier to learn the techniquesfor making corrections.

TRAFFICWith all the other factors requiring the student’sattention, it is very easy to relax vigilance for otheraircraft. Before turning to base leg, the student shouldbe required to check for approaching traffic and statewhether the pattern is clear of conflicting traffic. Thenon final approach, the area should be checked in alldirections to make sure there are no other aircraft on, orabout to turn onto, the final approach leg.

POWER ADJUSTMENTSDuring the approach, the power setting is usually quitelow. In a hover, it is quite high. Most beginningstudents wait until they are very close to the groundbefore adding power. This can easily lead toovercontrolling. This is usually done whiletransitioning through translational lift.

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When power is added, the attitude must be changed tocontinue moving forward and down to the intendedlanding spot. While paying attention to airspeed andthe height/velocity diagram, it may be necessary toslow the helicopter more than usual in the beginningphases of training so the student understands, and iscomfortable with, the transition from the approach tothe hover.

GO-AROUNDBefore solo, your student must be taught theprocedures and techniques used in a go-around.Encourage the student to use the go-around procedureas a safety precaution at any time he or she is uncom-fortable with continuing the approach.

FOCUS POINTS

• A go-around is initiated by adding power to theclimb power setting and accelerating to climbspeed. When power is added, two common errorsmay occur:

1. With the initial power change, the rate ofdescent may stop, and the student might notcontinue adding power to the climbpower setting.

2. When power is added, the nose of thehelicopter begins to rise, giving the impression

that the helicopter is climbing. This results in aloss of airspeed if no forward cyclic is added.If allowed to continue, the helicopter maybegin to settle.

• When the decision to initiate a go-around ismade, carry it out without hesitation.


INITIATING THE GO-AROUNDEven experienced pilots may be hesitant to initiate ago-around, either from failure to recognize the need forone or as a matter of pride. Teach the student torecognize the need for a go-around early in theapproach instead of waiting until the last moment. Thesafety of the aircraft and its occupants is the firstconsideration, and a go-around should be executed atthe first indication of an unsatisfactory approach or anyunsafe conditions on the intended landing point.

COORDINATIONMany things must be accomplished simultaneously asa go-around is initiated. Collective is increased, r.p.m.is adjusted as necessary, antitorque pedal correctionsare made, and the attitude is adjusted to first accelerateto climb speed and then to maintain it. In the process,your student might overlook one or more of therequired adjustments. It may help to practice the firstfew go-arounds at higher altitudes so the proximity tothe ground is not a distracting factor.

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Advanced maneuvers are practiced to increase thestudent’s proficiency and confidence and to introducethe full capability of the helicopter in everyday flightoperations. Advanced maneuvers include high-altitudeoperations, slope landings, confined area operations,and pinnacle landings. Practicing rapid decelerations,or quick stops, also enhances coordination andpilot confidence.

MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE TAKEOFFThe maximum performance takeoff is practiced tosimulate a takeoff from a confined area with a climbover an obstacle. Normally, it is begun from the groundwith the collective raised to obtain maximum powerwhile the pitch attitude is adjusted to establish a steepangle of climb to clear the obstacle. At an altitude ofabout 50 feet, the nose is lowered gently to accelerateto normal climb speed. Some penetration of thecrosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocitydiagram may be unavoidable during this maneuver.However, the student must be aware that the shallowestclimb angle possible, under the circumstances, shouldbe used, both to improve climb performance and tominimize the time in the restricted area of theheight/velocity diagram.

FOCUS POINTS

• Before attempting a maximum performancetakeoff, bring the helicopter to a hover anddetermine the excess power available by notingthe difference between the power available andthe power required to hover. Under certainconditions, there may not be sufficient poweravailable to complete the maneuver. Also performa balance and flight control check and note theposition of the cyclic.

• Position the helicopter into the wind and returnthe helicopter to the surface. Normally, thismaneuver is initiated from the surface.

• After checking the area for obstacles and otheraircraft, select reference points along the takeoffpath to maintain ground track. Consider alternateroutes in case the maneuver cannot be completed.

• Begin the takeoff by getting the helicopter lighton the skids.

• Pause and neutralize all aircraft movement.

• Slowly increase the collective and position thecyclic so the helicopter breaks ground in a 40

knot attitude. This is approximately the sameattitude as when the helicopter is light on theskids. Continue to slowly increase the collectiveuntil reaching the maximum power available.This large collective movement requires a sub-stantial increase in the proper antitorque pedalpressure to maintain heading.

• During the maneuver, use the cyclic, as neces-sary, to control movement toward the desiredflight path and, therefore, climb angle.

• Maintain rotor r.p.m. at its maximum, and do notallow it to decrease because the collective wouldhave to be lowered to regain it. Maintain theseinputs until the helicopter clears the obstacle oruntil reaching 50 feet for demonstration purposes.Then, establish a normal climb attitude andreduce power.

• Smooth, coordinated inputs coupled with precisecontrol allow the helicopter to attain its maxi-mum performance.

• A maximum performance takeoff in most lighthelicopters requires operation within the cross-hatched or shaded area of the height/velocitycurve. An engine failure while operating withinthe shaded area may not allow enough time forthe critical transition from powered flight toautorotation. Check engine condition by monitor-ing the engine instruments and apply maximumpower smoothly and slowly in order to preventexceeding the engine limitations.


COORDINATIONPower, pitch attitude, and directional control are allessential when performing a smooth transition from thesurface to a maximum performance climb. The studentmust set power smoothly, yet promptly, to the maxi-mum allowable manifold pressure while maintainingmaximum r.p.m. Proper pitch attitude must be estab-lished to ensure the helicopter accelerates to the desiredclimb speed as it gains altitude. Your student shouldavoid abrupt or uncoordinated control application.

AIRSPEEDSome students try to take off and climb vertically. If thehelicopter does not have sufficient power, this mayresult in a low r.p.m. condition followed by sinking andpossibly a hard landing. The other extreme is

SECTION E—ADVANCED FLIGHT MANEUVERS

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accelerating to an airspeed higher than necessary,resulting in a takeoff profile that is not steep enough.

RUNNING TAKEOFFA running takeoff is practiced to simulate conditionsthat could exist as a result of high density altitudeand/or a high gross weight. The student must be awareof the performance characteristics of the helicopter andthe techniques to be used if sufficient power is notavailable to permit hovering in ground effect. Simulatethe condition by first determining the manifoldpressure required to hover at about a three-foot skidheight. Then, using one or two inches of manifoldpressure less than is needed for a hover, accelerate thehelicopter along the ground until translational liftpermits a takeoff.

FOCUS POINTS

• It may be better to practice running takeoffs froma hard surface runway instead of a grassy field.There is less probability of catching a skid, whichcould lead to dynamic rollover. In addition, checkthe condition of the skid shoes before and afterpracticing running takeoffs and landings.

• To begin the maneuver, align the helicopter to thetakeoff path. Next, increase the throttle to obtaintakeoff r.p.m., and smoothly increase thecollective until the helicopter becomes light onthe skids or landing gear.

• Move the cyclic slightly forward of the neutralhovering position, and apply additional collectiveto start the forward movement. To simulate areduced power condition during practice, use oneto two inches less manifold pressure thanrequired to hover. Do not apply any forwardcyclic to start the forward motion until simulatedmaximum power has been applied. Applyingforward cyclic before maximum available poweris attained may cause the helicopter to dig intothe ground, requiring even more power tobreak free.

• Maintain a straight ground track with lateralcyclic and heading with antitorque pedals until aclimb is established. As effective translational liftis gained, the helicopter becomes airborne in afairly level attitude with little or no pitching.

• Maintain an altitude to take advantage of groundeffect, and allow the airspeed to increase towardnormal climb speed. Then, follow a climb profilethat takes the helicopter through the clear area ofthe height/velocity diagram. During practice

maneuvers, after climbing to an altitude of 50feet, establish the normal climb power settingand attitude.


RPMIt takes some self-discipline to keep from raising thecollective when the helicopter is about to becomeairborne. Emphasize that increasing collective abovethe maximum available manifold pressure can onlyresult in a loss of r.p.m., producing a loss of lift, ratherthan an increase. This can be demonstrated in a hoverby raising the collective while reducing throttle tomaintain manifold pressure.

ATTITUDE CONTROLIt takes more forward cyclic control to accelerate thehelicopter on the ground, against the resistance of theskids, than it does to maintain the slightly nose-downattitude required for acceleration in the air. As effectivetranslational lift is gained, the tendency may be to holdthe attitude and climb too rapidly. However, loweringthe nose too much after becoming airborne may resultin the helicopter settling back to the surface. Onceairborne, the helicopter should be held in ground effectuntil climb speed is reached.

WINDThe student must understand that the greater theheadwind component, the easier it is to get thehelicopter off the ground when power is limited. Allavailable means should be exercised to accuratelydetermine wind direction before attempting the takeoff.In a crosswind, cyclic must be applied into the wind tokeep the ground track parallel. Maintain this attitudeeven after breaking the ground. Only after climb speedis reached and the climb has begun, should thehelicopter be crabbed into the wind.

RAPID DECELERATION OR QUICKSTOPThe objective of a rapid deceleration is to lose airspeedrapidly while maintaining a constant altitude andheading. Quick stops are practiced to improvecoordination and to increase proficiency in maneuver-ing the helicopter.

FOCUS POINTS

• During training, always perform this maneuverinto the wind.

• After leveling off at an altitude between 25 and40 feet, depending on the manufacturer’srecommendations, accelerate to the desired entryspeed, which is approximately 45 knots for mosttraining helicopters. The altitude chosen should

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be high enough to avoid danger to the tail rotorduring the flare, but low enough to stay out of thecrosshatched or shaded areas of theheight/velocity diagram throughout themaneuver. In addition, this altitude should be lowenough that the helicopter can be brought to ahover during the recovery.

• Initiate the deceleration by applying aft cyclic toreduce forward speed, and simultaneouslylowering the collective, as necessary, tocounteract any climbing tendency. The timingmust be exact. If too little down collective isapplied for the amount of aft cyclic applied, aclimb results. If too much down collective, adescent results. A rapid application of aft cyclicrequires an equally rapid application of downcollective. As collective pitch is lowered, applyproper antitorque pedal pressure to maintainheading, and adjust the throttle to maintain r.p.m.

• After attaining the desired speed, initiate therecovery by lowering the nose and allowing thehelicopter to descend to a normal hoveringaltitude in level flight and zero groundspeed.

• During the recovery, increase collective pitch asnecessary to stop the helicopter at normalhovering altitude, adjust the throttle to maintainr.p.m., and apply proper antitorque pedal pressureto maintain heading.


COORDINATIONBecause the quick stop demands a high degree ofcoordination, your student may encounter difficultiesduring initial attempts. All flight controls are used: thecyclic to establish the pitch attitude for the desired rateof deceleration, collective to control altitude, throttle tomaintain r.p.m., and antitorque pedals to controlheading. Initial quick stops should be practiced with agentle deceleration rate to reduce the amount of controlrequired. As the student gains proficiency, steepness ofthe initial flare can be increased until full downcollective is required to prevent a gain in altitude.

RECOVERYDuring recovery, the helicopter should settle gentlytoward the hovering altitude. However, some studentsfail to recognize the need for recovery action and allowthe helicopter to settle too rapidly as airspeeddiminishes. Late application of collective requires anabrupt input to stop the rate of descent. In addition, astranslational lift is lost and collective is increased,forward cyclic should be applied to return to alevel attitude.

STEEP APPROACHESSteep approaches are practiced to simulate an approachover an obstacle and a landing in a confined area. Thedescent begins on the final leg after a normal approachto a safe altitude above the obstacle, and is conductedalong an approach path of about 15°. It could eitherterminate in a stabilized hover above a designated spotor a landing.

FOCUS POINTS

• On final approach, head the helicopter into thewind and align it with the intended touchdownpoint at the recommended approach airspeed.

• After intercepting an approach angle ofapproximately 15°, begin the approach bylowering the collective sufficiently to start thehelicopter descending down the approach pathand decelerating. Use the proper antitorque pedalfor trim. Since this angle is steeper than a normalapproach angle, reduce the collective more thanthat required for a normal approach.

• Continue to decelerate with slight aft cyclic, andsmoothly lower the collective to maintain theapproach angle. As in a normal approach,reference the touchdown point on the windshieldto determine changes in approach angle. Thispoint is in a lower position than a normalapproach. Aft cyclic is required to deceleratesooner than a normal approach, and the rate ofclosure becomes apparent at a higher altitude.

• Maintain the approach angle and rate of descentwith the collective, rate of closure with the cyclic,and trim with antitorque pedals. Use a crab above50 feet and a slip below 50 feet for any crosswindthat might be present.

• Loss of effective translational lift occurs higherin a steep approach, requiring an increase in thecollective to prevent settling, and more forwardcyclic to achieve the proper rate of closure.

• For training, terminate the approach at hoveringaltitude above the intended landing point withzero groundspeed. If power has been properlyapplied during the final portion of the approach,very little additional power is required in thehover.


APPROACH PATHStudents frequently attempt to dive toward the selectedtouchdown point when they seem to be overshooting it.This only builds up airspeed and moves the helicopter

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farther forward. Frequently, the next move is to lowerthe collective, which does accomplish a loss of altitude,but also results in a high rate of descent. Conversely,when undershooting, it is a natural tendency to raisethe nose in an attempt to maintain altitude. This leadsto collective corrections, which could lead to settlingwith power. The student should be taught to regulatethe steepness of the approach path with collective anduse the cyclic to control the airspeed. Near the spot, thecollective should be increased to slow the rate ofdescent so the transition into a hover is accomplishedas smoothly as possible.

SHALLOW APPROACH / RUNNINGLANDINGThe objective in a running landing is to maintainsufficient forward speed to take advantage oftranslational lift until touchdown. As in the runningtakeoff, power should be limited to one or two inchesof manifold pressure less than that required to hover. Ashallow final approach should be used to maintain aslow rate of descent. Since the helicopter will besliding to a stop during this maneuver, the landing areamust be smooth and long enough to accomplishthis task.

FOCUS POINTS

• It may be better to practice running landings froma hard surface runway instead of a grassy fieldbecause there is less probability of catching askid, which could lead to dynamic rollover. Inaddition, check the condition of the skid shoesbefore and after practicing running takeoffsand landings.

• A shallow approach is initiated in the samemanner as the normal approach except that ashallower angle of descent (approximately 5°) ismaintained. The power reduction to initiate thedesired angle of descent is less than that for anormal approach since the angle of descentis less.

• As the collective is lowered, maintain headingwith proper antitorque pedal pressure and r.p.m.with the throttle. Maintain approach airspeeduntil the apparent rate of closure appears to beincreasing, then begin to slow the helicopter withaft cyclic.

• As in normal and steep approaches, the primarycontrol for the angle and rate of descent is thecollective, while the cyclic primarily controls thegroundspeed. However, there must be acoordination of all the controls for the maneuverto be accomplished successfully. The helicopter

should arrive at the point of touchdown at, orslightly above, effective translational lift. Sincetranslational lift diminishes rapidly at slowairspeeds, the deceleration must be smoothlycoordinated while keeping enough lift to preventthe helicopter from settling abruptly.

• Just prior to touchdown, place the helicopter in alevel attitude with the cyclic, and maintainheading with the antitorque pedals. Use the cyclicto keep the heading and ground track identical.Allow the helicopter to descend gently tothe surface in a straight-and-level attitude,cushioning the landing with the collective.

• After surface contact, move the cyclic slightlyforward to ensure clearance between the tailboomand the rotor disc. Use the cyclic to maintain thesurface track. In most cases, hold the collectivestationary until the helicopter stops. However, ifmore braking action is desired, lower thecollective slightly. Keep in mind that due to theincreased ground friction when the collective islowered, the helicopter’s nose might pitchforward. Exercise caution not to correct thispitching movement with aft cyclic, because thismovement could result in the rotor makingcontact with the tailboom. During the landing,maintain normal r.p.m. with the throttle anddirectional control with the antitorque pedals.


APPROACH ANGLEThe desired approach angle for a running landing isrecommended to be somewhat shallower than a normalapproach, approximately 5 degrees. The student mayhave difficulty visualizing and maintaining thisapproach angle and achieving the correct attitude,airspeed, and rate of descent on touchdown.

ATTITUDE CONTROLCorrect pitch attitude is vital throughout the approachand touchdown in a running landing in order to achievethe desired airspeed at the proper altitude above thetouchdown point. Unless these objectives are met at thecorrect distance from the designated touchdown point,it may be impossible to land within the desired areawithout exceeding the simulated manifold pressurelimits. In such an event, a go-around should be madeand another approach initiated.

COLLECTIVE CONTROLCollective should not be fully lowered until thehelicopter has stopped. Students tend to lower thecollective immediately after landing, as in a normal

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landing from a hover. Lowering the collective whilethe helicopter is still sliding results in a decelerationrate that can impose undue stress on the skid support,rotor mast, transmission, or supporting structure.

TOUCHDOWNCommon problems on touchdown include improperuse of the collective and cyclic controls. Just prior totouchdown, there is a tendency to apply aft cyclic tocushion the landing. This causes the tail of the skids totouch first, followed by a forward pitching moment. Astudent may attempt to correct this action with more aftcyclic. In extreme cases, this could cause the main rotorblades to contact the tailboom. The correct technique isto level the helicopter, use collective to cushion thetouchdown, and then apply a small amount of forwardcyclic after touchdown. Collective should be held up,or even increased slightly, to maintain a slow rateof deceleration.

SLOPE LANDINGSWhile landing on a gentle slope is similar to landing ina crosswind, landing on a slope approaching themaximum capability of the helicopter requires smooth,yet positive, control. Your student should be madeaware that it is easier to land on a slope where the uphillside is to the right and the wind is coming from thedownslope side. The student should also understand itis preferable to land the helicopter uphill from peopleso they can approach the helicopter from the downhillside. Proper technique on a slope landing eliminatesthe risk of dynamic rollover or sliding downslope. Thelimits of the helicopter’s capability are discerniblebefore the helicopter is committed to landing, as longas the student proceeds slowly and remains alert forsliding or for the cyclic control approaching the lateraltravel limits.

FOCUS POINTS

• Prior to performing slope landings, make sure thestudent has a good understanding of the cause andeffects of dynamic rollover.

• Make the initial approach to the slope at a 45°angle to check the suitability of the landing site.

• At the termination of the approach, move thehelicopter slowly toward the slope, being carefulnot to turn the tail upslope. Position thehelicopter across the slope at a stabilized hoverheaded into the wind over the spot of intendedlanding.

• Downward pressure on the collective starts thehelicopter descending. As the upslope skidtouches the ground, hesitate momentarily in alevel attitude, then apply lateral cyclic in the

direction of the slope. This holds the upslope skidagainst the slope while the downslope skid islowered with the collective. As the collective islowered, continue to move the cyclic toward theslope to maintain a fixed position.

• The slope must be shallow enough so thehelicopter can be held against it with the cyclicduring the entire landing. A slope of 5° isconsidered maximum for normal operation ofmost helicopters.

• Be aware of any abnormal vibration or mastbumping, which signals maximum cyclicdeflection. If this occurs, abandon the landingbecause the slope is too steep. In most helicopterswith a counterclockwise rotor system, landingscan be made on steeper slopes when the cyclic isbeing held to the right. When landing on slopesusing left cyclic, some cyclic input must be usedto overcome the translating tendency. If wind isnot a factor, consider the drifting tendency whendetermining landing direction.

• After the downslope skid is on the surface, reducethe collective to full down, and neutralize thecyclic and antitorque pedals. Normal operatingr.p.m. should be maintained until the full weightof the helicopter is on the landing gear. Thisensures adequate r.p.m. for immediate takeoff incase the helicopter starts sliding down the slope.Use antitorque pedals as necessary throughoutthe landing for heading control. Before reducingthe r.p.m., move the cyclic control as necessary tomake sure the helicopter is firmly on the ground.


OVERCONTROLLINGThe student’s concern about the possibility of slidingor overturning usually leads to more uphill cyclic inputthan is required. The effects of excessive cyclic are notnoticeable as the collective is lowered, since thehelicopter has no tendency to slide uphill, but the limitof cyclic travel may be reached earlier than if thestudent were using only enough uphill cyclic to preventsliding.

SLOPE TAKEOFFThe takeoff from a slope is much easier than thelanding because it is already known that the helicopterwill rest on the slope. The student must be briefed,however, not to turn away from the slope while still ina hover because this moves the tail toward the slope.The helicopter must first be moved away from thelanding spot by beginning the climb on the takeoff

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heading or, if obstacles dictate taking off downslope,moving sideward before beginning the turn.

FOCUS POINTS

• Begin the takeoff by increasing r.p.m. to thenormal range with the collective full down, thenmove the cyclic toward the slope. Holding cyclictoward the slope causes the downslope skid torise as the collective is slowly raised.

• As the skid comes up, move the cyclic toward theneutral position. If properly coordinated, thehelicopter should attain a level attitude as thecyclic reaches the neutral position. At the sametime, use antitorque pedal pressure to maintainheading and throttle to maintain r.p.m. With thehelicopter level and the cyclic centered, pausemomentarily to verify everything is correct, andthen gradually raise the collective to completethe liftoff.

• After reaching a hover, take care to avoid hittingthe ground with the tail rotor. If an upslope windexists, execute a crosswind takeoff and then makea turn into the wind after clearing the ground withthe tail rotor.


OVERCONTROLLINGThe eagerness to get the helicopter back into a levelattitude may cause the student to use excess cyclic intothe slope or to apply up collective too rapidly.Emphasize that smoothness is essential to a safe,comfortable takeoff. Cyclic should be positioned intothe slope before the collective is raised. The rotor discshould be checked visually to see that it is level withthe natural horizon or inclined slightly toward theslope. Increasing the collective slowly enables the pilotto remove the lateral cyclic input so the helicopter islevel when the upslope skid leaves the ground.Antitorque pedal input is gradually increased as thecyclic is raised, preventing a turning tendency. Cautionthe student to stabilize the hover before beginningthe climb.

CONFINED AREA OPERATIONSA confined area is an area where the flight of thehelicopter is limited in some direction by terrain or thepresence of obstructions. For example, a clearing in thewoods, a city street, a road, and a building roof caneach be regarded as a confined area. Generally,takeoffs and landings should be made into the wind toobtain maximum airspeed with minimum groundspeed.

FOCUS POINTS

APPROACH AND LANDING

• There are several things to consider whenoperating in confined areas. One of the mostimportant is maintaining a clearance between therotors and the obstacles forming the confinedarea. The tail rotor deserves special considerationbecause, in some helicopters, it cannot always beseen from the cabin. This not only applies whilemaking the approach, but while hovering as well.Keep in mind that wires are especially difficult tosee; however, their supporting devices, such aspoles or towers, serve as an indication of theirpresence and approximate height. If any wind ispresent, expect some turbulence.

• Consider the availability of forced landing areasduring the planned approach. Think about thepossibility of flying from one alternate landingarea to another throughout the approach, whileavoiding unfavorable areas. Always leave a wayout in case the landing cannot be completed or ago-around is necessary.

• A high reconnaissance should be completedbefore initiating the confined area approach. Startthe approach phase using the wind to the bestpossible advantage. Keep in mind areas suitablefor a forced landing. It may be necessary tochoose between an approach that is crosswind butover an open area and one directly into the windbut over heavily wooded or extremely roughterrain where a safe forced landing would beimpossible. If these conditions exist, consider thepossibility of making the initial phase of theapproach crosswind over the open area and thenturning into the wind for the final portion ofthe approach.

• Always operate the helicopter as close to itsnormal capabilities as possible considering thesituation at hand. In all confined area operations,with the exception of the pinnacle operation, theangle of descent should be no steeper thannecessary to clear any barrier in the approachpath and still land on the selected spot.

• Always make the landing to a specific point andnot to some general area. This point should belocated well forward, away from the approachend of the area. The more confined the area, themore essential it is that the helicopter be landedprecisely at a definite point. Keep this point insight during the entire final approach.

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• When flying a helicopter near obstructions,always consider the tail rotor. A safe angle ofdescent over barriers must be established toensure tail rotor clearance of all obstructions.After coming to a hover, take care to avoidturning the tail into obstructions.

TAKEOFFA confined area takeoff is considered an “altitude overairspeed” maneuver. This means it is more important togain altitude than airspeed. However, unlessoperational considerations dictate otherwise, thecrosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocitydiagram should be avoided.

• Before takeoff, make a ground reconnaissance todetermine the type of takeoff to be performed.Doing so helps determine the point from whichthe takeoff should be initiated to ensure themaximum amount of available area, and how tobest maneuver the helicopter from the landingpoint to the proposed takeoff position.

• If wind conditions and available area permit, thehelicopter should be brought to a hover, turnedaround, and hovered forward from the landingposition to the takeoff position. Under certainconditions, sideward flight to the takeoff positionmay be necessary. If rearward flight is required toreach the takeoff position, place referencemarkers in front of the helicopter in such a waythat a ground track can be safely followed to thetakeoff position. In addition, the takeoff markershould be located so that it can be seen withouthovering beyond it.

• When planning the takeoff, consider the directionof the wind, obstructions, and forced landingareas. The angle of climb on takeoff should benormal, or at least no steeper than necessary toclear any barrier. Clearing a barrier by a few feetand maintaining normal operating r.p.m., withperhaps a reserve of power, is better than clearinga barrier by a wide margin but with a dangerouslylow r.p.m. and no power reserve.

• As an aid in helping to fly up and over anobstacle, form an imaginary line from a point onthe leading edge of the helicopter to the highestobstacle to be cleared. Fly this line of ascent withenough power to clear the obstacle. As a rule ofthumb, during the climbout, if there is anobserved distance between the rotor tip-pathplane and the obstacle, the obstacle will mostlikely be cleared. After clearing the obstacle,maintain the power setting and accelerate to thenormal climb speed. Then, reduce power to thenormal climb power setting.

• During the advanced training conducted for acommercial pilot applicant, opportunities shouldbe sought to conduct approaches to confinedareas. Several areas should be used to give thestudent every opportunity to consider all of thefactors that influence operation into and out ofconfined areas. Have the student fly over aprojected landing area and then describe thefactors involved in a landing to that specific area.Items such as wind direction, favorable approachpath, suitable forced landing areas, obstacles tobe cleared, where turbulence might beencountered, and the helicopter’s expectedperformance should be discussed relative to eachapproach. The student must also consider theperformance capability of the helicopter whenplanning the departure from a confined area.


PLANNINGSafety of the approach depends mainly on thethoroughness of the planning that precedes it. Studentsmay not recognize and prepare for hard-to-seeobstacles such as power lines. Point out the supportingstructures that indicate the presence of lines. In a desireto make an approach directly into the wind, the studentmight fly over areas unsuitable for a safe landing. Pointout that it is often preferable to make the approach intoa slight crosswind if it would allow the flight to takeplace over more suitable landing areas.

Before the takeoff is begun, ask the student to explainthe factors being considered and the procedures beingplanned. This provides an opportunity to introducefactors the student may not have considered, and givesyou a chance to evaluate the student’s judgment.

PINNACLE LANDINGSBefore attempting a pinnacle landing, the student mustdemonstrate proficiency in precision approaches to aspot along a constant approach path. This ability is theessence of a good pinnacle landing. Have your studentsfly over the selected pinnacle so they can observeobstacles and decide on a suitable approach path, aswell as determine a plan of action if the approach doesnot go as planned. The final approach should be startedat a sufficient distance from the pinnacle to enable thestudent to establish an approach angle appropriate tothe approach path and wind conditions. Depthperception may be difficult because the surroundingterrain is lower and the approach angle is the onlymeans of judging altitude. If the landing spot stays inthe same angular relationship to the helicopter, theapproach angle is constant. If at any time during theapproach it appears to be unsafe, the approach shouldbe abandoned according to the alternate plan. Anapproach that requires excessive maneuvering near the

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collective is used to regulate the rate of descent. If thelanding spot seems to be moving away, a little forwardcyclic will correct for it. If the landing spot seems to bemoving under the helicopter, a slight rearward cycliccorrection is appropriate.

AIRSPEEDExplain the importance of controlling airspeed duringthe final stages of the approach. An airspeed that is toolow can cause a loss of translational lift before thelanding spot is reached, requiring a hover out of groundeffect. Too high an airspeed may require excessivemaneuvering to avoid over flying the landing spot. Thepitch attitude and airspeed control procedures becomemore critical on a pinnacle approach.

PINNACLE TAKEOFF AND CLIMBThe terrain features affecting a pinnacle takeoff and aplan to cope with the situation should be formulated onthe reconnaissance that precedes the landing. A changein wind, temperature, or takeoff weight may make itnecessary to consider obstacles, which were not afactor on the previously planned departure. To build thehabit and to be certain that all items are beingconsidered, the student should be required to reviewand describe the factors affecting the takeoff.

FOCUS POINTS

• A pinnacle takeoff is an “airspeed over altitude”takeoff made from the ground or from a hover.Since pinnacles and ridgelines are generallyhigher than the immediate surrounding terrain,gaining airspeed on the takeoff is more importantthan gaining altitude. The higher the airspeed, themore rapid the departure from slopes of thepinnacle. In addition to covering unfavorableterrain rapidly, a higher airspeed affords a morefavorable glide angle, and thus contributes to thechances of reaching a safe area in the event of aforced landing. If a suitable forced landing area isnot available, a higher airspeed also permits amore effective flare prior to making anautorotative landing.

• As the helicopter moves out of ground effect ontakeoff, maintain altitude and accelerate tonormal climb airspeed. When normal climb speedis attained, establish a normal climb attitude.Never dive the helicopter down the slope afterclearing the pinnacle.


PLANNINGFailure to consider all factors involved in the takeoffand climb, or failure to take advantage of wind, thelowest obstacle, and favorable terrain are items that

landing spot is unsatisfactory. Closure rate andapproach angle should be carefully monitored duringthe approach because the visual cues, normally usedwhen performing a normal approach, may not beavailable, and translational lift must be maintaineduntil the helicopter is nearly over the landing spot.

FOCUS POINTS

• If a climb is needed to reach a pinnacle or ridge-line, do it on the upwind side, when practicable,to take advantage of any updrafts. Avoid the areaswhere downdrafts are present, especially whenexcess power is limited. The approach flight pathshould be parallel to the ridgeline and into thewind as much as possible.

• Load, altitude, wind conditions, and terrainfeatures determine the angle to use in the finalpart of an approach. As a general rule, the greaterthe winds, the steeper the approach needs to be toavoid turbulent air and downdrafts. Groundspeedduring the approach is more difficult to judgebecause visual references are farther away thanduring approaches over trees or flat terrain.

• If a crosswind exists, remain clear of downdraftson the leeward or downwind side of the ridgeline.If the wind velocity makes the crosswind landinghazardous, a low coordinated turn into the windjust prior to terminating the approach might be anoption. When making an approach to a pinnacle,avoid leeward turbulence and keep the helicopterwithin reach of a forced landing area as longas possible.

• On landing, take advantage of the long axis of thearea if wind conditions permit. Touchdownshould be made in the forward portion of the area.Always perform a stability check, prior toreducing r.p.m., to ensure the landing gear is onfirm terrain that can safely support the weight ofthe helicopter.


PLANNINGAs in the approach to a confined area, there are manyfactors to consider. The approach should be planned tofly over the most favorable areas and with an approachangle only as steep as conditions warrant.

APPROACH ANGLEIt may be difficult for the student to maintain a constantapproach angle due to the different visual cues ascompared with a normal approach in flat terrain. Thecyclic is used to control the closure rate and the

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may need to be pointed out frequently. As theinstructor, anything you notice that could enhance themargin of safety of this, or any other operation, couldhelp build safety consciousness in your student.

RPMAs the helicopter leaves the pinnacle, ground effect islost almost immediately. The student may increase col-lective beyond the capability of the engine to maintainr.p.m., especially at high density altitudes. Thispossibility should be discussed prior to the takeoff andwatched carefully during the takeoff.

AIRSPEEDThe helicopter will be at altitude as soon as departingthe pinnacle. The student should be instructed to gainairspeed rather than try to climb away fromthe pinnacle.

NIGHT FLYINGNight flying introduces a new environment to thestudent and must, therefore, be preceded by thoroughpreparation. Briefing for the first night flight mustinclude at least the following items:

1. Equipment required for night flight

2. Airport and heliport lighting

3. Night flying physiology

4. Weather considerations

5. Night flying techniques

The student’s first night flight can be conducted at duskso visual impressions are introduced gradually andadaptation to the night environment is accomplishedover a period of time rather than instantaneously. Theregulations now require night cross-countryaeronautical experience for both private andcommercial pilot applicants. For private pilotstudents, this should be taught only after thestudent is comfortable with both night andcross-country operations.


TAKEOFFAttitude control problems during the takeoff and climbto 500 feet above the ground may be caused by severalfactors. Initially, the student might be tempted to lookat reference points that are too close to the helicopter,focusing on things that can still be seen clearly. As in

daylight flying, a reference well out in front of thehelicopter should be used for attitude control. Duringthe initial departure from a lighted area into thedarkness beyond, it is necessary to refer to the airspeedindicator and altimeter frequently in order to confirmthe desired attitude.

AIRBORNEFollowing the first night takeoff, spend a few minutesaway from the traffic pattern in a poorly lighted area.This allows the student to relax and become acclimatedto the night environment and gain confidence in theability to maintain flight with minimal visualreferences. During this time, other aircraft should bepointed out so the student can relate the appearance oftheir lights to their apparent motion.

APPROACHA standard traffic pattern should be used for training innight approaches. Particular attention should be paid toattitude control, to assist in visualizing the correctapproach angle. Since depth perception is moredifficult at night, the approach angle is especiallyimportant.

Landings should be practiced with and without the useof the landing light. If the landing light is used, itshould be used only on the final leg, preferably duringthe last 100 feet or so of the descent. The student mustbe cautioned not to concentrate only on the areailluminated by the landing light, but rather to lookahead of it for better attitude control and depthperception.

CROSS-COUNTRY OPERATIONSCross-country flight training should include pilotageand dead reckoning, radio navigation, radar services,diversions, and lost procedure. These operationsrequire a good working knowledge of the airspacesystem, chart interpretation, radio navigation, andcommunication. This is usually too much to teachwhile in the helicopter. Therefore, a cross-countrytraining flight should be preceded with one or moreground training sessions. The regulations require nightcross-country instruction for both private andcommercial applicants. However, this should be taughtonly after the student is comfortable with both nightand cross-country operations.

FOCUS POINTS

• Make sure your students have a good workingknowledge of the airspace system. They shouldbe able to interpret airspace boundaries fromthe charts, as well as understand theoperational, communication, equipment, and

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weather requirements to operate within aparticular airspace.

• Make sure the student has a good workingknowledge of aeronautical charts. All symbolsand markings must be clearly understood, and thestudent should be able to read and understandtopography and any potential hazards.

• Teach dead reckoning and pilotage first. Thisgives a good foundation for cross-country navi-gation without having to rely on navigationequipment. However, it is equally important forthe student to learn how to operate all availablenavigation radios.

• Cockpit Resource Management (CRM), espe-cially for solo flight, is essential. At least onehand must be on the flight controls at all times, soall navigation information such as charts andflight logs must be easily accessible and ready foruse. Have the student use a kneeboard for chartsand logs.


POOR PREFLIGHT PREPRATIONBecause one hand is required on the flight controls atall times, both hands are not available for retrievingcharts and logs from flight bags or for folding charts.

This must be done before the flight, and all equipment,logs, and charts required for the cross-country flightmust be placed in such a way that they are readilyavailable and usable. Have the student practicepreparing the cockpit prior to flight so everything iseasily accessible.

POOR CROSS-COUNTRY PLANNINGA thorough understanding of the airspace system and agood working knowledge of aviation charts are prereq-uisites for any cross-country flight. If the student islacking in any of these areas, the result is poor cross-country planning. When planning a flight, use check-points that are easily recognizable, even if they requirea little deviation from the most direct route. For abeginning student, it may be advisable to skirt certainairspace in order to reduce communication workload.As experience increases, flight into busier airspace canbe increased.

RELIABILITY ON NAVIGATION EQUIPMENTSeveral helicopters now have GPS navigation equip-ment. This equipment has a host of features, includingmoving maps, airspace and airport information. WhileGPS is very useful, the beginning student must not relyon it. A thorough knowledge and understanding ofpilotage and dead reckoning is required. If the traininghelicopter is equipped with GPS or any other naviga-tional equipment, use it only as a backup, especiallyduring the initial training with your student.

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The outcome of any emergency that might occur in anaircraft is directly related to the pilot’s ability to reactinstantly, to act correctly, and in taking the propercorrective action since there may be limited time toanalyze the problem. Although a pilot could spend anentire career in helicopters without actuallyencountering an emergency situation, the demonstratedability to cope with any situation is essential to safeoperations and pilot confidence. Therefore, it isnecessary to introduce emergency procedures early inthe training program and to practice them frequently.

AUTOROTATIVE DESCENTSAn autorotative descent is used in the event of enginefailure or tail rotor failure. Autorotations should beintroduced first with an intentional entry so the studentcan practice establishing an autorotative glide. Whenthe student develops proficiency in performingautorotations to a selected spot, the instructor shouldinitiate autorotations when the student is not expectingthem by announcing “engine failure.”

As the student demonstrates the ability to reactproperly, the instructor should announce “enginefailure” as he retards the throttle to further develop thestudent’s reactions. Never give the student a simulatedengine failure unless you are sure that an autorotationcan be made safely to the surface. Don’t assume apower recovery will prevent a landing to an unsuitablearea because the engine may hesitate or evencompletely shut down when rolling off the throttleduring the autorotation entry. To prevent inadvertentengine shut down during practice autorotations, followthe procedures outlined in the Rotorcraft FlightManual (RFM).

FOCUS POINTS

• Perform practice autorotations to a known areafree of obstructions, where a safe landing to thesurface can be made at any time.

• From level flight at the manufacturer’srecommended airspeed, between 500 to 700 feetAGL, and heading into the wind, smoothly butfirmly lower the collective pitch control to thefull down position, maintaining r.p.m. in thegreen arc with throttle. Coordinate the collectivemovement with proper antitorque pedal for trim,and apply aft cyclic control to maintain properairspeed. Once the collective is fully lowered,decrease throttle to ensure a clean split of the nee-dles. After splitting the needles, readjust thethrottle to keep engine r.p.m. well above normal

idling speed, but not high enough to causerejoining of the needles. The manufacturer oftenrecommends the r.p.m. to use.

• Adjust attitude with cyclic control to obtain themanufacturer’s recommended autorotation orbest gliding speed. Adjust collective pitch controlas necessary to maintain rotor r.p.m. in the greenarc. Aft cyclic movements cause an increase inrotor r.p.m., which is then controlled by a smallincrease in collective pitch control. Avoid a largecollective pitch increase that results in a rapiddecay of rotor r.p.m. and leads to “chasing ther.p.m.” Avoid looking straight down in front ofthe aircraft. Continually cross-check attitude,trim, rotor r.p.m., and airspeed.

• At approximately 40 to 100 feet above thesurface, or at the altitude recommended by themanufacturer, begin the flare with aft cycliccontrol to reduce forward airspeed and decreasethe rate of descent. Maintain heading with theantitorque pedals. Care must be taken in the exe-cution of the flare so that the cyclic control is notmoved rearward so abruptly as to cause thehelicopter to climb, nor should it be moved soslowly as to not arrest the descent, which mayallow the helicopter to settle so rapidly that thetail rotor strikes the ground. When forwardmotion decreases to the desired groundspeed,which is usually the slowest possible speed, movethe cyclic control forward to place the helicopterin the proper attitude for landing.

• The altitude at this time should be approximately8 to 15 feet, depending upon the helicopter beingused. Extreme caution should be used to avoid anexcessive nose high and tail low attitude below10 feet. At this point, if a full touchdown landingis to be made, allow the helicopter to descendvertically. Apply collective pitch, as necessary, tocheck the descent and cushion the landing.Additional antitorque pedal is required tomaintain heading as collective pitch is raised dueto the reduction in rotor r.p.m. and the resultingreduced effect of the tail rotor. Touch down in alevel flight attitude.

NOTE: A power recovery can be made during train-ing in lieu of a full touchdown landing. (Refer to thesection on power recoveries for the correct tech-nique.)

• After touchdown and after the helicopter hascome to a complete stop, lower the collectivepitch to the full-down position. Do not try to stop

SECTION F—EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

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the forward ground run with aft cyclic becausethe main rotor blades can strike the tail boom.Rather, by lowering the collective slightly duringthe ground run, more weight is placed on theundercarriage, slowing the helicopter down.

• Do not hesitate to initiate a go-around if eitheryou or your student is uncomfortable with theautorotation.

• Establish minimum requirements for rotor r.p.m.,airspeed, and trim conditions.

POWER RECOVERY FROM PRACTICEAUTOROTATIONA power recovery is used to terminate practiceautorotations at a point prior to actual touchdown. Afterthe power recovery, a landing can be made or ago-around initiated.

FOCUS POINTS

• At approximately 8 to 15 feet above the ground,depending upon the helicopter being used, beginusing forward cyclic control to level thehelicopter. Avoid excessive nose high, tail lowattitude below 10 feet. Just prior to achievinglevel attitude, with the nose still slightly up,coordinate upward collective pitch control withan increase in the throttle to join the needles atoperating r.p.m. The throttle and collective pitchmust be coordinated properly. If the throttle isincreased too much or too fast, an engineoverspeed can occur; if throttle is increased toolittle or too slowly in proportion to the increase incollective pitch, a loss of rotor r.p.m. results. Usesufficient collective pitch to stop the descent andcoordinate proper antitorque pedal pressure tomaintain heading. If a landing is to be madefollowing the power recovery, bring thehelicopter to hover at normal hovering altitude.

• If a go-around is to be made, the cyclic controlshould be moved forward to resume forward flight.In transitioning from a practice autorotation to ago-around, exercise care to avoid an altitude-airspeed combination that would place thehelicopter in an unsafe area of the height/velocitydiagram for that particular helicopter.

AUTOROTATIONS WITH TURNSA turn, or a series of turns, can be made during anautorotation in order to land into the wind or avoidobstacles. The turn is usually made early so that theremainder of the autorotation is the same as a straight-in autorotation. The most common types are 90° and180° autorotations. The technique below describes a180° autorotation.

FOCUS POINTS

• Establish the aircraft on downwind atrecommended airspeed at 700 feet AGL, parallelthe touchdown area. In a no wind or headwindcondition, set the ground track approximately 200feet away from the touchdown point. If a strongcrosswind exists, it will be necessary to move thedownwind leg 50 feet closer or farther out. Whenabeam the intended touchdown point, reducecollective and split the needles. Apply properantitorque pedal and cyclic to maintain properattitude. Cross check attitude, trim, rotor r.p.m.,and airspeed.

• After the descent and airspeed are established,roll into a 180° turn. For training, initially rollinto a bank of at least 30°, but no more than 40°.Check the airspeed and rotor r.p.m. It is importantto maintain the proper airspeed and to keep theaircraft in trim throughout the turn. Changes inthe aircraft’s attitude and the angle of bank causea corresponding change in rotor r.p.m. Adjust thecollective as necessary in the turn to maintainrotor r.p.m. in the green arc.

• At the 90° point, check the progress of the turn byglancing toward the landing spot. Plan the second90 degrees of turn to roll out on the centerline. Iftoo close, decrease the bank angle; if too far out,increase the bank angle. Keep the helicopter intrim with antitorque pedals.

• The turn should be completed and the helicopteraligned with the intended touchdown area priorto passing through 100 feet AGL. If the collectivepitch was increased to control the r.p.m., it mayneed to be lowered on rollout to prevent a decayin r.p.m. Make an immediate power recovery ifthe aircraft is not aligned with the touchdownpoint, or if the rotor r.p.m. and/or airspeed are notwithin proper limits.

• From this point, complete the procedure as if itwere a straight-in autorotation.

COMMON STUDENT DIFFICULTIES INAUTOROTATIONS

ESTABLISHING DESCENTThe desired reaction is an immediate positive butsmooth reduction in collective while maintaining pitchattitude. Slamming the collective down could result inreduced G-forces with a corresponding loss of cyclicpitch control. On the other hand, a hesitation inlowering the collective can cause an undue loss of rotorr.p.m. It is important to establish the correct attitudeearly so the appropriate airspeed can be attained. It is a

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common error for the student to hold the nose up andbleed off airspeed once collective has been lowered.Sometimes the student overcompensates and lowersthe nose too much, resulting in a dive with a high rateof descent to the ground.

SELECTING A LANDING SPOTThe cardinal rule in any emergency is to “fly thehelicopter.” In the process of getting the collectivedown and checking rotor r.p.m., the task of looking fora suitable landing spot may be neglected. The studentalso may be indecisive regarding the best of two orthree available landing sites. Emphasize that once thehelicopter is started toward a spot, the decision hasbeen made. Generally, it is poor practice to change theselection enroute, however, small changes to avoidobstructions can be made. When the landing site hasbeen selected, sound judgment of the pattern, suitablegliding speed under existing wind conditions, andavailable maneuvering altitude are essential. Thestudent must thoroughly understand the effects of windon the approach pattern, as well as the airspeedsappropriate to the desired performance. These factorsare outlined in the performance section of the flightmanual and must be studied and reviewed frequently.

RPMThe student also must understand the factors that canaffect rotor r.p.m. during the autorotative descent. If thehelicopter seems to be falling short of the landing spot,there is a tendency to raise the collective. This lowersthe r.p.m. and actually reduces the gliding distance. Ina tight turn, however, it may be necessary to raise thecollective to prevent exceeding allowable r.p.m.Frequent monitoring of the r.p.m. during the descent isthe only way to avoid exceeding the r.p.m. limits.

FLAREPractice is required for the student to become familiarwith the various options in the recovery techniques andwhen to initiate them. The flare serves two purposes: itslows both the rate of descent and forward speed.Judging when to start the flare is one of the moredifficult tasks since it usually is started too high or toolow. If students are having difficulty, have them initiatea very gentle flare a little early and then increase theflare as they get closer to the ground. This slows downthe flare process and shows the required control input.Pay close attention to the r.p.m. as it builds rapidly inthe flare, and collective may need to be increased tomaintain r.p.m. limits. Emphasize from the start that itis vital for the helicopter to be level at the completionof the recovery.

POWER RECOVERYControl coordination presents the greatest challenge toa student during the power recovery. Throttle must beincreased slowly to smoothly synchronize the engine

and rotor. The throttle must be adjusted to maintainr.p.m., while antitorque pedal corrections are made tomaintain heading. Simultaneously, pitch attitude mustbe corrected to transition from the flare to a level land-ing attitude. Repeated practice is required to developthe control coordination required to make a smoothpower recovery.

TOUCHDOWNIf your school allows full touchdown autorotations,remember the major difficulties associated with thetouchdown include timely application of collectivepitch and the urge to hold the helicopter off the groundwith aft cyclic. The student must understand thehelicopter is going to land within a very short time aftercollective is increased because rotor inertia dissipatesquite rapidly. Therefore, it is necessary to delaycollective application until the helicopter’s forwardspeed has been reduced and its rate of descent slowed.

POWER FAILURE AT A HOVERHovering autorotations are practiced to develop thecoordination required to maintain heading, thencushion the landing following an engine failure at ahover. Following a demonstration, the student shouldinitiate the first hovering autorotations. As proficiencyis gained, the instructor may retard the throttle withoutwarning.

FOCUS POINTS

• To practice hovering autorotations, establish anormal hovering altitude for the particularhelicopter being used, considering its load andthe atmospheric conditions. Keep the helicopterheaded into the wind and hold maximumallowable r.p.m.

• To simulate a power failure, have the studentfirmly roll the throttle into the spring loadedoverride position, if applicable. This disengagesthe driving force of the engine from the rotor,thus eliminating torque effect. As the throttle isclosed, apply proper antitorque pedal to maintainheading. Usually, a slight amount of right cycliccontrol is necessary to keep the helicopter fromdrifting to the left because of the loss of tail rotorthrust. Use cyclic control only as required toensure a vertical descent and a level attitude.Leave the collective pitch where it is on entry.

• In helicopters with low inertia rotor systems, theaircraft begins to settle immediately. Keep a levelattitude and ensure a vertical descent with cycliccontrol while maintaining heading with the anti-torque pedals. At approximately one foot abovethe surface, apply upward collective pitch controlas necessary to slow the descent and cushion the

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landing. Usually the full amount of collectivepitch is required. As upward collective pitchcontrol is applied, the throttle has to be held inthe closed position to prevent the rotorfrom re-engaging.

• In helicopters with high inertia rotor systems, theaircraft maintains altitude momentarily after thethrottle is closed. As the rotor r.p.m. decreases,the helicopter starts to settle. When the helicopterhas settled to approximately one foot above thesurface, apply upward collective pitch controlwhile holding the throttle in the closed position toslow the descent and cushion the landing. Thetiming of this collective pitch control application,and the rate at which it is applied, depends uponthe particular helicopter being used, its grossweight, and the existing atmospheric conditions.Cyclic control is used to maintain a level attitudeand to ensure a vertical descent. Maintainheading with antitorque pedals.

• When the weight of the helicopter is entirely onthe skids, cease the application of upwardcollective. When the helicopter has come to acomplete stop, lower the collective pitch to thefull down position.

• The timing of the collective pitch is veryimportant. If it is applied too soon, the remainingr.p.m. may not be sufficient to make a soft land-ing. On the other hand, if collective pitch controlis applied too late, surface contact may be madebefore sufficient blade pitch is available tocushion the landing.


HEADINGThe sudden loss of power causes a strong turningtendency, which must be corrected immediately byantitorque pedal input. Delayed or inadequate pedalcorrection might result in a heading change that istoo great.

DRIFTThe large pedal change required at the time of powerloss causes a change in drift induced by the tail rotor.This requires a cyclic correction to prevent thehelicopter from drifting.

COLLECTIVEExplain that, because of inertia, the helicopter usuallymaintains altitude momentarily. The collective shouldnot be moved until just before touchdown, at whichtime it should be raised enough to cushion the landing.

EMERGENCY SITUATIONSThere are a few situations unique to helicopteroperations that must be understood if they are to be

avoided. Some of these emergencies may not bedemonstrated, only discussed, because demonstrationwould likely result in damage to the helicopter. Theyare included here to remind you to make sure yourstudents are able to discuss the problems, and how theycan be avoided.

SETTLING WITH POWERBoth private and commercial students must be able toexplain that settling with power can occur as a result ofattempting to descend at too low an airspeed in a down-wind condition, or by attempting to hover out of groundeffect at a weight and density altitude greater than thehelicopter’s performance will allow. Students must alsothoroughly understand that the only way to recoverfrom the condition is to lower the collective and fly outof the downwash. Adding collective while the helicop-ter is descending vertically only aggravates the situa-tion. Settling with power can occur only if the rotor ispowered.

A demonstration of settling with power may berequired of the applicant for a commercial helicopterrating. The private pilot applicant may only be requiredto discuss recognition and avoidance, but should have ademonstration of settling with power to betterunderstand its effects. The demonstration should beginfrom an altitude high enough above the ground to allowroom for a safe recovery. When simulating an attemptto hover out of ground effect, the airspeed is graduallyslowed and power is added to maintain altitude. Caremust be taken to avoid any rearward speed. If thehelicopter can hover out of ground effect, it may benecessary to reduce power to begin settling, then addpower to increase rotor downwash. As soon as theeffects of settling with power are noticeable, recoveryshould be initiated. The noticeable effects arevibration, reduced control effectiveness, and a high rateof descent. Recovery is accomplished by reducingcollective and lowering the nose to pick up forwardspeed. This moves the helicopter out of its downwashand into translational lift. When the helicopter is wellout of the downwash and forward speed is indicated, aclimb may be started to regain the lost altitude.

RETREATING BLADE STALLRetreating blade stall normally cannot be demonstratedwithout exceeding the VNE or maneuvering limits of thehelicopter. Each student, however, must be able toexplain that the cause of retreating blade stall isexcessive forward speed for the existing circumstances.The manufacturer’s recommended VNE providesprotection for normal situations. However, if thehelicopter is heavily loaded and then flown intoturbulence at or near VNE, or if it is maneuveredabruptly, retreating blade stall can occur. The studentmust understand that the procedure for recovery fromretreating blade stall is to lower the collective, increase

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r.p.m., if possible, and reduce speed. If correctiveaction is introduced at the first vibration indicatingretreating blade stall, there should be very little effect.If the blade stall is allowed to progress to the point thatthe helicopter pitches up and rolls, trying to stop thepitch and roll with cyclic inputs only aggravates thesituation. Allowing the helicopter to pitch up reducesspeed and alleviates the blade stall condition. Rollcontrol is then effective. The best way to preventstudents from encountering retreating blade stall is toinstill in them the practice of flying at airspeeds belowVNE. The margin should be increased if turbulenceis encountered.

GROUND RESONANCEA student should be able to explain which type of rotorsystems are susceptible to ground resonance, thefactors that tend to cause it, and the means to avoid it orrecover from it if it does occur. It should be understoodthat if the helicopter is allowed to touch down in otherthan a level attitude so a pitching or rolling motion isinduced, the rotor blades might be forced out of theirnormal phase relationship. This causes an out-of-balance condition, which makes the helicopter lurch tothe side. The skid on the other side contacts the groundand the rotor blades are forced farther out of balance.The opposite skid then contacts the ground moreviolently and an uncontrollable oscillation develops.Since the skids contacting the ground cause the rotor tobecome unbalanced, the obvious means for fixing thesituation is to lift the helicopter free of the ground andallow the blades to assume a balanced condition. Ifr.p.m. is too low for flight, the next best correctiveaction is to lower the collective to place the blades inlow pitch.

DYNAMIC ROLLOVERAnother potentially hazardous situation peculiar tohelicopter operation is termed “dynamic rollover.” Astudent must be able to explain that for dynamicrollover to occur, some factor has to first cause thehelicopter to roll or pivot around a skid, or landing gearwheel, until its critical rollover angle is reached.Beyond this point, main rotor thrust continues the rolland recovery is impossible, regardless of any cycliccorrections made.

A number of factors could cause a helicopter to pivotaround its skid or wheel, including the failure toremove a tiedown, contacting an obstruction whilehovering sideways, or if the gear gets stuck in ice, softasphalt, or mud. Dynamic rollover may also occur if apoor landing or takeoff technique is used whileperforming slope operations.

SYSTEMS OR EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONSDuring briefing and debriefing sessions, studentsshould be questioned to determine their familiarity withthe symptoms and the corrective actions required inresponse to systems or equipment malfunction. Flightmanual recommendations should be followed in eachcase.

During flight training, you should periodicallyannounce a malfunction, such as an electrical problemor engine problem, and ask the student to define thecourse of action to take. Routine checks, such ascovering an engine instrument then asking the studentwhat the gauge reads, can improve the student’sawareness and scan habit.

ANTITORQUE SYSTEM FAILUREAntitorque failures usually fall into two categories.One focuses on failure of the power drive portion of thetail rotor system resulting in a complete loss ofantitorque. The other category covers mechanicalcontrol failures where the pilot is unable to change orcontrol tail rotor thrust even though the tail rotor maystill be providing antitorque thrust.

Tail rotor drive system failures include driveshaftfailures, tail rotor gearbox failures, or a complete lossof the tail rotor itself. In any of these cases, the loss ofantitorque normally results in an immediate yawing ofthe helicopter’s nose. The helicopter yaws to the rightin a counterclockwise rotor system and to the left in aclockwise system. This discussion assumes ahelicopter with a counterclockwise rotor system. Theseverity of the yaw is proportional to the amount ofpower being used and the helicopter’s airspeed. Anantitorque failure with a high power setting at a lowairspeed results in a severe yawing to the right. At lowpower settings and high airspeeds, the yaw is lesssevere. High airspeeds tend to streamline the helicopterand keep it from spinning.

If a tail rotor failure occurs, power has to be reduced inorder to reduce main rotor torque. The techniquesdiffer depending on whether the helicopter is in flightor in a hover, but will ultimately require anautorotation. If a complete tail rotor failure occurswhile hovering, enter a hovering autorotation by rollingoff the throttle. If the failure occurs in forward flight,enter a normal autorotation by lowering the collectiveand rolling off the throttle. If the helicopter has enoughforward airspeed (close to cruising speed) when thefailure occurs, and depending on the helicopter design,the horizontal stabilizer may provide enoughdirectional control to allow it to be maneuvered to amore desirable landing sight. Some of the yaw may becompensated for by applying slight cyclic controlopposite the direction of yaw. This helps in directional

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control, but also increases drag. Care must be taken notto lose too much forward airspeed because thestreamlining effect diminishes as airspeed is reduced.Also, more altitude is required to accelerate to thecorrect airspeed if an autorotation is entered into at alow airspeed.

A mechanical control failure limits or prevents controlof tail rotor thrust and is usually caused by a stuck orbroken control rod or cable. While the tail rotor is stillproducing antitorque thrust, it cannot be controlled bythe pilot. The amount of antitorque depends on theposition where the controls jam or fail. Once again, thetechniques differ depending on the amount of tail rotorthrust, but an autorotation is generally not required.

Simulated tail rotor failures should be given to thestudent to help gain proficiency and confidence.During flight, simulated tail rotor thrust failures shouldbe performed at a high enough altitude to allow timefor the student to enter a safe autorotation. A simulatedtail rotor thrust failure, while hovering, requiresadequate space to allow the helicopter to turn beforethe student recognizes and reacts to the maneuver.

To practice a mechanical control failure you can moveand hold the pedals to a position that represents a stuckleft, neutral, or right pedal. Then have your studentperform an approach to a suitable landing spot. As withan autorotation, recovery needs to be made with fulluse of the controls.

FOCUS POINTS

• If a complete loss of antitorque occurs, anautorotation is required.

• Most stuck pedal situations can be flown to asuitable landing site.

GOVERNOR FAILURESMost training helicopters and all turbine-poweredhelicopters are equipped with engine governors. It isvaluable training for the student to learn how tomanually control the throttle in the event of a governorfailure. In some helicopters, the governor can be safelyturned off for training purposes. Consult the RotorcraftFlight Manual for correct procedure and techniques.

RECOVERY FROM LOW ROTOR RPMBefore the student is allowed to solo, the technique forrecovery from low rotor r.p.m., in both a hover and inflight, must be practiced. While in a hover, rotor r.p.m.is reduced until the throttle alone will not increase ther.p.m. The student should then take the controls andattempt to recover r.p.m. by lowering the collective justenough to allow the helicopter to settle gently towardthe ground while increasing the throttle. The objective

is to regain r.p.m. without allowing the helicopter totouch down. To prevent touchdown, the collectiveshould be raised slightly to stop the rate of descent.Practicing this maneuver also graphically demonstratesto the student the fact that, if rotor speed is lost to thepoint where the helicopter begins to settle, collectivepitch alone should not be increased in an attempt tomaintain altitude. While in flight, r.p.m. may beregained by lowering the collective slightly andincreasing the r.p.m. Aft cyclic while lowering thecollective may also help increase rotor r.p.m., but isusually not required unless the r.p.m. is critically low.

FOCUS POINTS

• Under certain conditions of high weight, hightemperature, or high density altitude, a situationmight exist in which the r.p.m. is low even thoughmaximum throttle is being used. This is usuallythe result of the main rotor blades having an angleof attack that creates so much drag that enginepower is not sufficient to maintain or attainnormal operating r.p.m.

• In a low r.p.m. situation, the lifting power of themain rotor blades can be greatly diminished.Therefore, as soon as a low r.p.m. condition isdetected, immediately apply additional throttle, ifavailable, while slightly lowering the collective.This reduces main rotor pitch and drag. Undertraining conditions, make sure the skids do notcontact the ground. However, in an actualsituation where the engine did not have sufficientpower to accelerate the rotor, smoothly lower thehelicopter to the ground, if conditions permit.Once on the ground, the collective can belowered a little more to regain r.p.m. Do not try tomaintain a hover by raising the collective whenthe r.p.m is too low and the throttle is wide open.

• As the helicopter begins to settle, smoothly raisethe collective to stop the descent. At hoveringaltitude, this procedure might have to be repeatedseveral times to regain normal operating r.p.m.This technique is called “milking the collective.”

• When operating at altitude, the collective mayhave to be lowered only once to regain rotorspeed. The amount the collective can be lowereddepends on altitude.

• Since the tail rotor is geared to the main rotor, lowmain rotor r.p.m. may prevent the tail rotor fromproducing enough thrust to maintain directionalcontrol. If pedal control is lost and the altitude islow enough that a landing can be accomplishedbefore the turning rate increases dangerously,

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slowly decrease collective pitch, maintain a levelattitude with cyclic control, and land.


OVERCONTROLLINGIn an attempt to recover the lost r.p.m. quickly, the stu-dent might lower the collective too far. Then, in anattempt to stop a rapid rate of descent, the studentmight raise the collective farther than its initialposition, resulting in further loss of r.p.m. If correctiveaction is initiated soon enough, it may only be

necessary to allow the helicopter to settle into increasedground effect while the throttle is increased.

HEADINGIt is possible to reduce r.p.m. so low that the tail rotorcan no longer produce sufficient thrust tocounteract engine and main rotor torque. It should bedemonstrated that in a helicopter with acounterclockwise main rotor blade rotation, a leftcrosswind could be beneficial. Therefore, if there is anywind blowing, allowing the nose of the helicopter toturn gently to the right as it settles makes it easier toregain r.p.m., and the left crosswind helps offset torque.

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This chapter provides the necessary questions and subject areas for both the student pilot pre-solo briefing andwritten exam, as well as the private, commercial, and flight instructor practical tests. The general questions in thefirst section are applicable to all pilots. Those questions specifically for student pilots, private pilots, commercialpilots, or flight instructors are under separate subheadings. Answers that are not of a local nature, such as thespecifics of the helicopter being flown or local airspace, are provided for many of the questions. An FAA referenceis also included where appropriate. The regulations referenced in this chapter are from Title 14 of the Code ofFederal Regulations (14 CFR).

This section contains questions that are applicable toall students. The areas covered are certificates anddocuments, weather, airspace, sectionals, performance,weight and balance, systems, aeromedical factors,airport and heliport operations, emergencies, nightoperations, aerodynamics, and regulations.

CERTIFICATES AND DOCUMENTS

1. What must be logged in the pilot logbook?

Section 61.51 requires a pilot to log the following:

1. The minimum time required for a certificateor rating,

2. The recency of experience requirements,

3. The flight review.

2. What are the recency of experience requirements apilot must meet to act as a pilot in command of ahelicopter carrying passengers during the day, aswell as at night?

Day: 3 takeoffs and landings as the solemanipulator of the flight controls within the pre-ceding 90 days in the same category and class (andtype, if type rating is required).

Night: 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop withinthe preceding 90 days as the sole manipulator ofthe flight controls in the same category and class ofaircraft during the period 1 hour after sunset to 1hour before sunrise. [61.57]

SECTION A—GENERAL QUESTIONS3 At what time of day may a pilot begin logging night

flight time?

At the end of evening civil twilight, as published inthe American Air Almanac. [1.1, 61.57]

4. When is a flight review required and who cangive it?

To act as pilot in command, a pilot must have aflight review every 24 calendar months that isadministered by any appropriately rated flightinstructor. Alternate ways of satisfying the recentexperience requirements are listed in section 61.56.

5. If a second class medical certificate was issued onthe first of November, what is its expirationdate for:

A. a commercial pilot?B. a private pilot, 40 or over?C. a private pilot, under 40?D. a student pilot, 40 or over?E. a student pilot, under 40?F. an airline transport pilot?

A. 11/30; 1 year later.B. 11/30; 2 years later.C. 11/30; 3 years later.D. 11/30; 2 years later.E. 11/30; 3 years later.F. Does not apply since an airline transport pilotmust have a first class medical certificate toperform the duties of an ATP. A first classmedical certificate expires at the end of the 6thmonth after the date of issuance. [61.23]

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6. Under which category is this helicoptercertificated?

The aircraft category is included on theairworthiness certificate. For aircraft certification,category relates to the intended use of an aircraftand sets strict limits on its operation. Forhelicopters, the two categories are normal andtransport. Transport is further broken down intotwo sub-categories. Category A transporthelicopters have two or more engines and arecapable of maintaining continued safe flight in theevent of an engine failure. Category B helicoptershave multi-engines or a single-engine but do nothave guaranteed stay-up ability. In other words, ifan engine failure occurs an unscheduled landing isassumed. Most small helicopters fall under thenormal category.

7. What documents must be on board the aircraftbefore operation? Where are they normallylocated?

These documents must be available in the aircraftat all times, and are usually located in the cabin:

A—An airworthiness certificate, which is leg-ible and visible to the pilot and passengers(must be signed in ink).

R—The registration certificate issued to theowner.

O—Operating limitations for that helicopter,which may be in the form of an FAAapproved rotorcraft flight manual, placards,or markings.

W—The current weight and balance data forthat helicopter.

Some helicopters, specifically those used incommercial operations, may require a mini-mum equipment list (MEL).

8. List the minimum equipment and instruments thatmust be installed and in operable condition in thishelicopter for day VFR flight.

A helicopter with a carburetor, air-cooled enginerequires an airspeed indicator, altimeter, magneticdirection indicator, tachometer for each engine, oilpressure gauge, oil temperature gauge, and a fuelgauge for each tank. Additional minimum equip-ment also includes safety belts and shoulderharnesses as specified in the regulations. [91.205]

Some instructors use the acronym SOFA TACOS(safety belts, oil pressure gauge, fuel gauge,altimeter, tachometer, airspeed indicator, compass,oil temperature gauge, and shoulder harness).

9. What equipment, in addition to that required forflight during the day, must be installed foroperations at night?

For night VFR, in addition to the equipment for dayVFR, a helicopter must have position lights,anticollision lights, electric landing light (ifoperated for hire), an adequate source of electricalenergy, and a spare set of fuses that are accessibleto the pilot in flight. [91.205, 91.209]

10. Must the engine and airframe logbooks be carriedon board the helicopter?

No, but they must be made available upon requestby the administration or an authorized NTSBrepresentative. [91.417]

11. Which aircraft require an annual inspection? Howoften are they due?

All aircraft, operating under part 91, require anannual inspection. There are some exceptions,which mainly relate to special flight permits andexperimental aircraft. Commercial operatorsunder parts 121 and 135 have different regulationsand do not require an annual inspection. Annualinspections are due by the last day of the 12th cal-endar month since the previous annual inspection.There is no grace period, however, an aircraft outof annual can be ferried to a maintenance facilityby obtaining a special flight permit (ferry permit).[91.409]

12. If the engine logbook does not reflect a currentannual inspection but the aircraft logbook does, isthe helicopter legal for operation?

If the aircraft logbook shows the “aircraft” has acurrent annual, then the aircraft is legal foroperation since “aircraft” includes the engine. If itonly shows a current “airframe” inspection, it isnot.

13. When is a 100-hour inspection required?

A 100-hour inspection is required for any aircraftoperated for hire. This includes carrying personsor property for hire or giving flight instruction forhire in an aircraft that you provide. This can beexceeded by 10 hours flight time to get the aircraftto a place where the inspection can be performed.However, the excess time used to reach a placewhere the inspection can be done must be includedin computing the next 100 hours of time in service.An aircraft is operated for hire anytime the aircraftand crew are provided together. [91.409]

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14. If the helicopter has a transponder, how often doesit need to be inspected?

Within 24 calendar months since the previousinspection. [91.413]

15. If a helicopter is equipped with a transponder andthe aircraft logbook indicates the inspection hasexpired, can the transponder still be used?

No, section 91.413 prohibits use of a transponderwhen the inspection time period has expired. Atransponder waiver may be requested to operatethe helicopter, but the transponder must beturned off.

16. Describe the items you can use to determine theoperating limitations of the aircraft.

Approved rotorcraft flight manual and/or the appli-cable pilot’s operating handbook (POH), placards,markings, or any combination of these. [91.9]

17. What is an airworthiness directive (AD)?

It is a regulatory notice that is sent out by the FAAto the registered owners of aircraft informing themof the discovery of a condition that keeps theiraircraft from continuing to meet the conditions forairworthiness. Airworthiness Directives must becomplied with within the required time limit, andthe fact of compliance, the date of compliance, andthe method of compliance must be recorded in theaircraft maintenance records.

WEATHER INFORMATION

1. How can a pilot obtain weather reports and fore-casts? Where does a pilot find a listing of appropri-ate telephone numbers?

FSS and NWS telephone briefing numbers arelisted in the Airport/Facility Directory and in tele-phone directories under the U.S. Government list-ings. 1-800-WX-BRIEF is usually availableanywhere in the US. Other sources include DUATSand TEL-TWEB. [AIM]

2. What are SIGMETS and AIRMETS?

SIGMETS are issued any time hazardous weather isconsidered significant for all aircraft. They usuallyinclude severe or extreme turbulence, severe icing,dust storms, sand storms or volcanic ash thatreduce visibilities less than three miles, andvolcanic eruptions. Convective SIGMETs cover anysignificant weather associated with thunderstorms.

AIRMETS are issued on a scheduled basis and areusually significant for smaller aircraft. AIRMETSinclude moderate icing, moderate turbulence,sustained surface wind speeds of 30 knots or more,mountain obscuration, and widespread areas ofIFR conditions.

3. What is a PIREP?

A PIREP is a pilot report of weather conditionsencountered in flight. These real-time reportsconfirm the existence of conditions that may or maynot be forecast, including cloud tops, icing, andturbulence. [AIM, AC 00-45]

4. How can a pilot update weather reports andforecasts during flight?

Enroute flight advisory service (EFAS) can befound on 122.0 up to 17,500 feet MSL. TWEB isavailable over selected VORs and/or NDBs.HIWAS is also available on selected VORs. [AIM]

5. If the destination does not issue a TerminalForecast (TAF), how can the forecast weather atthe ETA be determined?

For a flight under VFR, use an area forecast orterminal forecasts for nearby airports.

6. Explain what weather product could be used toobtain the most current weather condition at thedestination.

Besides a call to the airport, the most currentweather can be obtained from an aviation routineweather observation (METAR). If not available atthe destination, use the METARs for nearbyairports. This allows a pilot to compare the actualwith the forecast conditions reported in theterminal aerodrome forecast (TAF). [AC 00-45]

7. Explain how to read METAR, TAF, and FD reports.

Use computer generated reports, and have studentexplain each area. [AC 00-45]

NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM ANDCHARTS

AIRSPACE

1. What is the difference between controlled anduncontrolled airspace for VFR operations?

Besides being areas where ATC does or does notexercise control, the main difference between con-trolled and uncontrolled airspace is the basic VFRweather minimums, which are higher in controlledairspace compared to those in uncontrolled

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airspace. Communication with ATC is onlyrequired in certain classifications of controlledairspace. There are also aircraft equipmentrequirements to operate in some classifications ofcontrolled airspace.

2. What are the minimum visibility and cloud clearance requirements (basic VFR weather minimums) for VFRhelicopter flight in both controlled and uncontrolled airspace (all classes of airspace)?

Airspace Flight Visibility NotesDistance from clouds

Class A (Controlled)

Class B (Controlled)

Class C and D (Controlled)

Class E (Controlled)Less than 10,000 ft. MSL

Class G (Uncontrolled)1,200 ft. or less AGL(regardless of MSL altitude)

More than 1,200 ft. AGL but less than 10,000 ft.MSL

More than 1,200 ft. AGL but at or above 10,000 ft.MSL

At or above 10,000 ft. MSL

3 statute miles

3 statute miles

5 statute miles

Day and night:5 statute miles

No Minimum visibiltyrequirement, but mustoperate at a speed that

allows adequate opportunity to see and

avoid traffic andobstructions

Night weatherminimums are thesame as controlledairspace weather

minimums

500 feet below1,000 feet above

2,000 feet horizontal



Day: 1 statute mileNight: 3 statute miles



1,000 feet below1,000 feet above

1 statute mile horizontal

1,000 feet below1,000 feet above

1 statute mile horizontal

3 statute miles Clear of clouds

Clear of clouds

All aircraft operateIFR

NA NA

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CLASS A

1. Describe the boundaries of Class A airspace.

Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL upto and including FL 600 within the contiguousUnited States. [AIM]

2. What are the pilot and equipment requirements tofly in Class A airspace?

A pilot must have an instrument rating, be current,and operate on an IFR clearance. The aircraft mustbe equipped for IFR, including a radio and appro-priate navigation equipment. [91.135, 91.171,91.203, 91.205, 91.215]

CLASS B

1. Where is Class B airspace most likely to be found?What are its dimensions?

Class B airspace surrounds some of the country’sbusiest airports and is used to separate all arrivingand departing traffic. The boundaries of eachClass B airspace are unique as they are designedaround a particular terminal. Each Class Bairspace has a VFR Terminal Chart depictingboundaries, ATC frequencies, landmarks, andother pertinent information. [AIM]

2. What are the equipment and procedural require-ments to operate within Class B airspace?

The helicopter must have a two-way radio and atransponder with Mode C. If IFR, a VOR receiveris also needed. A pilot must have ATC clearanceprior to entering unless in a VFR corridor.[91.131]

3. A pilot has called ATC just prior to entering theClass B airspace, and the controller tells him/herto, “Squawk 2466 and ident.” Is the pilot nowallowed to enter the Class B airspace without anyfurther instructions? Explain.

No. Appropriate authorization from ATC must bereceived prior to entering Class B airspace.Establishing contact does not mean a pilot has aclearance to enter. Generally, ATC will say,“…cleared into Class B…” when authorized toenter. [91.131]

CLASS C

1.What are the dimensions of Class C airspace?

Class C airspace consists of two circles ofairspace, both centered on the primary airport. Theinner circle begins at the surface and has a 5 n.m.radius from the center of the airport. The outercircle begins at 1,200 feet AGL and has a radius of10 n.m. Both circles have an upper limit of 4,000feet above the airport elevation. There is an outerarea, which is not depicted on the chart, that beginsat the 10 n.m. radius and extends to a 20 n.m.radius. The outer area extends from the lowerlimits of radar/radio coverage up to the ceiling ofthe approach control’s airspace. In the outer area,participation in the radar service is not mandatory,however, it is recommended. [AIM]

2. What are the equipment and proceduralrequirements to operate within Class C airspace?

Aircraft must have a two-way radio andtransponder with Mode C. A pilot must establishradio contact before operating in the inner (5 n.m.radius) core surface area or the outer (10 n.m.radius) shelf area. [AIM]

3. A pilot has called ATC prior to entering Class Cairspace, and the controller responds with his/hercall sign and says “Standby.” Is he/she nowallowed to enter this airspace without any furtherinstructions? Explain.

Yes. Communications have been established if thecontroller responds to the radio call with,“(aircraft call sign) standby.” If the controllerresponds to the initial radio call without using theaircraft call sign, communications have not beenestablished and the pilot should not enter the ClassC airspace. [91.130]

CLASS D

1. What are the typical dimensions of Class Dairspace? What requirement(s) must be met priorto entry?

Typically, Class D airspace extends from thesurface up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. Thelateral dimensions are depicted on sectional chartsas blue dashed lines. Two-way radio communica-tions with the control tower must be establishedand maintained within Class D airspace. [91.129]

2. Can ground reference maneuvers be practicedwithin Class D airspace? Explain.

No. Unless otherwise authorized or required byATC, no person may operate an aircraft withinClass D airspace except for the purpose of landingor taking off from an airport within that area.[91.129]

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CLASS E

1. What is Class E airspace?

Class E airspace is general controlled airspace. Itconsists of all the airspace from 14,500 feet MSLup to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL.However, it does not include the airspace within1,500 feet AGL or restricted and prohibited areas.Class E airspace below 14,500 feet MSL isdepicted on sectional charts and may begin at thesurface, 700 feet AGL, 1,200 feet AGL, or asspecified on the chart.

2. Referring to a sectional chart, how is Class Eairspace, which begins at the surface, identified?

The surface area of Class E airspace is depicted bya dashed magenta line on the chart.

3. What are the requirements to fly VFR in ClassE airspace?

There are no communication requirements to fly inClass E airspace. For VFR flight, VFR weatherminimums must be adhered to.

4. What is the purpose of Class E airspace?

Under VMC, class E airspace serves little purpose.However, it provides air traffic control for IFRtraffic. It provides controlled airspace to containstandard instrument approach procedures withoutimposing a communications requirement on pilotsoperating under VFR.

SPECIAL VFR

1. What is a surface area? What are the VFR weatherminimums in a surface area?

A surface area is controlled airspace starting at thesurface, which is usually around the primaryairport within that airspace. This includes thesurface areas of Class B, C, D, and E airspace. ForVFR flight, the ceiling must be 1,000 feet or greaterand visibility at least 3 s.m.

2. What is a special VFR clearance? Can it berequested at night? What visibility and cloudclearances apply?

It allows a pilot to operate within the lateralboundaries of the surface areas of controlledairspace designated for an airport when theweather is less than basic VFR. A helicopter pilotcan request special VFR day or night as long asthere is adequate forward visibility and thehelicopter can remain clear of clouds. [91.155]

CLASS G

1. What is Class G airspace?

Class G airspace is general uncontrolled airspace.It consists of all other airspace from the surface upto, but not including, 14,500 feet MSL that is notClass B, C, D, or E. [AIM]

2. What are the requirements to fly VFR in Class Gairspace?

There are no communication requirements to fly inClass G airspace. Different weather minimumsapply to different altitudes. [AIM] [91.126]

OTHER AIRSPACE

1. Explain the limitations when operating within thefollowing areas: prohibited, restricted, warning,alert, and MOA.

Prohibited: No flights are permitted, althoughsome exceptions may apply. [73.83] [91.133][AIM]

Restricted: Authorization from the using orcontrolling agency is required. [73.13] [91.133][AIM]

Warning: Pilots are not restricted, but operate attheir own risk. [AIM]

Alert/MOA: Pilots are not restricted, but they areresponsible for collision avoidance and shouldcontact ATC or flight service for advisories. [AIM]

Controlled Firing Area (CFA): Contains activitiesthat could be hazardous to nonparticipatingaircraft. No restrictions are imposed. CFAs are notcharted, however, all other special use airspaceareas are charted. [91.133, AIM]

2. How can it be determined when the control toweris in operation at part-time locations?

The hours are listed on sectional charts and in theAirport/Facility Directory.

3. What is an airport advisory area? How can it bedetermined where one exists?

It is the airspace within 10 s.m. of an airportwithout a tower, or where the tower is closed, andon which a nonautomated FSS is located. Theservice, called local airport advisory, is providedon a common traffic advisory frequency that ispublished in appropriate aeronauticalpublications. [AIM]

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4. Explain what operations require a Mode Ctransponder.

Within 30 n.m. of the primary airport of a Class Bairspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL. Thisarea also includes the Class B airspace itself.

Within Class C airspace and above the laterallimits up to 10,000 feet MSL.

At or above 10,000 feet MSL when operating above2,500 feet AGL.

Within 10 miles of certain designated airports,excluding airspace outside Class D and below1,200 feet AGL. [AIM]

CHARTS

You, or the student, should provide a sectional chart ofyour local area to answer the following questions.

1. Provide at least 10 different items of informationpertaining to a controlled airport. Use providedchart to determine this information.

2. What basic restriction affects VOR signalreception?

VOR signals travel by line-of-sight. They can beinterrupted by obstacles or terrain, especially if theflight altitude is too low. [AIM]

3. What does the flag on a chart indicate?

Visual checkpoint. [Chart Legend]

4. What does a small square in the lower right cornerof a VORTAC facility box indicate?

HIWAS on the navaid frequency. [Chart Legend]

5. What frequency can be used to obtain an airportadvisory at an uncontrolled airport?

Use the designated CTAF frequency. [AIM]

6. What other frequencies can be used tocommunicate with the FSS?

The sectional chart legend states that 122.2 and121.5 are normally available at all FSSs and arenot shown. Other frequencies are shown above thecommunication boxes. Where an FSS is located atthe airport, the local airport advisory frequency isusually 123.6. [Chart Legend]

7. How are VORs, VORTACs, and VOR/DMEs iden-tified on a sectional chart?

See the Chart Legend.

8. Are VOR radials aligned to magnetic or true north?

Magnetic north.

9. Locate an example of each of the following typesof airspace and explain its lateral and vertical lim-its, as well as its significance to a VFR flight.

A. Class D

Lateral limits vary, but the vertical limit is typically2,500 feet AGL, unless otherwise indicated.Contact must be made with the control tower priorto entry and radio contact must be maintainedwithin the Class D airspace. The VFR weatherminimums should be as specified in Part 91.155.[91.129]

B. Class E

Limits vary. Even though radio contact is notrequired, IFR traffic may be operating in Class Eairspace. Controlled airspace weather minimumsapply. [AIM Glossary]

C. Uncontrolled airspace (Class G)

Overlying controlled airspace may be 700 or 1,200feet AGL, 14,500 feet MSL, or otherwise indicated.Lower cloud clearance and visibility minimums areallowed, and there is no air traffic control. [AIMGlossary]

D. Restricted airspace

Dimensions are as shown on aeronautical charts.Permission must be obtained to fly through arestricted area. [AIM]

E. Military operations area (MOA)

Dimensions are as shown on aeronautical charts.VFR operations are not prohibited, but extremecaution should be exercised while flying within anactive MOA. Since the status of activity in an MOAmay change frequently, contact any FSS within 100miles of the area to obtain accurate real-timeinformation concerning the MOA hours of opera-tions. Prior to entering an active MOA, contact thecontrolling agency for traffic advisories. [AIM]

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F. Military training route (MTR)

MTRs are normally established below 10,000 feetMSL for operations at speeds in excess of 250knots. However, route segments may be defined athigher altitudes for route continuity. Both VFR(VR) and IFR (IR) routes are included. Routecenterlines are depicted on sectional charts. Widthvaries for each MTR and can extend several mileson either side of the charted MTR centerline. Flightwithin an MTR is not prohibited; however, extremevigilance is recommended for flight through ornear these routes. Contact FSSs within 100 NM ofa particular MTR to obtain current information orroute usage in their vicinity. Available informationincludes times of scheduled activity, altitudes in useon each route segment, and actual routewidth. [AIM]

8. Locate an obstruction on the sectional chart.Immediately adjacent to it are two numbers (one inparentheses). What is the significance of eachnumber?

The upper number is the elevation of the top in feetMSL. The lower number, in parentheses, is theheight AGL. [Chart Legend]

9. Locate a maximum elevation figure (MEF).Explain its significance.

It represents the highest known terrain or obstruc-tion in a quadrangle bounded by ticked lines of lat-itude and longitude. It is rounded up to the next100-foot level and then adjusted upward 100 to 300feet depending on the nature of the terrain orobstacle. [Chart Legend]

10. On a sectional chart, what can be used to determinethe terrain elevation?

Contour lines and spot elevations show terrainelevation. The airport elevation and obstacleelevations can be used indirectly to showterrain elevation.

11. Discuss the different colors associated with anairport beacon and what each represents.

Civilian airports have an alternating green andwhite beacon. Military airports have a split whitebeam between the green flashes. A seaplaneairport has a flashing white and yellow beacon.Heliports alternate between green, yellow, andwhite lights. [AIM]

PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

1. What is the maximum positive G-loading approvedfor this helicopter?

Refer to the POH.

2. What is the VNE at sea level for this helicopter?How is this speed depicted on theairspeed indicator?

Refer to the POH. The never-exceed speed isdepicted by a red radial line. [FAA-H-8083-21]

3. What other airspeed limitations exist forthis helicopter?

Refer to the POH.

4. What are the maximum takeoff and landingweights for this helicopter?

Refer to the POH.

5. Compute the density altitude based on thefollowing conditions.Field elevation………………………4,000 ft.Te m p e r a t u r e … … … … … … … … … … 2 4 ° CAltimeter setting…………………….30.00 in. HgGross weight………………………..1,650 pounds

First find the pressure altitude (PA) by correctingfor the nonstandard pressure. Use the differencebetween 30.00 and 29.92 (equivalent to -80 feet) oruse a conversion chart. From this chart, it is -73feet. Apply -73 to the field elevation to find the PAof 3,927 feet. The computed DA is 5,847. [FAA-H-8083-21]

6. Using the data from the previous question,determine the in-ground effect hover ceiling.

Refer to the POH.

7. Define best angle-of-climb and best rate-of-climbairspeed. What are these airspeeds for thishelicopter?

Best angle-of-climb (VX) is the airspeed thatprovides the greatest gain in altitude for horizontaldistance traveled. In a helicopter, this wouldnaturally be zero. Best rate-of-climb (VY) is theairspeed that gives the greatest gain in altitudeover a period of time. Refer to the POH for the bestrate-of-climb speed. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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8. How can indicated airspeed be converted tocalibrated airspeed? Is this conversion necessaryduring normal operations?

Use the airspeed correction table in the POH. Forsmall training helicopters, the difference betweenCAS and IAS is very small, and the conversion isseldom necessary. [FAA-H-8083-21]

9. Compared to a paved surface, does it take the sameamount, more, or less power to hover on agrass-covered surface?

More power is required to hover over a grass-covered surface.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

1. Define the following terms. What are they forthis helicopter?

A. Basic empty weight

It includes the weight of the standard helicopter,optional equipment, unusable fuel, and fulloperating fluids including full engine oil.[FAA-H-8083-21]

B. Payload

The weight of the passengers, cargo, and baggage.[FAA-H-8083-21]

C. Useful Load

The difference between the gross weight and thebasic empty weight. It includes the flight crew,usable fuel, drainable oil, if applicable,and payload.

D. Gross weight

The sum of basic empty weight and useful load.[FAA-H-8083-21]

E. Reference datum

The reference datum is an imaginary verticalplane, fixed at a point along the longitudinal axisof the helicopter, from which all horizontaldistances are measured for weight and balancepurposes. It may be located at the rotor mast, at thenose of the helicopter, or in front of the helicopter.Refer to the POH and/or the weight and balancerecords for the exact position of the referencedatum. [FAA-H-8083-21]

F. Allowable center of gravity (or moment) range.

Center of gravity (CG) limits, both forward and aft,are established by the manufacturer for eachweight of a helicopter. The computed CG of ahelicopter with a given load must fall betweenthese limits to allow for safe operation.[FAA-H-8083-21]

2. Where can the helicopter’s empty weight andmoment be found? What is the empty weight andmoment for this helicopter?

The empty weight and moment can be found in thehelicopter’s weight and balance records.[FAA-H-8083-21]

3. Is it acceptable to use the empty weight posted inthe pilot’s operating handbook sample problem forweight and balance computations? Explain.

No, because equipment may have been added orremoved. Refer to the helicopter’s weight andbalance records. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. How can it be determined if the weight and balancedata of the helicopter has been changed? How isthe change and the nature of the modificationrecorded?

This information should be available in thehelicopter’s weight and balance records. If datahas been changed, it will be marked “superseded,”along with the effective date of the newinformation. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. Calculate the weight and balance for the helicopteras it will be loaded for the flight test, assuming theexaminer weighs 180 pounds.

Refer to the Current Weight & Balance record forthis helicopter.

6. What flight characteristics may be expected if thehelicopter is loaded with the CG too far forward,too far aft, or out of lateral limits?

A CG too far forward creates an aft cycliccondition that can make autorotations difficult, ifnot impossible. Loading with a CG too far aftforces the cyclic forward, thereby reducing forwardcyclic travel, which results in reduced airspeed. Ifcarrying external loads in a position that requireslarge lateral cyclic control displacement tomaintain level flight, fore and aft cycliceffectiveness could be dramatically limited.[FAA-H-8083-21]

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7. If the weight of an adult passenger is unknown,what should be used for weight and balancecomputations? When should the standard weightsnot be used?

A person of average stature is considered to weigh170 pounds. However, if the helicopter is loadednear a weight and balance limit, or a passenger’sweight is obviously different from the standardweight, use actual weight. [FAA-H-8083-21]

AERODYNAMICS

1. What is the primary purpose of the tail rotorsystem?

The purpose of the tail rotor system is tocounteract the torque produced by the main rotor.[FAA-H-8083-21]

2. What is translating tendency?

Translating tendency causes a hovering helicopterto move laterally in the direction of tail rotorthrust. [FAA-H-8083-21]

3. What is the imaginary circular plane outlined bythe rotor blade tips?

This is the rotor tip path plane. It is used as ahorizontal reference during all phases of flight.[FAA-H-8083-21]

4. Explain ground effect.

When hovering near the ground, a phenomenonknown as ground effect takes place. This effectusually occurs less than one rotor diameter abovethe surface. As the surface friction restricts rotordownwash, the lift vector increases. This allows alower rotor blade angle for the same amount of lift,which reduces induced drag. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. Explain effective translational lift.

Translational lift is present with any horizontalflow of air across the rotor, and is most noticeablewhen the airspeed reaches approximately 16 to 24knots and where the rotor moves out of its ownvortices and into relatively undisturbed air. At thispoint, the airflow is more horizontal, which reducesinduced flow and drag with a correspondingincrease in angle of attack and lift. This excesspower that develops is called “effectivetranslational lift.” [FAA-H-8083-21]

6. What is the relationship of dissymmetry of lift as itrelates to retreating blade stall?

As the helicopter moves through the air, therelative airflow through the main rotor disc isdifferent on the advancing side than on theretreating side. The relative wind encountered bythe advancing blade is increased by the forwardspeed of the helicopter, while the relative windspeed acting on the retreating blade is reduced bythe helicopter’s forward speed. Therefore, as aresult of the relative wind speed, the advancingblade side of the rotor disc produces more lift thanthe retreating blade side. At a high forward speed,the retreating blade stalls because of a high angleof attack and slow relative wind speed.[FAA-H-8083-21]

7. How is transverse flow effect recognized?

Transverse flow effect can be recognized by theincreased vibrations of the helicopter at airspeedsjust below effective translational lift on takeoff andafter passing through effective translational liftduring landing. [FAA-H-8083-21]

8. What is blade coning?

Blade coning is upward sweep of the rotor bladesas a result of lift and centrifugal force. In a fullyarticulated rotor system, the blades assume anupward angle through movement about theflapping hinge. On semirigid and rigid rotorsystems, coning results in blade bending.[FAA-H-8083-21]

9. What is gyroscopic precession?

The principle of gyroscopic precession states thatwhen a force is applied to a spinning gyro, themaximum reaction occurs approximately 90° laterin the direction of rotation. [FAA-H-8083-21]

HELICOPTER SYSTEMS

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. What is the purpose of the collective?

Pulling the collective upward increases the pitchangle of all rotor blades, and it also increases thepower output of the engine (if equipped with agovernor or correlator). Lowering the collectivepitch decreases the pitch angle of the rotor bladesand power output of the engine. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. What is the purpose of the cyclic?

Moving the cyclic control changes the pitch ofrotor blade individually as it rotates through onecycle. The cyclic controls the tilt of the rotor discand, consequently, the direction and velocity ofhorizontal movement.

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3. What is the purpose of the pedals?

The antitorque pedals are used to control the pitchof the tail rotor or air difusser in a NOTARsystem. The tail rotor or diffusser counteracts thetorque produced by the turning rotor blades.

4. What is the purpose of the swashplate assembly?

The purpose of the swashplate assembly is totransmit collective and cyclic pitch controlmovements to the main rotor blades.[FAA-H-8083-21]

5. What is the purpose of a trim system for thosehelicopters without hydraulically boosted controls?

To relieve the pilot from having to holdcontrol forces as speed or power changes.[FAA-H-8083-21]

POWERPLANT AND RELATED SYSTEMS

1. Explain the four steps involved in the four-strokecycle of a reciprocating engine.

When the piston moves away from the cylinderhead on the intake stroke, the intake valve opensand the fuel/air mixture is drawn into thecombustion chamber. As the piston moves backtoward the cylinder head, the intake valve closesand the fuel/air mixture is compressed. Whencompression is nearly complete, the spark plugsfire and the compressed mixture ignites to begin thepower stroke. The rapidly expanding gases fromthe controlled burning of the fuel/air mixture drivethe piston away from the cylinder head. Thisprovides the power that rotates the crankshaft.Finally, the exhaust stroke expels the burned gasesfrom the chamber through the opened exhaustvalve. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. What is detonation? Explain.

Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignitionof the fuel/air mixture within the cylinder’scombustion chamber. Detonation causes highcylinder temperatures and pressures, which canlead to overheating, power loss, and damage tothe engine.

3. What is preignition? Explain.

Preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixtureignites too soon. In extreme cases, it can causeserious damage to the engine in a short period oftime. Preignition is caused by residual hot spots inthe cylinder. A hot spot may be a small carbondeposit on a spark plug, a cracked ceramic spark

plug insulator, or almost any damage around thecombustion chamber.

4. State the purpose of the ignition system.

The ignition system provides the spark that ignitesthe fuel/air mixture in the cylinders.

5. Describe the magneto system.

The magneto is a self-contained, engine-driven unitthat supplies electrical current to the spark plugs.It uses permanent magnets to generate anelectrical current completely independent of theaircraft’s electrical system. The magneto generatessufficiently high voltage to jump a spark across thespark plug gap in each cylinder. The system beginsto fire as soon as the starter is engaged and thecrankshaft begins to turn.

6. How can a malfunctioning ignition system beidentified prior to takeoff?

During the pre-takeoff check, observe the decreasein r.p.m. that occurs when the magneto switch isfirst moved from BOTH to RIGHT, and then fromBOTH to LEFT. A small decrease in engine r.p.m.is normal during this check. If the engine stopsrunning or if the r.p.m. drop exceeds the allowablelimit, don’t fly the helicopter until the problem iscorrected.

7. What are the two functions performed by theengine oil system?

The engine oil system lubricates the engine’smoving parts and aids in engine cooling byreducing friction and removing some of the heatfrom the cylinders.

8. Briefly describe the operation of the engine oilsystem.

The engine oil system usually contains a reservoiror sump in which a specific amount of oil is carriedwith a mechanism in place to drive an oil pump thatdraws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine.After the oil passes through the engine, it returns tothe sump. In some aircraft engines, additionallubrication is supplied by the rotating crankshaft,which splashes oil onto portions of the engine.

9. The maximum oil capacity of this helicopteris________ quarts, and the minimum oil capacityto begin a flight is _______ quarts.

Refer to the POH.

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10. How is engine cooling accomplished?

While the engine oil system is essential to internalcooling of the engine, additional cooling isrequired to maintain normal temperatures. Muchof the remaining heat is dissipated in the exhaustgases, but outside air is also used for cooling. Anaircraft engine is built with thin metal finsprojecting from the cylinder walls. Air is circulatedover the engine and oil cooler by means of animpeller powered by the engine drive shaft. Theimpeller is mounted in a shroud, which directs thecooling air into specific areas of the engine. Bafflesmounted on the engine case direct the air over thecooling fins on the cylinders and then overboard.

ROTOR SYSTEMS

1. What are the three rotor blade movements?

Flapping, feathering, and hunting.[FAA-H-8083-21]

2. How are rotor systems classified?

Fully articulated, semirigid, and rigid.[FAA-H-8083-21]

3. Explain a fully articulated rotor system.

In a fully articulated rotor system, the bladesundergo all three movements independently. Eachblade is attached to hinge pins and bearings. Thehorizontal, or flapping, hinge allows for up anddown movement. The drag hinge allows the bladeto lead and lag, or hunt. The rotor blade gripfeatures a feather bearing that allows the blades tochange pitch around the spanwise axis. Typically,this type of system incorporates three or moreblades. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. Explain the process of feathering.

Feathering changes the pitch angle of the bladethrough the use of the blade grip feather bearing.By changing the pitch angle of the blades, thethrust and direction of the main rotor disc can becontrolled. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. How is a semirigid rotor system different from thefully articulated system?

The semirigid system allows for two differentmovements, flapping and feathering. This systemuses two blades, which are rigidly attached to therotor hub. The hub is then attached to the rotormast by a trunnion bearing or teetering hinge. Thisallows the blades to flap together. As one blade

flaps down, the other flaps up. Feathering isaccomplished by the rocking hinge, which changesthe pitch angle of the blade. [FAA-H-8083-21]

FUEL SYSTEM

1. Is this helicopter equipped with a carburetor or afuel injection system?

Refer to the POH.

2. How many fuel tanks does this helicopter have?What is the total amount of usable fuel?

Refer to the POH.

3. What is the purpose of the fuel pump, ifappropriate, on this helicopter? When should itbe used?

It provides fuel under pressure for engine startingand as a backup in case the engine-driven pumpmalfunctions. Refer to the POH. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. What grade or grades of fuel can be used safely inthis helicopter? What are the colors of therecommended fuels? What happens to the color ofthe fuel if two grades are mixed?

Generally, using a fuel grade lower than specifiedcauses cylinder head and engine oil temperaturesto exceed normal operating limits, which can causedetonation. This can damage the engine and/orcause it to fail. When the recommended fuel gradeis not available, using the next higher grade maybe acceptable, if approved by the manufacturer.Aviation fuel has a dye additive to help pilots andmaintenance personnel identify the proper grade.Grade 80 is red, 100 LL is blue, and 100 is green. Ifvarious grades of aviation fuel are mixed, the colortends to become clear. The color of turbine fuel isalso clear.

5. If the specified grade of fuel is not available,should a lower or higher than normal grade of fuelbe used? Why?

If approved by the manufacturer, use the nexthigher grade for a short time. Using a lower gradethan recommended can be extremely harmful to theengine. [FAA-H-8083-21]

6. Where are the fuel drains located on thishelicopter? When should they be used?

Refer to the POH for the location of the drains.Drains allow samples to be taken and visuallychecked for contamination. Drain fuel during thepre-flight inspection.

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7. Where are the fuel tank vents located? What is theirpurpose?

Refer to the POH for the location of the tank vents.Tank vents are incorporated to equalize airpressure inside the tank with that outside the tank.This prevents a vacuum from forming, which wouldkeep fuel from flowing out of the tank.[FAA-H-8083-25, formerly AC 61-23]

8. When should the fuel tanks be checked forfuel contamination?

Before each flight.

9. What are some ways to reduce the possibility offuel contamination?

Refill the tank after the last flight of the day andmake sure fuel caps are properly secured.[FAA-H-8083-25, formerly AC 61-23]

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

1. What is the purpose of an ammeter? What is thepurpose of a loadmeter? Which is installed inthis helicopter?

An ammeter shows the charge, or amperage,flowing to or from the battery. A loadmeter displaysthe load placed on the alternator. The loadmeterusually indicates a percentage of the alternator’soutput versus a direct readout of the amperage.Refer to the POH to determine which is installedon this helicopter.

2. How will an alternator/generator failure beindicated on an ammeter or on a loadmeter? Whatare other ways of detecting an alternator/generatorfailure?

A discharging (negative reading) ammeter couldmean the alternator is malfunctioning. A loadmeterwill show zero if the alternator fails. Somehelicopters have an alternator/generator failurewarning light. Refer to the POH.

3. What is the correct procedure for resetting apopped circuit breaker?

Refer to the POH. If the equipment is essential,attempt to reset it once. If it pops again, do notreset it again.

4. What should be done in the case of an electricalfire?

Refer to the POH. If the faulty equipment can beisolated, turn it off. If not, the usual step is to turn

off the master switch and all other switches (exceptignition). Close vents and heater. Use the fireextinguisher if needed. If electrical power isrequired, turn on the master switch and electricalswitches one at a time to isolate the fault.

5. Does this helicopter have a generator or analternator? Does it produce alternating current(AC) or direct current (DC)?

Refer to the POH.

6. What basic advantages does an alternator haveover a generator?

Lighter weight, lower maintenance, and uniformoutput, even at low engine r.p.m. [FAA-H-8083-25,formerly AC 61-23]

7. What is the purpose of the voltage regulator?

It controls the alternator’s rate of charge to thebattery by stabilizing the voltage output. Also, ifthe voltage is too high or low, it removes thealternator from the electrical system. Refer to thePOH. [FAA-H-8083-25, formerly AC 61-23]

8. How can an alternator or generator failure bedetected?

Check the ammeter, warning light, and/orloadmeter for abnormal indications as describedin the POH. [FAA-H-8083-21]

9. Is the electrical system protected by circuitbreakers or fuses?

Most helicopters use both. Refer to the POH.[FAA-H-8083-21]

10. Where is the battery located in this helicopter andwhat is its voltage?

Refer to the POH.

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

1. Describe what happens to the pitot/staticinstruments when the pitot tube and drain holebecome blocked.

The only pitot/static instrument affected is theairspeed indicator. If the pitot system is blockedcompletely, the airspeed indicator acts like thealtimeter. As altitude increases above the altitudewhere the blockage occurred, the airspeedindication increases. A decrease in altitudecauses a corresponding decrease in theairspeed indication.

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2. Describe what happens to the pitot/staticinstruments when the static ports are blocked, butthe pitot tube and drain hole remain open?

The airspeed continues to operate, but isinaccurate. It indicates a slower airspeed thanactual when the aircraft is operated above thealtitude where the static ports became blocked, andindicates a faster than actual airspeed when at alower altitude. The altimeter freezes at the altitudewhere the blockage occurred and the VSI alwaysshows a zero indication.

3. Why is it recommended that the heading indicatorbe checked and aligned with the magnetic compassat least every 15 minutes?

Due to internal friction within the gyroscope,precession is common in a heading indicator. If theheading indicator does not have a north seekingcapability, it should be checked and aligned every15 minutes. When performing an in-flightalignment, the helicopter should be flying straightand level in unaccelerated flight, with the magneticcompass showing a steady flight.

EQUIPMENT OPERATION ANDPROCEDURES

1. Explain starting procedures for this helicopterwhen the engine is hot, as well as when it is cold.

Starting procedures are found in the POH.

2. During a cold weather start, if the oil pressuregauge does not indicate any oil pressure for nearly30 seconds, what should be done?

In cold weather, it may take up to one minute for anoil pressure indication on the gauge. If it does notshow any pressure at that time, shut down theengine and have it checked by a mechanic. Refer tothe POH.

3. During the magneto check before takeoff, when theswitch is moved from BOTH to RIGHT, the r.p.m.remains the same as it was in the BOTH position.Does this mean the helicopter has an exceptionallygood magneto? Explain.

No. There may be improper magneto grounding ortiming, and a mechanic should check it.[FAA-H-8083-21]

4. What might cause engine roughness during runupat a high elevation field (5,000 feet MSL) duringhot weather? What action is appropriate inthis situation?

The fuel mixture may be too rich and should beadjusted (leaned) until the engine runs smoothly.Refer to the POH for recommendedleaning procedures.

5. What methods should be used to decrease orprevent engine overheating during climbs?

Climb at a higher airspeed, enrich the mixture, ormomentarily level off. [FAA-H-8083-25, formerlyAC 61-23]

6. Explain the proper procedures for leaning themixture for this helicopter during cruise flight.

Follow the procedure recommended in the POH.Some manufacturers do not recommendinflight leaning.

7. Should carburetor heat normally be used during thetakeoff? Explain.

No. Warm air from carburetor heat reduces engineperformance. The engine r.p.m. should be in thenormal range during the runup before takeoff.However, if a carburetor air temperature gauge isinstalled, use carburetor heat to keep the indicatorout of the yellow. [FAA-H-8083-21]

8. When is carburetor heat used? What are theindications of carburetor icing?

Procedures for checking carburetor heat duringthe engine runup and using it during flight varywith different helicopters. POH recommendationsshould be followed. In general, the carburetor heatshould be turned on periodically to check for icebuild up when conditions favoring carburetor icingare present. In many helicopters, carburetor heatshould be used during hover or cruise flight above18 inches MP, as required to keep the CAT gaugeout of the yellow arc and during autorotation orreduced power below 18 inches MP regardless ofCAT gauge temperature. An unexplainable drop inengine r.p.m. or manifold pressure, followed byengine roughness, indicates carburetor icing.[FAA-H-8083-21]

9. What is the first indication of carburetor icing on ahelicopter?

A gradual loss of engine r.p.m. or a loss ofmanifold pressure. [FAA-H-8083-21]

MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST

1. What is a Minimum Equipment List (MEL)?

A minimum equipment list is an FAA approved listthat specifies which instruments and equipment

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may be inoperable without affecting theairworthiness of a helicopter. In other words, thehelicopter can still be flown with those instrumentsinoperable; however, the helicopter recordsavailable to the pilot must indicate the inoperableinstruments or equipment. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. Who issues the letter authorizing the use of aminimum equipment list and where must this letterbe stored?

In order to use a MEL, the aircraft must havewithin it a letter of authorization issued by the FAAFlight Standards district office (FSDO) havingjurisdiction over the area in which the operator islocated.

3. Do all aircraft have Minimum Equipment Lists?

No, only those that have been approved by the FAAcan use a MEL. MELs are usually found on largeraircraft and those used for commercial purposes.[FAA-H-8083-21]

4. What instruments and equipment cannot beincluded in the Minimum Equipment Lists?

Instruments and equipment that are eitherspecifically or otherwise required by theairworthiness requirements under which theaircraft is type certificated and which are essentialfor safe operations under all operating conditions.

Instruments and equipment required by anairworthiness directive to be in operable conditionunless the airworthiness directive provides other-wise.

Instruments and equipment required for specificoperations under the regulations. [91.213]

5. If this helicopter does not have a MEL and aninstrument or piece of equipment is inoperable, canthe helicopter still be legally flown?

This depends on what instrument or equipment isinoperable. If the inoperable instrument orequipment is not required for airworthiness of theaircraft as specified by the type certificate or theregulations, then as long as the following condi-tions are met, the helicopter is consideredairworthy.

The inoperable instrument or equipment must beremoved from the aircraft, the cockpit controlplacarded, and maintenance entry recorded in theaircraft logbook, or the inoperable instrument orequipment must be deactivated and placarded“Inoperative.” If deactivation of the inoperative

instrument or equipment involves maintenance, itmust be accomplished and recorded in theaircraft logbook.

A determination is made by a pilot, who iscertificated and appropriately rated, or by anappropriately rated mechanic, that the inoperativeinstrument or equipment does not constitute ahazard to the aircraft. [91.213]

AEROMEDICAL FACTORS

1. Discuss the similarities and differences betweenthe conditions of hypoxia, hyperventilation, andcarbon monoxide poisoning. What are thesymptoms and effects for each condition, and whatcorrective actions should be taken in each case?

Hypoxia occurs when insufficient oxygen reaches abody’s cells. Symptoms include increasedbreathing rate, dizziness, sweating, tingling, blueextremities, reduced vision, and sloweddecision-making. The best corrective action is touse supplemental oxygen.

Hyperventilation is a breathing rate that is toorapid and too deep. Symptoms are similar tohypoxia, such as dizziness, tingling, drowsiness,and mental confusion. The corrective action is tobreathe normally; talking out loud or breathinginto a paper bag may help.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is a common cause ofanemic hypoxia. CO molecules attach themselvesto hemoglobin, and the blood is unable to carryenough oxygen to the cells. Symptoms are typicalof hypoxia. A headache and loss of muscle powercan also occur. Corrective actions in flight includeturning off the heater, opening vents or windows,and using oxygen. [AIM]

2. If a passenger exhibits symptoms that could beattributed to more than one condition, what shouldbe done?

It is best to treat all possible causes. In each case,use of supplemental oxygen should help. [AIM]

3. What are the rules concerning the use of alcoholand the operation of an aircraft?

No person may act or attempt to act asa crewmember of a civil aircraft within eighthours after consumption of any alcoholicbeverage, while under the influence ofalcohol, while using any drug that affects theperson’s faculties in a way contrary to safety, or

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while having .04 percent by weight or morealcohol in the blood. The regulations also includeconditions that limit the carriage of passengersunder the influence of alcohol or drugs. [91.17]

4. Name several common medications that should notbe taken before or during a flight.

Tranquilizers, most decongestants andantihistamines, amphetamines, many prescriptionpain killers, cough syrups, and some antibiotics.When in doubt, consult an MD or pharmacist.

5. What is spatial disorientation, when is it mostlikely to occur, and what corrective action shouldbe taken if it occurs?

It is an incorrect mental image of a pilot’s position,attitude, or movement in relation to what isactually happening. It is most likely to occur inweather or darkness. If possible, refer to the flightinstruments, believe them, and fly the helicopteraccording to the indications.

6. What are the effects of stress and fatigue on a pilot?

It causes reduced coordination and alertness, aswell as impaired judgment, which results inunwarranted risks. [AIM]

7. What are the effects of nitrogen on a SCUBAdiver? What precautions need to be observed priorto flight after a dive?

Nitrogen in the body can cause decompressionsickness when ascending to a higher altitude.Divers should allow enough time to rid themselvesof excess nitrogen. The minimum recommendedtime before flying up to 8,000 feet is 12 hours aftera dive not requiring controlled ascent, and 24hours after a dive requiring controlled ascent.Before flying above 8,000 feet, the recommendedtime is at least 24 hours after any SCUBA dive.[AIM]

AIRPORT AND HELIPORT OPERATION

1. What should be done if a pilot receives ATCinstructions that he/she feels may compromisesafety or will cause a violation of a regulation?

A pilot should not compromise safety or violate aregulation. It is the pilot’s responsibility to requestan amended clearance. [91.123]

2. What is the meaning of each of the following ATClight signals?

IN FLIGHT [91.125]

Steady green—Cleared to land.

Flashing green—Return for landing.

Flashing red—Airport unsafe, do not land.

Steady red—Give way to other traffic and continuecircling.

Alternating red and green—Exercise extremecaution.

ON THE GROUND [91.125]

Flashing red—Taxi clear of runway in use.

Flashing green—Cleared to taxi.

Steady green—Cleared for takeoff.

Steady red—Stop.

Flashing white—return to starting point on theairport.

Alternating red and green—Exercise extremecaution.

3. What is the maximum authorized airspeed below10,000 feet MSL within a Class D airspace areathat is below the floor of an associated Class Bairspace segment?

200 knots. [91.117]

4. What is the standard direction of turns in the trafficpattern? Give an example of a visual displayindicating a nonstandard traffic pattern.

In a standard pattern, all turns are to the left. Anonstandard pattern (right turns) may be indicatedby an L-shaped extension on the segmented circle.Nonstandard patterns are also noted inaeronautical publications, such as the AirportFacility Directory. [AIM] [AC 90-66]

5. At an uncontrolled airport, what is the properprocedure for determining the runway in use? Howis the traffic pattern entered?

Observe local traffic, or fly over the airport andlook for a segmented circle and/or wind directionindicators. Normally, enter at 45° to the downwindon a left-hand pattern unless the segmented circleindicates otherwise. [91.127, AIM]

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6. What radio calls are recommended in the trafficpattern at an uncontrolled airport? What radio callsare required at this type of airport?

For arrival, pilots should announce their positionabout 10 miles out, and then call downwind, base,final, and when clear of the runway after landing.For departure, pilots should make self-announcecalls. [AIM] [AC 90-42]

7. At multiple-use airports, what procedure shouldhelicopter pilots normally use when there areseveral airplanes in the traffic pattern?

Avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic.

8. When is a go-around appropriate?

Anytime the pilot is not satisfied with the approachor is unsure that a safe landing can be completed.

9. What is CTAF?

A common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) isdesignated for the purpose of carrying out airportadvisory practices at uncontrolled airports. TheCTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS, or atower frequency, depending on the facilities andoperation status at an airport. The usual CTAFprocedures include requesting airport advisoryinformation (when it is available) andself-announce calls by pilots to advise theirposition and intentions. All pilots should remain onthe CTAF, whenever practical, and listen for trafficadvisory information. [AIM]

10. How can it be determined if a runway is closed?

A large “X” is painted on runways or taxiwaysindicating they are closed and unsafe for normaluse. [AIM]

11. If an altimeter setting is not available at an airportprior to departure and the helicopter is not radioequipped, what setting should be used beforedeparting on a local flight?

The altimeter should be set to the elevation of thedeparture airport or an appropriate altimetersetting available before departure. [91.121]

12. After landing, what procedures should be followedconcerning the shutdown, parking, and securing ofthe helicopter?

Refer to the POH.

13. What are some precautionary steps that should betaken during refueling?

The helicopter should be grounded to the fueltruck, which should be grounded to the airportsurface. Pilots and passengers should be out of thehelicopter while refueling is in progress. Use theproper grade of fuel. In an emergency, use the nexthigher grade if approved by the manufacturer. Afterrefueling is complete, check security of the fuelcaps. [FAA-H-8083-21]

COLLISION AVOIDANCE

1. Which aircraft has the right-of-way over allother aircraft?

Aircraft in distress. [91.113]

2. Who has the right-of-way when two aircraft are onfinal approach to land at the same time?

While on final approach to land, the aircraft at thelower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall nottake advantage of this rule to cut in front of anotheraircraft. [91.113]

3. One aircraft is on final approach and the second iswaiting to take off. Which aircraft has the right-of-way?

An aircraft on final approach has right-of-way overaircraft on the ground. [91.113]

4. What action is needed if overtaking anotheraircraft? Which aircraft has the right-of-way?

When overtaking, the pilot of the overtakingaircraft shall alter the course to the right since theaircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way.[91.113]

5. What should be done if two aircraft are flying ahead-on collision course with one another?

The pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to theright. [91.113]

6. Two aircraft of the same category are converging atthe same approximate altitude. Which aircraft hasthe right-of-way?

The aircraft to the other’s right. [91.113]

7. If a glider and a helicopter are approachinghead-on, or nearly so, who has the right-of-way?What action should be taken?

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The glider has the right-of-way, and the helicoptershould give way to the right. [91.113]

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS

1. If an engine fire develops during flight, what stepsshould be followed?

Normally, shut down the engine and execute anautorotation. Refer to the POH. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. What procedure should be used in the event of anelectrical fire?

In general, shut off electrical power (master switchand battery). Open vents and windows to eliminatesmoke. Use a fire extinguisher if necessary. Then, ifelectrical power is needed, turn off allnon-essential equipment and turn on power.Attempt to isolate the malfunction and turn theaffected equipment off. Refer to the POH.[FAA-H-8083-21]

3. What general steps should be followed after anengine failure in flight?

In a helicopter, this is an emergency. The pilotshould know the recommended emergencyprocedures contained in the POH and be able torecall them immediately. Generally, theseprocedures include entering a normal autorotation.Establish the best glide airspeed. Pick a suitablelanding site and turn toward it. If altitude and timepermits, attempt to identify the problem and restartthe engine if possible. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. Discuss the procedures to be used in the event ofpartial engine failure.

A partial or complete engine failure can haveseveral causes, such as carburetor ice or fuelstarvation. Possible corrective actions may be theuse of carburetor heat or switching the fuelselector. If this does not correct the problem, landthe helicopter immediately. Refer to the POH forspecific procedures for this helicopter.

5. What is the definition of the best or maximum glidespeed? What is the best glide speed for thishelicopter?

The best glide speed gives the maximum glidingdistance in a no-wind condition. Refer to the POHfor this helicopter. While wind effect may beminimal, weight and configuration may be signifi-cant in choosing the best glide speed.[FAA-H-8083-21]

6. What is the best autorotational glide speed for thishelicopter?

Refer to the POH.

7. While in flight, it is noted that the oil pressure islow, but the oil temperature remains normal.Explain what action would be taken inthis situation.

It is possible that the gauge or relief valve ismalfunctioning. Continue to monitor oiltemperature, since it may take time for thetemperature rise indication. Land as soon aspossible and have the problem inspected. Refer tothe POH.

8. During flight, the engine oil pressure suddenlydrops to zero and the oil temperature begins to rise.Explain what has happened and what action wouldbe taken in this situation.

Probable loss of oil pressure, due to oil pumpfailure or loss of oil is indicated. Engine failurecould be imminent. Execute a precautionarylanding using only minimum power required. Referto the POH for procedures that apply to thishelicopter.

9. What factors should be considered when selectinga landing area?

The key factors that should be considered arewhether or not the area is within the helicopter’sgliding distance, wind direction and speed, surfaceconditions, and obstructions around the landingsite. It may be advantageous to land with a cross-wind in an area that is flat and smooth, rather thantrying to land into the wind on a rough orsloping surface.

10. When performing an autorotation, what is used tocontrol airspeed?

Throughout the descent, the cyclic is used tocontrol airspeed. [FAA-H-8083-21]

11. What does the cross-hatched or shaded arearepresent on the height velocity diagram?

Successful autorotations may be impossible, ornearly so, due to not having adequate rotor r.p.m.at touchdown or not having enough time to executean autorotation. [FAA-H-8083-21]

12. What is the procedure for a complete tail rotorfailure in flight?

This emergency procedure usually requires anautorotation. In some circumstances, it may be

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possible to maneuver the helicopter into a morefavorable position, but this depends on the severityof the situation and the skill level of the pilot.[FAA-H-8083-21]

13. What are the procedures for a stuck tailrotor pedal?

Follow the procedures in the POH. Generally, astuck left pedal (in helicopters with a counterrotating main rotor) makes the helicopter yaw tothe left when power is reduced. Closing power andentering an autorotation only makes things worse.Make a normal approach to a hover or to theground depending on the control available. For astuck right pedal, the helicopter will yaw to theright when power is added. Make a steeper thannormal approach with a flare at the bottom to slowthe helicopter. Use power as necessary to keep thehelicopter straight. [FAA-H-8083-21]

14. What is Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)?Where is it most likely to occur?

LTE is the result of the tail rotor not providingadequate thrust to maintain directional control andis not an equipment or maintenance malfunction.LTE is usually caused by certain wind azimuths(directions) while hovering, which disturb tailrotor thrust, or by an insufficient tail rotor thrustfor a given power setting at higher altitudes.Consult the POH for critical wind azimuths andhover ceiling charts. [FAA-H-8083-21]

15. If a pilot discovers he/she is lost, what shouldbe done?

Normally, climb to a higher altitude and try to findsignificant landmarks. Attempt to tune in a navaid.If unable to get oriented, call for help on an ATC orFSS frequency, or the emergency frequency of121.5. In a helicopter, landing and asking fordirections is also a possibility. [FAA-H-8083-21]

16. What is dynamic rollover?

Dynamic rollover is when a helicopter rolls orpivots around its landing gear to a point, called thecritical rollover angle, where main rotor thrustcontinues the roll, and recovery is impossible.[FAA-H-8083-21]

17. What are the factors that cause dynamic rollover?

For dynamic rollover to occur, some factor has tofirst cause the helicopter to roll or pivot. Failure toremove a tiedown, or if the gear gets stuck in ice,soft asphalt or mud can certainly cause this to

happen. Dynamic rollover can also occur if theskid contacts an obstacle while hovering sidewaysor if the incorrect procedures are used whenperforming slope operations. [FAA-H-8083-21]

18. What conditions might increase the chance ofdynamic rollover?

Certain conditions reduce the critical rolloverangle such as translating tendency when landingon a slope, crosswinds, and incorrect pedal inputs.These all differ by helicopter type depending on thedirection of rotation of the main rotors.[FAA-H-8083-21]

19. What is ground resonance? In what type ofhelicopters can it occur?

Ground resonance is a self-excited vibration thatoccurs when the rotor blades of a fully articulatedrotor system move out of phase with each other andcause the rotor disc to become unbalanced. Thiscondition can cause a helicopter to self-destruct ina matter of seconds, however, for this to occur, thehelicopter must be in contact with the ground.[FAA-H-8083-21]

20. What conditions must exist for ground resonanceto occur?

For ground resonance to occur, there must be someabnormal lead/lag blade condition that woulddynamically unbalance the rotor. This conditionmay be present in the rotor head in the form ofunbalanced blades, incorrect tracking or faultylead-lag dampers, or may be the result of a hardlanding, which can cause a shock to be transmittedto the main rotor system, forcing the blades out ofphase. In either case, an unbalanced rotor systemcauses an unusual vibration that is furtheraggravated when ground contact, and especiallylight contact, is made. This can be during lift-offwhen the helicopter is light on its skids or duringlanding. In order to reduce the chance of groundresonance, helicopters with fully articulated rotorsystems usually have landing gear dampers oroleos to dampen vibrations when on the ground.However, oleos with uneven or low pressures maycontribute to ground resonance by not providingeven dampening.

21. What action should be taken to prevent groundresonance?

Corrective action should be an immediate takeoff ifr.p.m. is in proper range, or an immediate closingof the throttle and placing the blades in low pitch ifr.p.m. is low. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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22. What is settling with power?

Settling with power, also called vortex ring state,describes an aerodynamic condition in which ahelicopter may be in a vertical descent with up tomaximum power applied, and little or no cyclicauthority. The term “settling with power” comesfrom pilot observations that the helicopter keepssettling even though full engine power is used.[FAA-H-8083-21]

23. Where is settling with power most likely to occur?

Anytime the helicopter is at near zero airspeed anddescending at least 300 feet per minute with somepower applied. This is usually during an approach,especially a steep approach with a high decent rateand little or no forward airspeed. It may also occurduring an out of ground effect hover if thehelicopter begins to descend into its owndownwash. [FAA-H-8083-21]

24. What is the recovery procedure for settlingwith power?

Do not try to stop the descent by adding power.This only worsens the condition. Instead, lower thecollective to reduce power and the associateddownwash, then apply cyclic (usually forward) toaccelerate. [FAA-H-8083-21]

25. What is mast bumping and what conditionscause it?

Mast bumping occurs in helicopters with semirigidrotor systems when the main rotor blades becomeunloaded due to low or negative G maneuvers. Themain rotor trunnion teeters excessively to the pointwhere it strikes or bumps up against the mast,which could result in structural failure of the mast.[FAA-H-8083-21]

26. How can mast bumping be prevented?

Avoid any conditions that produce low or negativeGs. Also avoid abrupt cyclic and collective controlmovements. Avoid turbulence as much as possible.If turbulence is encountered, slow the forwardairspeed as much as possible; if it becomes exces-sive, consider a precautionary landing.[FAA-H-8083-21]

27. What is retreating blade stall? How can itbe avoided?

In forward flight, the relative airflow through themain rotor disc is different on the advancing andretreating side. The relative airflow over the

advancing side is higher due to the forward speedof the helicopter, while the relative airflow on theretreating side is lower. This dissymmetry of liftincreases as forward speed increases. To generatethe same amount of lift across the rotor disc, theadvancing blade flaps up while the retreating bladeflaps down. This causes the angle of attack todecrease on the advancing blade, which reduceslift, and increase on the retreating blade, whichincreases lift. As the forward speed increases, atsome point the low blade speed on the retreatingblade together with its high angle of attack causesa loss of lift (stall). Retreating blade stall can beavoided in most cases by not exceeding themanufacturers VNE for a particular altitude andweight. [FAA-H-8083-21]

28. What is the procedure for recovering fromretreating blade stall?

Do not move the cyclic aft as it only worsens thestall. Aft cyclic produces a flare effect, thusincreasing angles of attack. Pushing forward onthe cyclic also deepens the stall, as the angle ofattack on the retreating blade will be increased.Correct recovery from retreating blade stallrequires the collective to be lowered first, whichreduces blade angles and thus angle of attack. Aftcyclic can then is used to slow the helicopter.[FAA-H-8083-21]

29. What conditions can increase the chance of a lowRPM blade stall?

Low RPM blade stall can occur by rolling thethrottle the wrong way, pulling more collectivepitch than power available, or when operating at ahigh density altitude. This danger is greatest insmall helicopters with low blade inertia.[FAA-H-8083-21]

30. What is the procedure for recovering from lowrotor RPM?

Lower the collective and simultaneously addthrottle to bring the r.p.m. back in the green arc. Agentle aft cyclic control movement will help therecovery, but the primary recovery controls are thecollective and throttle. [FAA-H-8083-21]

NIGHT OPERATIONS

1. What are the differences between scanning foraircraft at night and during the day?

At night, use off-center viewing and move the eyesmore slowly. Do not focus on one spot very long.[FAA-H-8083-21]

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2. Why is it important to carry a flashlight at night?

Besides the importance of a flashlight for preflight,it provides a back-up light source if the interiorlights fail. [FAA-H-8083-21]

3. How is a night takeoff different from oneperformed during the day? Explain.

After liftoff, transition to the flight instrumentsoccurs more rapidly. Use of both visual andinstrument references is recommended.[FAA-H-8083-21]

4. Is a night approach flown differently than oneflown during the day? Explain any differences.

Fly a standard approach. Use the runway lights fora peripheral cue for landing. When landing lightsare used, avoid focusing near the helicopter. Themain difference is that the ability to judge height,speed, and sink rate is impaired. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. What is night vision and how long does it take toacquire?

Night vision is when the rods in the eyes haveadapted to the dark light, which takes about 30minutes. Once this has occurred, vision issignificantly better. [FAA-H-8083-21]

6. Once the eyes have adapted to the dark, what canbe done to keep them that way?

Bright light can completely destroy night visionand restrict visibility. Avoid bright lights beforeand during the flight. If bright lights areencountered, close one eye to keep it lightsensitive. Use dim white lights in the cockpit andkeep the instrument panel lights turned up nohigher than necessary. [FAA-H-8083-21]

7. How should scanning be done at night?

Use off-center viewing in a series of short 10°sectors. Off-center viewing allows the rods, whichare located on the outside of the fovea of the eye,and which are more sensitive to the dark light, toabsorb the light. [FAA-H-8083-21]

8. What are some night illusions?

Autokinesis is caused by staring at a single point oflight against a dark background. After a fewmoments the light appears to move on its own. Toprevent this, do not fixate on one object, andmaintain a normal scan pattern. [FAA-H-8083-21]

Night myopia is caused by having nothing to focuson and as a result, the eyes focus on a point justslightly ahead of the aircraft. This prevents seeingany object or aircraft that may be in the distance.To prevent this, search out and focus on distantlight sources, no matter how dim.[FAA-H-8083-21]

A false horizon can occur if the natural horizon isobscured or not visible. It can be generated byconfusing bright stars and city lights. It can alsooccur while flying toward the shore of an ocean orlarge lake in which the relative darkness of thewater and the lights along the shoreline can bemistaken for stars in the sky. [FAA-H-8083-21]

Landing illusions can occur in different ways.Above featureless terrain, there is a naturaltendency to fly lower-than-normal approaches.Bright lights give the illusion of being too low,resulting in a tendency to fly a higher than normalapproach. [FAA-H-8083-21]

REGULATIONS, THE AERONAUTICALINFORMATION MANUAL, AND NTSB 830

1. Discuss what preflight action concerning theairport and aircraft performance is specified in theregulations for a local flight.

Each pilot in command shall, before beginning aflight, become familiar with all availableinformation concerning that flight. [91.103]

2. During engine run up, a pilot causes rocks, debris,and rotor blast to be directed toward anotheraircraft or person. Could this be consideredcareless or reckless operations of an aircraft?

Yes. Any operation that endangers the life orproperty of another may be considered careless orreckless. [91.13]

3. What are the general requirements pertaining to theuse of safety belts and shoulder harnesses?

During takeoff and landing, and while enroute,each required flight crewmember shall keep theseat belt fastened. If installed, each requiredcrewmember also must keep his or her shoulderharness fastened during takeoffs and landings. Inaddition, each person on board a U.S. civil aircraftmust occupy a seat with a safety belt and, ifinstalled, a shoulder harness properly fastened. Achild less than two years old may be held by anadult. [91.105] [91.107]

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4. What is the minimum fuel reserve for day VFRflight, and on what cruise speed is the fuel reservebased?

During VFR conditions, the fuel reserve must besufficient to fly to the first point of intended landingand, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly afterthat for at least 20 minutes (considering the windand forecast weather conditions). [91.151]

5. Except when necessary for takeoffs and landings,what are the minimum safe altitudes when flyingover congested and uncongested areas?

Helicopters must be operated at an altitude so thatif a power unit fails, an emergency landing can beaccomplished without undue hazard to persons orproperty on the surface. Additionally, a helicoptermay be operated over a sparsely populated area ifthe operation is conducted without hazard topersons or property on the surface. The minimumaltitude is selected by the pilot in command inorder to meet the above requirements. [91.119]

6. What altitudes should be used when operatingunder VFR in level cruising flight at more than3,000 feet AGL?

When operating below 18,000 feet MSL on a mag-netic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, apilot operating under VFR should maintain anyodd thousand foot MSL altitude plus 500 feet(3,500, 5,500, etc.). When operating below 18,000feet MSL on a magnetic course of 180 degreesthrough 359 degrees, a pilot should maintain anyeven thousand foot MSL altitude plus 500 feet(4,500, 6,500, etc.). [91.159]

7. Under what conditions must a VFR flight planbe filed?

It must be filed when flying VFR between Canadaand the U.S. or between Mexico and the U.S. Also,to operate in an air defense identification zone(ADIZ), a defense VFR flight plan (DVFR) must befiled. [99.11] [AIM]

8. What type of information is found in theAeronautical Information Manual?

It describes airspace and the procedures for con-ducting flight operations within the U. S. NationalAirspace System. [AIM]

9. During what time period must the helicopter posi-tion lights be turned on?

Between sunset and sunrise. [91.209]

10. When is an electric landing light required?

When operating for hire at night. [91.205]

11. Under what circumstances is it legal to drop anobject from a helicopter while in flight?

When reasonable precautions are taken to avoidcreating a hazard to persons or property. [91.15]

12. Must all aircraft be equipped with an ELT?

No. Section 91.207 lists exceptions when an ELT isnot required. Helicopters do not require an ELT.[91.207]

13. According to NTSB 830, what is an aircraft acci-dent and when must it be reported? What is the dif-ference between an accident and an incident?

An aircraft accident involves death or seriousinjury to persons, or substantial damage to the air-craft, anytime persons are on board with the inten-tion of flight. As indicated in NTSB Part 830.5,accidents must be reported immediately. Certainincidents, such as a flight control failure, in-flightfire, or in-flight aircraft collision also must bereported immediately. An incident is an event otherthan an accident, associated with aircraft opera-tion, which could affect safety. [NTSB 830]

14. If an aircraft is overdue and believed to have beeninvolved in an accident, when must the operatornotify the NTSB?

Immediately. [NTSB 830.5]

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Section 61.87 outlines the requirements for studentpilot solo flights. As specified in this regulation, thestudent must demonstrate satisfactory knowledge ofthe required subject areas by completing a writtenknowledge exam. This exam is to be administered andgraded by the instructor who endorses the student pilotcertificate for solo flight. As indicated in AC 61-101,Presolo Knowledge Test, flight instructors must includequestions on applicable portions of parts 61 and 91. Inaddition, instructors should modify the knowledgeexam as necessary to make it appropriate for thehelicopter to be flown and the local flyingenvironment. Instructors can choose from thefollowing questions as a guide to preparing the presolowritten exam.

1. A student pilot is required to have what personaldocuments and endorsements before flying solo?

No student pilot may operate a helicopter in soloflight unless that student’s pilot certificate andlogbook have been endorsed by an authorizedflight instructor for the make and model ofhelicopter to be flown. The logbook endorsementmust be dated within 90 days prior to the student’ssolo flight. [61.87]

2. What are the student pilot limitations regardingcarriage of passengers or cargo and flying forcompensation or hire?

A student pilot may not act as pilot in command ofa helicopter carrying passengers or cargo. Astudent pilot also may not act as pilot in commandof a helicopter for compensation/hire or thefurtherance of a business. Additional limitations,which apply to student pilots, are listed in theregulations. [61.89]

3. Explain student pilot limitations concerningvisibility and flight above clouds.

A student pilot may not act as pilot in command ofan aircraft when flight or surface visibility is lessthan three statute miles during daylight hours orfive statute miles at night. A student pilot may notact as pilot in command when flight cannot bemade with visual references to the surface. [61.89]

4. Who has the final authority and responsibility forthe operation of the helicopter when a student isflying solo?

When a student is flying solo, the student pilot isthe pilot in command and has the final authority

and responsibility for the flight. Included in thisresponsibility is the requirement to determine if thehelicopter is in an airworthy condition for safeflight. [91.3] [91.7]

5. What are the pilot and equipment requirements tooperate within terminal areas designated as Class Bairspace?

Except at the primary airport in certain Class Bareas, student pilots may operate in Class Bairspace as long as they have the proper trainingand have a logbook endorsement. However, unlessin a VFR corridor, ATC authorization must bereceived and the helicopter must have a two-wayradio and a transponder with Mode C. [61.95][91.131] [AIM]

6. In addition to equipment requirements and astudent pilot certificate, what other requirement(s),if any, must be met before a student pilot isauthorized to fly solo within Class B airspace?

The student must receive both ground and flightinstruction on operations within that particularClass B airspace, and the instructor who providedthe instruction must endorse the student’s logbookwithin the preceding 90 days prior to solo flightwithin that airspace. [61.95]

7. Can a student or recreational pilot request a specialVFR clearance in Class D airspace when visibilityis less than three miles? Explain.

No, since the minimum visibility for student andrecreational pilots is three statute miles, theycannot request a special VFR clearance. [61.89][61.101] [91.157]

SOLO CROSS-COUNTRY BRIEFINGAlthough the student has flown solo before the solocross-country, regulations require the student receiveadditional ground and flight instruction prior toconducting a solo cross-country flight. The followingbriefing is designed to assist you in determining if thestudent has an acceptable level of knowledge toconduct these operations safely.

1. By looking at a chart, how can it be determined ifthere is fuel at the destination?

Sectional charts indicate services available by tickmarks around the airport diagram. A/FD entriesinclude airport hours of operation and specifictypes of fuel available.

SECTION B—STUDENT PILOT BRIEFINGS

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2. Where can additional information about thedestination airport be found?

Airport/Facility Directory, sectional chart, flightservice station (FSS), and NOTAMs.

3. Once airborne, how will the flight plan be opened?

Contact the nearest flight service station.

4. If it is determined that the ETA is changing, whataction should be taken?

If the ETA is 15 or more minutes later thanplanned, inform flight service.

5. Upon arrival at the destination, how should theflight plan be closed?

Contact an FSS or request any ATC facility to relaythe cancellation to flight service. [AIM]

6. If the flight plan is not closed, how long after theETA will a search begin?

30 minutes after the ETA, the controlling FSS willbegin a telephone search. If unable to find thehelicopter, flight service will initiate search andrescue procedures. [AIM]

7. If a problem develops with the helicopter enroute,where can a landing be made?

As part of the flight planning, note availableairports along the route of flight. Once in flight, be

aware of their locations. Also keep note of fieldsand open areas for use in the event of a forcedlanding.

8. Explain how to obtain current weather reports andforecasts while enroute. What can be done if theweather along the route of flight deteriorates?

Navaid communication boxes on the sectionalcharts indicate whether a TWEB or HIWAS isavailable on the navaid frequency. Enroute flightadvisory service (EFAS) is available on 122.0.Automated weather information, such as AWOS orATIS, may be obtained from nearby airports. Ifweather deteriorates enroute, remain VFR andproceed to an alternate airport or return to thedeparture airport. [AIM]

9. If lost, what can be done?

First, try to become oriented by reference toprominent landmarks and navigation instruments.Climb as necessary for better visibility and navaidreception. Communicate with an ATC facility orFSS. If unable to establish radio communications,transmit on 121.5. A DF steer from an FSS orradar vectors from ATC can also be requested.[AIM]

10. What are the minimum VFR fuel reservesrequired by the regulations for day and nightflight.

Enough fuel to fly to the intended destination plustwenty minutes additional fuel at normal cruisingspeed. [91.151]

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1. What are the private pilot certificate privileges andlimitations?

Private pilots can act as pilot in command for anyhelicopter they are rated to fly. They cannotoperate for compensation or hire, however, there aresome specific exceptions outlined in section 61.113.

2. What are the private pilot medical certificaterequirements and duration?

A private pilot requires at least a third classmedical certificate, which is valid for 36 month forpersons under the age of 40 and 24 month forpersons 40 or above. [61.23]

Section C—PRIVATE PILOT BRIEFINGS

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1. What are the commercial pilot certificate privilegesand limitations?

Commercial pilots can act as pilot in command ofa helicopter for compensation or hire provided theyand the helicopter are appropriately rated. Acommon misconception for new commercial pilotsis that they can simply carry passengers orproperty for compensation or hire once theyreceive their certificate. In order to do this, boththe pilot and the helicopter have to meet additionalcriteria usually in either part 121–AirlineOperations or part 135–Charter Operation. Thismeans that most newly certificated commercialpilots who are not operating under parts 121 or135 cannot carry paying passengers or any cargo /property for hire. They are usually limited to anycommercial operation under part 91 that includeflying as a professional corporate pilot, ferryingaircraft for a fee, glider towing, etc. [See 61.133]

2. Can the holder of a commercial pilot certificaterent a helicopter (with a recent 100-hourinspection) from a fixed-base operator and use it tocarry passengers for hire?

Yes, in certain cases. Examples include sightseeingflights, aerial work operations, etc. Carriage ofpassengers for hire from one point to anotherrequires a 135 certificate. [Parts 119 & 135]

3. During a flight in which a pilot is exercisingcommercial privileges, what minimum class ofmedical certificate must he/she hold? How long isthe appropriate medical certificate validfor operations that require a commercialpilot certificate?

Second-class medical certificate12 calendar months. [61.23]

4. Define the term “commercial operator.”

A commercial operator is a person, other than anair carrier, who carries persons or property forcompensation or hire. [1.1]

ADVANCED MANEUVERS

PINNACLE / PLATFORM OPERATIONS

1. Define a pinnacle.

A pinnacle is an area from which the surface dropsaway steeply on all sides. Rooftop helipads and

raised platform helipads are also consideredpinnacles. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. When planning a pinnacle approach, what factorsshould be considered?

The approach should be planned to fly over themost favorable areas, as nearly upwind aspossible, and as near the normal approach angleas conditions will allow. [FAA-H-8083-21]

3. What are some of the things to look for during thereconnaissance over the area in which the landingis to be made?

Wind direction and speed, a point for touchdown,the suitability of the landing area, the approachand departure axes, any obstacles, and the mostsuitable flight paths into and out of the area.[FAA-H-8083-21]

4. Discuss the factors that dictate the steepness of theapproach angle to a pinnacle.

Wind conditions and terrain features are the mostcommon factors dictating approach angle. As arule, the greater the winds, the steeper theapproach needs to be to avoid turbulent air anddowndrafts. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. On departure from a pinnacle with no obstacles inthe departure path, should the first objective be togain altitude or airspeed?

Airspeed is gained first. Height above the groundis gained automatically as the helicopter flies awayfrom the pinnacle, as the surrounding terrain isusually lower. Never dive down the slope afterclearing the pinnacle. [FAA-H-8083-21]

6. What must be avoided as the helicopter departs thepinnacle?

Ground effect is lost almost immediately, thereforethe tendency is to increase collective beyond thecapability of the engine to maintain r.p.m. This isespecially critical at high density altitudes.[FAA-H-8083-21]

Section D—COMMERCIAL PILOT BRIEFINGS

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SLOPE OPERATIONS

1. How many degrees of slope should be consideredthe maximum for most helicopters?

A slope of 5° is considered maximum for normaloperations for most helicopters. Refer to the POHto determine slope limits. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. How can a pilot recognize the limit of thehelicopter’s capability on too steep a slope?

Mast bumping or abnormal vibrations caused bythe main rotor system hitting the flapping stopssignals maximum cyclic deflection. If the slopelanding is continued, dynamic rollover couldresult. [FAA-H-8083-21]

3. Which side of the helicopter should be uphill formaximum slope landing capability? Why?

Helicopters with counterclockwise rotor systemscan usually land on steeper slopes with the rightskid uphill because the force created by translatingtendency is upslope and does not require additionalcyclic deflection in the opposite direction.[FAA-H-8083-21]

4. Is a wind from the upslope side or the downslopeside more conducive to a slope landing?

A wind from the upslope side requires more cyclicdeflection toward the slope, so the maximum cycliclimit is reached earlier. Therefore, a wind fromthe downslope side is more conducive.[FAA-H-8083-21]

5. Should the helicopter be landed uphill or downhillfrom a person or persons waiting to be picked up?Explain.

Land upslope from persons waiting to be picked upunless obstacles dictate otherwise because there ismore rotor clearance on the downslope side of thehelicopter where persons are most likely toapproach from. Rotor clearance on the upslopeside of the helicopter may be dangerously low.

6. If a landing must be made, but inadequate roomexists to land across the slope, would it bepreferable to have the nose or the tailpointing upslope?

In this situation, land with the nose pointing upslope.If the landing occurs with the helicopter pointingdown the slope, there is a chance of striking the tailrotor on the surface. [FAA-H-8083-21]

7. Before initiating a takeoff from a slope, whatreference should be used to properly positionthe cyclic?

Hold the cyclic toward the slope so the main rotordisc is parallel to the horizon. If no horizon isavailable, hold some cyclic toward the slope sowhen the collective is raised, the downslope skidrises first. [FAA-H-8083-21]

8. After lifting off into a hover, what precautionsshould be taken while moving away from theslope?

Take care to avoid hitting the ground with the tailrotor. If an upslope wind exists, execute acrosswind takeoff and then make a turn into thewind after clearing the ground with the tail rotor.[FAA-H-8083-21]

CONFINED AREA OPERATIONS

1. During the reconnaissance before a landing in aconfined area, how can the presence of wires bedetected?

Wires are sometimes difficult to see, however, theirsupporting devices, such as poles or towers, serveas an indication of their presence and approximateheight. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. Name the factors to be considered during theplanning of a confined area approach.

Obstacles and hazards are the first consideration.During the high reconnaissance, look for obstaclesand hazards for both the approach and departurepaths. Wind is another consideration. Generally,takeoffs and landings should be made into the windto obtain maximum performance with minimumgroundspeed. Always consider the availability of aforced landing area during the planned approachand departure. [FAA-H-8083-21]

3. Should the approach be steeper or shallower thannormal in a strong headwind? Why?

As a rule, the greater the winds, the steeper theapproach needs to be to avoid turbulent air anddowndrafts. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. What are the adverse effects of a strong windduring the approach?

Stronger winds create more turbulence around theconfined area. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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5. Should a touchdown point be selected toward oraway from the approach end of the landing area?

The touchdown point should be well away from theapproach end of the landing area so the tail rotoris clear of all obstructions. [FAA-H-8083-21]

6. What are the factors to be considered beforemaking a takeoff from a confined area?

Wind direction and speed, obstructions, forcedlanding areas and helicopter performance shouldall be considered before making a takeoff from aconfined area. These factors determine the takeoffpath and procedure from the confined area.[FAA-H-8083-21]

RUNNING OR ROLLING TAKEOFF ANDLANDING

1. Under what conditions are running/rolling takeoffsand landings usually performed?

Running or rolling takeoffs and landings areusually performed when insufficient powerprevents a sustained hover at normal hoveringaltitude. This can occur under high gross weightconditions, high density altitude, or somecombination thereof. A running/rolling landingmay also be used as an emergency procedurefollowing certain tail rotor control failures.[FAA-H-8083-21]

2. How can it be determined if the helicopter isproducing sufficient power before attempting arunning/rolling takeoff?

A running/rolling takeoff should not be performedif there is insufficient power to hover at leastmomentarily. If the helicopter cannot behovered, its performance is unpredictable.[FAA-H-8083-21]

3. At what point should a transition to a normal climbbe made following a running/rolling takeoff?

After effective translational lift is gained, thehelicopter becomes airborne. Remain in groundeffect, allowing the airspeed to accelerate towardnormal climb speed, then follow a normal climbprofile. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. What are some of the hazards associated with arunning/rolling takeoff?

In a skid type helicopter, care must be taken to keepthe skids parallel to the takeoff path and clear ofany obstructions. Dynamic rollover could result ifthe skids become snagged. [FAA-H-8083-21]

5. What kind of approach is used when making arunning/rolling landing? Why?

A shallow approach is used when making arunning/rolling landing because there may beinsufficient power available to arrest thehelicopter from a normal or steep approach. In thecase of a tail rotor control problem, the pilot maynot want to add the additional power required tohover after a normal or steep approach.[FAA-H-8083-21]

6. While performing a running/rolling landing in askid type helicopter, at what speed and attitudeshould touchdown be made?

Touch down at the slowest possible speed and in alevel attitude. Less power is required if thehelicopter maintains translational lift, however, donot exceed the manufacturer’s recommendedmaximum touchdown speed. [FAA-H-8083-21]

7. After touchdown, what techniques are used to slowthe helicopter?

Use the collective as necessary to slow thehelicopter. By lowering the collective, more weightis transferred to the skids and the helicopter slows.Take caution not to lower the collective too muchor too quickly, as too much deceleration couldcause the helicopter to rock back and forth,resulting in a main rotor blade strike. Do not useaft cyclic to slow the helicopter after touchdown asthis too could result in a main or tail rotor strike.[FAA-H-8083-21]

8. What are some of the hazards associated with arunning/rolling landing?

In a skid type helicopter, care must be taken to keepthe skids parallel to the landing path and clear ofany obstructions. Dynamic rollover could result ifthe skids become snagged. [FAA-H-8083-21]

RAPID DECELERATION (QUICK STOP)

1. What is the purpose of a rapid deceleration?

A rapid deceleration is used to slow the helicopterrabidly and bring it to a stationary hover. This maybe required during airport operations to avoid col-lision. For flight training purposes, the rapiddeceleration is used to improve studentcoordination of all controls. [FAA-H-8083-21]

2. At what speed and altitude should a rapiddeceleration be performed?

A rapid deceleration should be performed at analtitude that permits a safe clearance between the

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tail rotor and the surface, and at an airspeed of 40to 60 knots, depending on the helicopter.[FAA-H-8083-21]

3. How can it be determined if the correct amount ofcyclic and collective was used while performing arapid deceleration?

The correct technique results in the helicoptermaintaining altitude while decelerating to thedesired speed before descending to a hover. Thisspeed is usually around effective translational lift.During the entry, if the collective is lowered toomuch without enough aft cyclic, the helicopterdescends; if too much aft cyclic is used withoutlowering the collective enough, the helicopterclimbs. Once the helicopter has slowed to the

desired descent speed, increase collective for aslow rate of descent and apply forward cyclic tolevel the helicopter and prevent any moredeceleration. If too much collective is applied, thehelicopter stops descending and may remain in anout-of-ground effect hover; if too little collective isused, the helicopter descends rapidly. If not enoughforward cyclic is applied, the helicopter maydecelerate to zero airspeed and then descend astranslational lift is lost. If too much forward cyclicis applied, the helicopter may dive toward theground. [FAA-H-8083-21]

4. How should this maneuver terminate?

A rapid deceleration should terminate in astationary hover at the appropriate height abovethe surface. [FAA-H-8083-21]

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In addition to the questions below, a flight instructorshould be know the answers to all the other questionsin this document.

1. What are the helicopter flight instructor certificateprivileges and limitations?

A helicopter flight instructor is authorized to givetraining and provide endorsements required forstudent, private, and instructor certificates. He/shemay not provide training in a helicopter unlesshe/she has at least five flight hours of PIC time inthat specific make and model helicopter. Theinstructor may not endorse a pilot’s certificate orlogbook for flight unless he/she has provided therequired flight training and determined that thepilot is prepared for such flight according thespecific regulations set forth. [61.193] [61.195]

2. What are the helicopter flight instructor medicalcertificate requirements and duration?

A helicopter flight instructor requires at least athird class medical certificate when acting as PIC,which is valid for 36 month for persons under theage of 40 and 24 month for persons 40 or above. Amedical certificate is not required when a flightinstructor is not acting as PIC. [61.23]

FUNDAMENTALS OF INSTRUCTION More definitive answers to these questionscan be found in FAA-H-8083-9, Avia-tion Instructor’s Handbook.

1. Define learning.

Learning is defined as a change in behaviorresulting from experience with the environment,which cannot be attributed to natural growth.

2. Describe the basic characteristics associatedwith learning.

Effective learning shares several commoncharacteristics. Learning is purposeful, it is theresult of experience, it’s multifaceted, and it’s anactive process. Each student has a unique set ofmotivators for wanting to learn something. Whiledifficult to identify, these motivations are keycomponents to the learning process. You cannotlearn for your students, they have to experiencessomething to effectively learn. Remember thatlearning is classified into several types: verbal,conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem solving,and emotional.

3. Give an example of each type of reinforcement thatcan be used with students. Identify which type isnormally the most effective in helpingstudents learn.

Positive ReinforcementIn this case, a reward isgiven for correct behavior, and the behavior isstrengthened. For example, in a postflight debrief-ing, Steve praises Ann’s hovering performance.

PunishmentHere a penalty is given forincorrect behavior. The behavior is weakened orgoes away. An example would be when Cherylshouts at Brian after he forgets to clear the areaprior to taking off.

Negative ReinforcementThis time a penalty isremoved for correct behavior, and the behavior isstrengthened. For example, Eric is constantlycriticized for making mistakes during slopelandings. He is relieved when he finally performs alanding correctly and Bob does not point outany errors.

ExtinctionIn this case, a reward is removed forincorrect behavior. The behavior slowly goes away.An example would be during ground schoolsessions, Michelle consistently compliments Tanyaon her knowledge of the subject areas covered.Tanya knows she did not prepare well enough forthe aerodynamics discussion when she receives nopraise.

The use of positive reinforcement to help studentslearn is normally the most successful approach.

4. Provide an example of a situation in which astudent is performing at the level of automaticity.

A student is performing with automaticity whenrolling into a hovering turn without consciouslythinking about antitorque pedal pressure or cyclicpressure needed to maintain the turn.

5. What learning theory is based upon the idea thatlearners build knowledge through the process ofdiscovery as they experience events and activelyseek to understand their environment?

Constructivism. You create experiences so thestudent can construct their knowledge throughdiscovery and understanding based on theseexperiences.

6. Why is the concept of perception important?

Perceptions are the basis for all learning.Perception occurs when meaning is given to

Section E—FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR BRIEFINGS

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sensations, therefore it is crucial to guide your stu-dents into making correct perceptions.

7. List and describe the elements that can affect a stu-dent’s perceptions

• Physical organisma person who has limited abilities with one or more senses perceivesdifferently than someone who doesn’t.

• Basic needa person’s fundamental need is tomaintain and enhance the organized self.

• Goals and valuespoor performance during animportant lesson can be devastating to a studentwho has dreamed of becoming a helicopter pilot,therefore it is important to understand the goals astudent holds.

• Self-concepta student’s self image greatlyinfluences his/her perceptions.

• Time and opportunitythe time to practice andrelate new sensations associated with new procedures is essential.

• The element of threatfear can narrow theperceptual field by causing his/her attention to befocused on the threat instead of focusing on thematerial in the specific lesson.

8. Describe why students may forget material.

Material that was never successfully processed intolong-term memory by working memory, cannot beremembered. The breakdown of neural pathwaysbetween the various cells where memories arestored is another reason that things are forgotten.This usually occurs due to disuse of theinformation over time. Interference occurs whensomething is forgotten because a certainexperience has overshadowed it or when thelearning of similar things has intervened.Interference can arise from competing materiallearned either before or after the information thatthe student wishes to remember. Repression cancause forgetting when experiences that areunpleasant or produce anxiety are buried into thesubconscious part of the minds.

9. Give some examples of learning styles.

Some examples are: right brain/left brain,reflective/impulsive, holist/serialist, and audi-tory/visual/kinesthetic.

10. List and define the three learning domains.

The cognitive domain is concerned with knowledgeand thought processes. The psychomotor domainencompasses the development of fine and exactphysical skills. The affective domain focuses onfeelings, attitudes, personal beliefs, and values.

11. What type of transfer of learning occurs whenprevious learning interferes with the understandingof a new task?

Negative transfer of knowledge.

12. Name the three basic elements that make up thecommunication process.

The three basic elements that comprise thecommunication process are the source, the symbolsused to communicate the message, and the receiver.

13. List barriers to effective communication.

Some of the barriers are lack of commonexperience, confusion between the symbol and thesymbolized object, overuse of abstractions,interference.

14. Why is it important to monitor student feedback?

Monitoring student feedback provides a way togauge whether your students are receiving thecorrect message.

15. Provide a specific example of a student who maybe exhibiting the defense mechanism of flight.

Some examples might be:

Laurie phones you to cancel yet another lesson dueto illness.

Jim stopped scheduling flights while he “finishesup an important project at work.” He promised toreturn to his training in two weeks, yet it has beenover a month and you have not heard from him.

Karen does not show up for scheduled lessons or isso late that often there is not enough time leftduring the lesson period to fly.

16. Name a way you can counteract student anxietyabout flying.

Choosing a calm, clear day to take a new studenton a short introductory flight is one way ofminimizing any anxieties that exist about learningto fly. Student anxieties can also be minimized

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throughout training by emphasizing the benefitsand pleasurable experiences that can be derivedfrom flying, rather than by continuously citing anyserious consequences. You can explain to your stu-dents that safe flying practices are not only used tohelp prevent accidents, but are conducive to asatisfying and efficient operation.

17. Explain how the telling-and-doing techniquediffers from the demonstration-performancemethod.

The telling-and-doing technique follows the foursteps of the demonstration-performance method,excluding the explanation phase.

18. Describe how a student’s impatience can be anobstacle to learning.

Impatient students don’t understand the need forthorough preliminary training and are morefocused on the outcome than on the path to achiev-ing it.

19. What is the desired level of learning forpilot training?

The application level.

20. What is the first step in any organized trainingactivity?

To determine the objectives and standards of aparticular task.

21. Describe the difference between a critique and anevaluation.

A critique is a step in the learning process, and anevaluation is part of the overall grading process.Critiques should be used to summarize andcomplete a lesson, as well as to prepare yourstudent for the next lesson. Evaluations measuredemonstrated performance against a criteria orstandard.

22. Name two advantages that a written critique hasover oral methods.

You can devote more time to the critique. You canorganize your thoughts more clearly. Your studentscan keep the critique and use it as a reference.

23. What should you do if you cannot answer yourstudent’s question?

Admit that you don’t know, but you’ll find theanswer and provide it later.

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3-1

This chapter covers the requirements for the flightreview and is designed to give the instructor who isconducting the review a general guide as to whatshould be covered during the review process. The flightreview is not a test or check ride, but an instructionalservice designed to assess a pilot’s knowledge, skills,and proficiency. For a more in depth discussion offlight reviews, refer to AC 91-98, Currency andAdditional Qualification Requirements for CertificatedPilots.

WHO NEEDS A FLIGHT REVIEW?All pilots require a flight review every 24 months withthe following exceptions:

1. A person who has a pilot proficiency checkconducted by an examiner, an approved pilotcheck airman, or a U.S. Armed Force, for a pilotcertificate, rating, or operating privilege.

2. A person who has satisfactorily accomplishedone or more phases of an FAA-sponsored pilotproficiency award program.

3. A student pilot need not accomplish the flightreview required by this section provided thestudent pilot is undergoing training for acertificate and has a current solo flightendorsement as required under section 61.87.

4. A person who has passed a required pilot-in-command proficiency check under section 61.58,or under parts 121, 135, or 141.

5. A person who holds a current flight instructorcertificate, and who has satisfactorily completedthe renewal of a flight instructor certificate underthe provisions in Title 14 of the Code of FederalRegulations (14 CFR) section 61.197 need notaccomplish the 1 hour of ground training listedunder the requirements of the flight review.

WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OFTHE FLIGHT REVIEW?Section 61.56 stipulates that a flight review mustcontain at least one hour of ground instruction and onehour of flight instruction. The instruction must includea review of the general operating and flight rules of part

91 and a review of those maneuvers and proceduresthat, at the discretion of the instructor giving thereview, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate thesafe exercise of the privileges of the pilot certificateheld. Instructors should tailor the review of generaloperating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot beingreviewed to ensure the pilot can comply with allregulatory requirements and operate safely.

PREREVIEW CONSIDERATIONSThe flight review gives pilots the opportunity to ridewith a flight instructor of their own choosing for anappraisal of their flying skills and proficiency, and toget further assistance and guidance in any areas inwhich they are deficient. Accident rates, however,suggest that, among other things, some instructorsadministering flight reviews may not sufficientlyrecognize and correct poor pilot technique or decisionmaking capabilities. Since the maneuvers andprocedures performed are at the discretion of theinstructor giving the review, it’s important thatinstructors adequately prepare for the review. Aninstructor can make the most of a flight review bybeginning with an interview of the pilot to determinethe nature of his or her flying and operatingrequirements. AC 61-98 suggests some of the elementsto consider during this interview.

MAKE, MODEL, OR TYPE OF HELICOPTERFLOWNWhile the regulations do not require an instructor tohave any minimum amount of time in a particular makeand model of helicopter for the purposes of giving aflight review, it is a good idea for the instructor to befamiliar with the helicopter so the review can beconducted safely within the operating limitations of thehelicopter to be used. Instructors conducting a flightreview must hold a category, class, and, if appropriate,the type rating on their pilot certificate, as well as acategory and class rating on their flight instructorcertificate appropriate to the aircraft in which thereview is to be conducted.

SFAR 73 has additional requirements for pilots to actas pilot in command in Robinson R-22 or R-44helicopters. In order to act as pilot in command ineither of these helicopters, the flight review has to beconducted in an R-22 or R-44 respectively.

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NATURE OF FLIGHT OPERATIONS Instructors giving a flight review should consider thetype of flying usually done by the pilot before decidinghow to conduct the review. Most pilots may want toreview only emergency procedures, but other pilotsmight want to concentrate on areas of operation inwhich they lack experience or feel deficient.

RECENCY OF FLIGHT EXPERIENCE The instructor should review the pilot’s logbook todetermine total flight time and recency of experience.This allows the instructor to evaluate the need forparticular maneuvers and procedures in the flightreview. Pilots who have not flown in several years mayrequire an extensive review of the basic maneuvers anda more extensive review of part 91, as well as recentchanges in airspace and other operating requirements.More experienced and current pilots may want toreview advanced maneuvers. Regardless of flightexperience, the flight review should include all areas inwhich the instructor determines that the pilot shouldreceive training in order to operate safely.

AGREEMENT ON CONDUCT OFREVIEWOnce the areas of emphasis have been determined, youand the pilot should agree on how the review will beconducted. In this way, both will know what to expect,and the pilot receiving the assessment will know whatmaterial to study. Ensure that you discuss acceptablestandards with the pilot. You may want to giveexamples of unsafe performance to clarify theguidelines. From this information, you can prepare aplan for completing the review. The plan shouldinclude a list of regulatory subjects to be covered, theflight maneuvers to be accomplished, and the sequenceof events. (See Sample Flight Review Plan andChecklist on page 3-3.)

GROUND TRAINING CONSIDERATIONSThe ground portion of the flight review should focuson practical knowledge and regulations. Any new regu-lations, or regulations that have changed since a pilot’slast flight review, should be discussed. Also, topicsrelated to seasonal considerations should be touchedupon. For example, in early fall it’s a good idea to dis-cuss winter flying considerations, while early springmay require a more thorough review of the effects ofdensity altitude. Another subject that has receivedincreased attention in general aviation is cockpitresource management (CRM). Although a hot topic inairline circles for several years, CRM is just beginning

to be recognized as useful in reducing accidents andimproving efficiency in general aviation.

It is up to the instructor to make the ground portion ofthe review an interesting endeavor. One method is touse scenarios that provoke meaningful discussions andlearning experiences.

IN-FLIGHT CONSIDERATIONS During the flight portion, instructors should adjust theamount of time spent on each maneuver as the pilot’slevel of proficiency becomes apparent. Additionalinstruction may be provided in weak areas, or newconcepts may be introduced. The flight reviewprovides an excellent opportunity to help pilots correctbad habits that they may have developed since their lastevaluation. After identifying the problem, point out thepotential safety implications associated with theproblem and provide instruction to help the pilotcorrect the situation. It should not be surprising todetect weak areas in a pilot’s performance that were notanticipated by the pilot himself and/or brought outduring the preflight interview.

POSTREVIEW ACTIONSOne the most important phases of the flight reviewoccurs as the instructor provides the pilot with anobjective analysis of his or her performance. Thepostflight discussion should provide an assessment ofthe pilot’s performance on each task as well as overallcapabilities. Suggestions for improving weak areasshould also be provided. If the instructor feelsadditional instruction is required in essentialprocedures, the review should simply be logged as atraining flight. No logbook entry reflectingunsatisfactory performance should be made. The pilotmay continue to exercise certificate privileges as longas 24 calendar months have not elapsed since the pilot’slast flight review or proficiency check. After additionalinstruction is obtained, the pilot should scheduleanother flight review session. Following successfulcompletion of the flight review, the instructor givingthe review should endorse the pilot’s logbookaccordingly. The endorsement should follow theformat contained in AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots andFlight Instructors and Ground Instructors:

Mr./Mrs. holder of pilot certificate # has satisfactorily completed the flight review required by §61.56 on

[date]

[date]Signed

CFI # Expiration

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SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW PLAN AND CHECKLIST

Name___________________ Date__________________

Grade of Certificate____________ Certificate No. ________________

Ratings and Limitations ___________________________________

Class of Medical __________________ Date of Medical______________

Total Flight Time________________ Time in Type (if applicable)_____________

Aircraft to be used: Make and Model __________________ N# _______________

Location of Review __________________________________

I. Review of 14 CFR Part 91

Ground Instruction Hours: ____________

Remarks: ____________________________________________________

II. Review of Maneuvers and Procedures from appropriate PTS (list in order of anticipated performance)

A. _________________________B. _________________________C. _________________________D. _________________________E. _________________________F. _________________________G. _________________________H. _________________________I. __________________________J. __________________________

Flight Instruction Hours: ____________

Remarks: __________________________________________________________

III. Overall Completion of Review

Remarks: __________________________________________________________

Signature of CFI __________________ Date ____________________

Certificate No. ____________________ Expiration Date ___________

I have received a flight review, which consisted of the ground instruction and flight maneuvers andprocedures noted above.

Signature of Pilot ____________________ Date _____________________

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SAMPLE LIST OF FLIGHT REVIEWKNOWLEDGE, MANEUVERS, ANDPROCEDURESBefore beginning the flight review, it is a good idea toreview the latest Practical Test Standard (PTS) to deter-mine if there are new or changed standards, which youfeel the pilot should know or understand.

ALL CATEGORIES AND CLASSES OFAIRCRAFT

• Pilot certificates and other part 61 requirements

• Aircraft performance and limitations

• Aircraft loading, weight, and balance

• Aircraft systems and operating procedures

• Abnormal and emergency procedures

• Flight planning and obtaining weatherinformation

• Aircraft documents and records

• Avoidance of hazardous weather

• Air traffic control and airspace

• Preflight inspection

• Use of checklists

• Radio communication and navigation (if aircraftis equipped)

• Collision avoidance, traffic pattern operations,ground operations

• Navigation by pilotage

• Lost procedures

• Diversion

HELICOPTERS

• Normal takeoffs and landings to a hover and tothe ground

• Confined area operations

• Maximum performance takeoffs

• Steep approach

• Pinnacle/platform operations

• Slope operations

• Rapid deceleration (quick stop)

• Running/roll-on landings

• Autorotations from altitude

• Hovering autorotations

• Discussion of dynamic rollover and groundresonance

• Settling with power (demonstration)

• Loss of tail rotor effectiveness

• Low rotor r.p.m. recovery

• System failures (ex. hydraulics, electrical, tailrotor, etc.)

Ch 03.qxd 10/30/02 11:14 AM Page 3-4

FAA - Helicopter Instructors Guide

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