f4 Biology Chapter4 Bilingual

8/18/2019 f4 Biology Chapter4 Bilingual

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Biology SPM Chapter 4

Chemical composition of the cell (Komposisi kimia sel)

1. Element in the cell (Unsur di dalam sel)

Elements are the basic units of matter. Out of the 92 stable

elements found on the Earth only 2! found in li"ing things.Unsur adalah unis asas jirim. Antara 92 unsur yang dijumpai di bumi, hanya 25

dijumpai dalam benda hidup.

Cate

gory Element #unctions

Ma$or

constituents(unsurunsur utama)

96.3%

%ydrogen !idrogen

Component of &ater and organic

molecules Komponen air dan molekul organik

Carbon Karbon

Bac'bone of organic moleculesUnsur asas bagi molekul organik.

(itrogen Component of proteins and nucleic acid Komponen protein dan asid nukleik

O)ygen

"ksigen

Component of &ater and most of organic

molecules. *e+uired for cellular respiration. Komponen air dan molekul organik. diperlukanuntuk respirasi.

,race elements

-unsurunser

surih/

Sodium #atrium

Principal cation in fluids outside of the

cell. 0mportant in functioning of ner"es. Kation utama bendaliar di luar sel. $enting untuk

%ungsi sara%.

Magnesium Cofactor of many en1ymes. 0mportant in

forming of chlorophyll. Ko%aktor dalam kebanyakan en&im. $enting dalam

pembentukan kloroplas.

Phosphorus 'os%orus

Constituent of nucleic acid. 0n"ol"e inenergy transfer reaction and essential

component of bone and teeth. Kandungan asid mukleik. terlibat dalam tindakabalas pemindahan tenaga dan komponen penting

tulang dan gigi.

Sulphur ul%ur

Component of certain proteins and

"itamins. Komponen protein dan itamin.

Chlorine Klorin

Principal anion in fluid outside the cell. Anion utama bendalir di luar sel.

Potassium Kalium

Principal cation in fluids inside the cell.

0mportant in functioning of ner"es. Kation utama bendalir dalam sel. $enting untuk

%ungsi sara%.

Calcium Kalsium

Cofactor of en1yme. ,rigger muscle

contraction and as component of bonesteeth and plant cell &alls. Ko%aktor bagi en&im. merangsang penge*utan otot dan komponen tulang, gigi dan dinding sel

tumbuhan.

ltratrace

elementUnsurunser

ultrasurih

0ronbesi

Cofactor of many en1ymes. Constituent of

haemoglobin. Ko%aktor en&im. Kandungan hemoglobin.

Chemical compound in the cell (Sebatian kimia dalam sel)

3. Chemical compounds in the cell can be di"ided into t&o ma$or

groups organic and inorganic compounds.ebatian kimia dalam sel dibahagikan kepada dua kompulan+ sebatian organik

dan tidak organik.

2. Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon.ebatian organik ialah sebatian yang terdiri daripada karbon.

5. ,he principle organic compounds found in organisms are

carbohydrates lipids proteins and nucleic acids.ebatian organik dalam organisma ialah karbohidrat, lipid, protein dan asid

nukleik.

4. 0norganic compounds are compounds that generally do notcontain carbon. 6ater is an important inorganic compound.ebatian tidak organik biasanya tidak mengandungi karbon. Air ialah sebatiantidak organik yang penting.

Organic compound #unction

Carbohydrates Karbohidrat

Supply energy for cell processes storing energy

and gi"e structural support to cell &all. embekal tenaga untuk proses sel, menyimpan tenaga danmemberi sokongan kepada dinding sel.


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7ipids -ipid

Store large amount of energy o"er long periods of

time. 8ct as an energy source and play a ma$or role

in the structure of the cell membranes. 8ct as asource of metabolic and reduce the loss of &ater by

e"aporation. 0t also absorb shoc' and as a heat

insulator. enyimpan tenaga yang banyak. pembekal tenaga dan

membentuk membran sel. sumber metabolisme danmengurangkan penyejatan air. a juga menyerap hentakan serta sebagai penebat haba.

Proteins 8ct as building bloc's of many structural

components of the cell re+uired for gro&th. #orm

en1ymes &hich catalyse chemical reactions and

form hormones &hich control gro&th and

metabolism. embina sel baru. Untuk tumbesaran. embentuk en&im

yang memper*epatkan tindak balas kimia dan hormon yang digunakan unutk metabolisme.

(ucleic acids

Asid nukleik

Contain the genetic information of cells. Play a

"ital role in protein synthesis. engandungi maklumat genetik dalam sel. emainkan

peranan penting dalam proses sintesis protein.

Water is a good sol"ent for many substances -uni"ersal sol"ent/. Air ialah pelarut semesta kehidupan.

6ater transports sucrose and minerals in sie"e tubes of plants.

Medium to transport in blood lymph e)cretory and digestion. Air mengangkut sukrosa dan mineral dalam pembuluh tapis tumbuhan.

edium pengangkutan dalam darah, *e*air lim%a, perkumuhan dan pen*ernaan.

6ater is not easily compressed helps to gi"e the cells its shape and

structure. -Support/ Air mengekalkan bentuk tetap dan struktur sel.(okongan)

6ater ta'es part in biochemical reactions. 0t is essential in

photosynthesis. Air sebagai medium untuk tindak balas.$enting dalam proses %otosintesis.penting

8ct as lubricant.-ebagai pelin*ir

/

Nucleic acid (Asid nukleik)

(ucleic acid is a comple) macromolecule that store genetic

information. Asid nukleik+ makromolekul kompleks yang menyimpan maklumat genetik.

,he basic unit -monomer/ for nucleic acid is nucleotide. (ucleotide is

made up of a nitrogenous base pentose sugar and phosphate group.Unit binaan asas(monomer) asid nukleik ialah nukleotida yang terdiri daripada bes

bernitrogen, gula pentosa dan kumpulan %os%as.

,here are t&o type of nucleic acid :(8 and *(8.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid Asid deoksiribonukleik

Made up from polynucleotide that form double heli) structure./erdiri daripada polinukleotida yang berpilin bersama untuk membentuk struktur keliks

ganda dua.

#ound in nucleus chloroplast and mitochondia. 0ijumpai dalam nukleus, kloroplas dan mito*hondrion.

Contain genetic materials that pass on to the ne)t generation. engandungi maklumat genetik yang diturunkan daripada induk kepada anak.

!NA (!ibonucleic acid Asid ribonukleik

Made up of single chain -terdiri daripada bebenang tunggal /

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwitztaSvsXKAhXNW44KHYjFBRIQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffungsi.web.id%2F2015%2F07%2Fstruktur-asam-nukleat.html&psig=AFQjCNFbnfLhAQl-Oeslxu9VYSPuGX1_4g&ust=1453829242926396


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#ound in cytoplasm ribosome and nucleus.dijumpai dalam sitoplasma, ribosom dan nukleus.

8ct as a copied information from :(8 for the synthesis of protein.berperanan dalam menyalin maklumat yang dibaa 0#A untuk mensistesis protein.

basic genetic substances for some "irus. (ahan genetik bagi sesetengah irus)

Carbohydrates (karbohidrat"

made up of carbon hydrogen and o)ygen. ,he ratio of hydrogen to

o)ygen atoms in the molecule is usually 32./erdiri daripada karbon, hidrogen dan oksigen dalam nisbah hidrogen kepadaoksigen ialah 1+2.

Many carbohydrates ha"e the general formula C)-%2O/y &here ) is

appro)imately e+ual to y. Kebanyakan mempunyai %ormula umum 34(! 2")y.

,he three basic types of carbohydrates are monosaccharide

disaccharides and polysaccharides.

/iga jenis asas karbohidrat ialah monosakarida, disakarida dan polisakarida.

Monosaccharide - onosakarida

/

also called simple sugar - gula ringkas/

,he common monosaccharides are si)carbon sugars &ith a

molecular formula of C;%32O;. onosakarida biasanya ialah gula karbon dengan %ormula molekul 3 ! 12" .

E)amples of monosaccharides are glucose fructose and galactose.3ontoh+ 6lukosa, %ruktosa dan galaktosa.

Monosaccharides are s&eettasting crystalline substances &hich aresoluble in &ater. onosakarida adalah bahan hablur yang berasa manis dan terlarut air.

:isaccharides - 0isakarida

/

#ormed from t&o monosaccharides molecules combining together &ith the elimination of a molecular of &ater. ,he chemical reaction

of the formation is 'no&n as condensation.

/erbentuk daripada dua monosakarida yang bergabung dengan menyingkirkan

satu molekul air. /indak balas ini ialah kondensasi.

,he general formula of a disaccharide is C32%22O33. ,hey are also

called comple) sugars. 'ormula umum disakarida ialah 3 12 ! 22"11. ereka juga dipanggil gula

kompleks.

0t can be bro'en do&n to their constituent monosaccharides by

chemical reaction in"ol"ing the addition of &ater. ,he reaction is'no&n as hydrolysis. 0isakarida boleh diuraikan menjadi monosakarida dengan penambahanmolekul air. /indak balas ini ialah hidrolisis.

,hey are s&eettasting crystalline substances that are soluble in

&ater. 0isakarida adalah bahan hablur yang berasa manis dan terlarut air.

,he most common disaccharides are maltose lactose and sucrose.3ontoh+ maltosa, laktosa dan sukrosa.

Carboh

ydrate Name #ormula $ource

Monosaccharides-simple sugars/

glucose C;%32O; fruits

fructose C;%32O; fruits honey

galactose C;%32O; not naturally occurring

:isaccharides

-double sugars/

sucrose C32%22O33 sugar cane sugar beet

fruits

lactose C32%22O33 mil'

maltose C32%22O33 germinating grain


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$tructure

(ame #ormula Structure

sucrose -glucose > fructose/

lactose -glucose >

galactose/

Maltose -glucose > glucose/

Polysaccharides - $olisakarida

/

Many monosaccharide molecules can be added by a series of condensation reactions to form a "ery large molecule

-macromolecule/. anyak molekul monosakarida boleh digabungkan dengan tindaka balas

kondensasi untuk membentuk molekul besar.

Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide monomers. $olisakasida ialah polimer bagi monomer.

Polysaccharides ha"e a general formula of -C;%3=O!/n &here n is

number of monomers. $olisakarida mempunyai %ormula umum (3 ! 17"5 )n dimana n ialah bilangan

monomer.

,he large si1e of polysaccharides ma'es them more or less

insoluble in &ater. ,hey are not s&eet and amorphous cannot be

crystallised.ai& polisakarida yang besar menyebabkan mereka tidak8kurang terlarut

dalam air. ereka tidak terasa manis dan tidak menghablur.

,he addition of iodine solution to a solution containing starchyields a blueblac' colour. $enambahan larutan iodin ke dalam larutan kanji menghasilkan arna hitambiru.

Polysaccharide subunit Structure Occurance

Starch

- Kanji/

?lucose Consists of 2

components

unbranched helical

chains of glucoseunit and branched

chain of glucose

unit. engandungi dua

kompenen ialah tidak

ber*abang (rantaianheliks glukosa), dan

ber*abang.

Ma$or storage of

carbohydrate in

plants.(Karbohidrat simpanan dalam

tumbuhan)

?lycogen

-6likogen)

?lucose %ighly branched

short chains of

glucose units. antaian glukosaber*abang yang pendek.

Ma$or storage of

carbohydrate in

animals and

fungi. Karbohidrat simpanan dalam

haian dan kulat.

Cellulose

-elulosa/

?lucose Straight unbranched

chain of glucose

units antaian glukosa yang

tidak ber*abang .

Plant cell &all 0inding sel

tumbuhan


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!educing sugars and nonreducing sugars

(Gula penurun dan gula bukan penurun)

8ll monosaccharides and certain disaccharides can reduce copper

-00/ sulphate in Benedict@s solution producing a bric'red precipitateof copper -0/ o)ide in heating. Such sugars are 'no&n as reducing

sugar.emua monosakarida dan sesetengah disakarida boleh menurun kuprum () sul%at dalam larutan benedi*t, menghasilkan mendakan merah bata kuprum ()

oksida selepas pemanasan. 6ula tersebut dipanggil gula penurun.

Sugars that gi"e a negati"e Benedict@s test are 'no&n as nonreducing sugars. E)ample of nonreducing sugar is sucrose.6ula yang tidak memberi kesan terhadap Ujian benedi*t dipanggil gula bukan penurun. 3ontoh gula bukan penurun ialah sukrosa.

,here is no specific test for nonreducing sugars. ,he nonreducing

sugar is hydrolysed to its constituent monosaccharides by boiling

&ith dilute hydrochloric acid. ,he products of hydrolysis are

neutralised &ith sodium hydrogen carbonate before testing &ith

Benedict@s solution./iada ujian khusus untuk mengesan gula bukan penurun. 6ula bukan penurun

perlu diuraikan melalui hidrolisis (pendidihan dengan asid hidroklorik *air). !asilnya dineutralkan dengan natrium hidrogen karbonat dan diujidengan

larutan benedi*t.

E)periment :ifferentiating bet&een reducing and nonreducing sugar

Materials Benedict@s solution dilute hydrochloric acid solid sodium

hydrogen carbonate 2A glucose solution 2A fructose

solution

2A galactose solution 2A maltose solution 2A sucrose

solution

2A lactose solution.

8pparatus ,est tube bea'er Bunsen burner tripod stand &ire gau1e

measuring cylinder &ater bath and test tube holder 8im ,o test the sample sugar &hether got reducing process or not

Method 8 ,est for reducing sugar

3. 2ml of glucose solution are placed in a test tube.2. 2ml of Benedict@s solution are added to the test tube.

5. ,he test tube is then placed in a &ater bath of boiling &ater for !

minutes.

4. ,he final colour of the solution in the test tube is noted.!. Step 3 to 4 are repeated for all the other solution.

*esults

$olution &enedict's test?lucose Bric'red precipitate

#ructose Bric'red precipitate

?alactose Bric'red precipitate

Maltose Bric'red precipitate

Sucrose Blue solution

7actose Bric'red precipitate

Conclusion


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?lucose fructose galactose maltose and lactose are reducing sugars

because they gi"e a positi"e Benedict@s test. Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar

because it gi"es a negati"e Benedict@s test.

Method B

3. 2ml of sucrose solution are poured into a test tube.

2. 3ml of dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the test tube.

5. ,he test tube is placed in a &ater bath and boiled for ! minutes.4. ,he test tube is cooled under a tap and solid sodium hydrogen carbonate is

added to neutralise the e)cess acid.

!. ,he test tube is placed in a &ater bath and boiled for ! minutes.

*esults 8 bric'red precipitate is formed in the test tube.

:iscussion

3. Sucrose is hydrolysed into glucose and fructose &hen boiled &ithdilute hydrochloric acid.

2. 6hen the solution containing glucose and fructose is boiled &ith

Benedict@s solution it formed a bric'red precipitate.

Conclusion Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar.

roteins3. 8bout t&othird of the total dry mass of a cell is composed of

proteins. Kirakira dua per tiga jisim kering sel ialah protein.

2. Proteins contain carbon hydrogen o)ygen and nitrogen. Sulphur is

often present and sometimes phosphorus and other elements too. $rotein mengandungi karbon, hidrogen, oksigen dan nitrogen. sul%ur dan %os%orus

juga hadir dalam sesetengah protein.

5. 8mino acids are the subunits of all proteins.Unit asas protein ialah asid amino.

4. ,here are 2= biological important amino acids./erdapat 27 jenis asid amino.

!. Each amino acid carried t&o functional groups a carbo)yl group -

COO%/ &hich is acidic and an amino group -(%2/ &hich is basic.etiap asid amino mempunyai dua kumpulan ber%ungsi+ kumpulan karboksil (

3""!) yang bersi%at asid dan kumpulan amino (#! 2 ) yang bersi%at bes.

;. ,&o amino acids can combine to form a dipeptide by a

condensation reaction bet&een the carbo)yl group of one amino

acid and the amino group of the other. ,he resulting a bond li'ing

the t&o amino acids that is called a peptide bond. 0ua asid amino bergabung membentuk dipeptida melalui kondensasi antara

kumpulan karboksil satu asid amino dan kumpulan amino satu asid amino yang lain melaui ikatan peptida.

8mino acid > amino acid dipeptide > &ater

. 7ong chains of amino acids are called polypeptides. antai asid amino yang panjang dipanggil polipeptida.

. 8 peptide bond can be bro'en by hydrolysis &ith heat dilute

acids or by en1ymes.atu ikatan peptida boleh diputuskan melalui hidrolisis dengan haba, asid *air

atau en&im.

9. ,he loss of threedimensional structure of a protein molecule is

'no&n as denaturation. Kehilangan struktur molekul protein dipanggil dinaturasi8 penyahaslian.

3=. :enaturation can be caused by changes in temperature p% and

salt concentration. 0enaturasi boleh disebabkan oleh perubahan suhu, p! dan kepekatan garam.

33. %eating proteins usually denatures the protein irre"ersibly. #or

e)ample the transparent egg &hite irre"ersibly solidifies and

becomes opa+ue on boiling. $emanasan protein biasanya merosakan protein itu se*ara tidak berbalik


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)ssential and nonessential amino acids

(Asid amino perlu dan tidak perlu)

3. 0n the digesti"e tract protein is bro'en do&n into its amino acid

subunit by hydrolysis. $rotein akan di*ernakan menjadi asid amino melalui proses hidrolisis.

2. %uman can synthesis 33 of 2= different amino acids and 'no&n as

nonessential amino acid.. anusia boleh mensintesis 11 asid amino dan dipanggil asid amino tidak perlu.

5. ,he remaining 9 amino acids cannot be synthesi1ed in human. ,hey

must be included in the diet. ,hey are 'no&n as essential amino

acids.9 asid amino yang lain tidak boleh disintesis oleh manusia dan mesti meambil melalui diet

kita. ereka dipanggil asid amino perlu.

4. 8nimal protein refer as first class protein &hile plant protein refer as

second class protein. $rotein haian ialah protein kelas pertama manakala protein tumbuhan ialah protein kelas

kedua.

Protein structure :escription

Primarystructuretruktur primer

,he linear se+uence of amino acids in structure a

protein molecule. ,he first protein to ha"e its

se+uence of amino acids determined &as the hormone

insulin.Urutan linear asid amino dalam satu rantai polipeptida.

Secondary

structure Peptide chain becomes folded or t&isted forming a

truktur sekunder heli) or plate sheet. ,he structure is maintained by

hydrogen bonding. E)ample Collagen 'eratin antai polipeptida yang berpintal membentuk heliksa(lingkaran berpilin) atau polipeptida yang berlipat menjadi

kepingan berlisu.truktur tersebut dikekalkan dengan ikatan

hidrogen.3ontoh+ Kolagen dan keratin.

,ertiary

structuretruktur tertier

Bending and t&isting of the polypeptide heli) into acompact structure. Structure is maintained by ionic

disulphide and hydrogen bonding.3ara rantai heliksa atau kepingan berlisub berlipat

membentuk saru protein globul yang padat dan berbentuk tigadimensi oleh ikatan hidrogen, ion dan disul%ida.

Myoglobin a protein found in muscles has thetertiary structure. En1ymes antibodies and many

hormones ha"e this structure as &ell.

:n&im, hormon, antibodi dan protein plasma ialah *ontoh*ontoh protein kompleks struktur tertier.

Duaternary

structuretruktur ;uartener

:ifferent polypeptide chains combine &ith associated

nonprotein groups forming a large comple) protein

molecule. %aemoglobin an o)ygen binding proteinhas a +uaternary structure. Kombinasi dua atau lebih rantai polipeptida berstruktur tertier yang membentuk satu molekul protein kompleks dan

besar.3ontoh+ !emoglobin.


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*ipids ( Lipid

1. 7ipids are di"erse group of substances that contain carbon hydrogen

and o)ygen. ,he proportion of o)ygen is lo&er than that in

carbohydrates. #or e)ample the general formula of stearic acid is

C3%5;O2 or C3%5!COO% -ipid terdiri daripada karbon, hidrogen dan oksigen.#isbah atom hidrogen

kepada atom oksigen dalam molekul lipid adalah jauh lebih tinggi daripada

nisbah 2+1 dalam karbohidrat.

2. 8ll lipids are insoluble in &ater. emua lipid tidak terlarut dalam air.

enis utama lipid ialah lemak, minyak, lilin, %os%olipid, steroid.

5. #ats and oils (-emak dan minyak)a. #ats are solid in room temperature &hereas oil are li+uid.

-emak adalah pepejal dan minyak adlah *e*air pada suhu bilik.

b. Each molecule of fats and oils is made up of one glycerolcombined &ith three fatty acids &hich may be the same or

may be different. ,hree molecules of &ater are remo"ed in

this condensation reaction.etiap molekul lemak dan minyak terdiri daripada satu gliserol

bergabung dengan tiga asid lemak yang sama atau berbe&a. tigamolekul air akan disingkirkan dalam pro*ess kondensasi ini.

*. ,hese molecules of fats and oils are 'no&n as

triglycerides. olekul lemak dan minyak juga dipanggil trigli*erida.

d. #ats often contain only saturated fatty acids &hereas oils

usually contain unsaturated fatty acids. -emak biasanya tetdiri daripada asid lemak tepu manakala minyak

terdiri daripada asid lemak tidak tepu.

e. 0n a saturated fatty acid the carbon atoms are bonded to

the ma)imum number of other atoms. Saturated fatty acid

has only single bond and the hydrocarbon chain is

relati"ely straight. 0alam asid lemak tepu, atom karbon diikat dengan bilangan atom yang maksimum dan mempunyai ikatan tunggal sahaja.

%. nsaturated fatty acid has double bond are called

monounsaturated fatty acids those &ith t&o or more

double bonds are called polyunsaturated fatty acids. Asid lemak tidak tepu mempunyai satu ikatan ganda dua (asid lemak

mono tak tepu manakala lebih daripada dua ikatan ganda dua (asid lemak poli tak tepu).


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g. #ats and oils function efficiently as energy storage materials.

#ats and oils pro"ide 5' per gram &hile carbohydrates can

pro"ide only 3' per gram. -emak dan minyak membekalkan banyak tenaga.

. 6a)es -lilin/a. 6a)es are similar to triglycerides but the fatty acids are

bonded to long chain alcohols rather than glycerol. Asid lemak lilin terikat kepada rantai panjang alkohol.

b. 6a)es are usually hard solids at room temperature. -ilin merupakan pepejal pada suhu bilik.

*. 6a)es are used to &aterproof the e)ternal surfaces of plants

and animals. ,he cuticle of a leaf and the protecti"e co"ering

on an insect@s body are made of &a)es. -ilin digunakan sebagai permukaan kedap air tumbuhan dan haian

seperti kutikel epidermis daun, buahbuahan dan biji benih.

d. 6a) is also a constituent of the honeycomb of bees or sebum

from animal s'in. -ilin terdapat pada rangka luar serangga dan sebum yang dirembes oleh

kelenjar sebum pada kulit haian.

?. Phospholipids - 'os%olipid /

a. Phospholipids ha"e a similar structure to triglycerides but

one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group. 'os%olipid mempunyai struktur yang sama seperti trigliserida ke*uali

satu asid lemak digantikan dengan kumpulan %os%at.

b. ,he end of the phospholipids molecule containing the

phosphate group is hydrophilic -&ater li"ing/ and the other

end containing the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids is

hydrophobic -&aterhating/. ,he hydrophilic end is

soluble in &ater &hile the hydrophobic end is insoluble in

&ater. 'os%olipid menpunyai kepala bersi%at hidro%ilik yang terlarut dalam

air sementara hujung (ekor) hidro%obik yang tidaka terlarut air.

*. Phospholipids bilayer -double layer/ forms the basic of the

cell membrane. 'os%olipid dilapisan membentuk bentuk asas membran sel.

@. Steroids

a. 8 steroid molecule has a comple) ring structure.

teroid merupakan lipad yang terdiri daripada molekul berbentuk *in*in yang kompleks

b. Steroids occur in plants and animals.teroid terdapat pada tumbuhan dan haian.

*. E)amples of steroids are cholesterol testosterone

oestrogen and progesterone.

Contoh Kolesterol, tertosteron, estrogen dan progesteron.

Steroids #unctions


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Cholesterol Strengthens the cell membrane. emperkuatkan membran sel

,estosterone Male reproducti"e hormone !ormon lelaki

Oestrogen and progesterone #emale reproducti"e hormone

!ormon perempuan

9. Saturated and unsaturated fats - -emak tepu dan tidak tepu)

a. 8nimal@s fats such as lard butter and cream are e)amples of

saturated fats. -emak haian seperti mentega, krim ialah *ontoh lemak tepu.

b. Fegetable oils such as oli"e oils corn oil and sunflo&er oil

are e)amples of unsaturated fats. inyak sayur seperti minyak &aitun, jagung dan bunga matahari ialahlemak tidak tepu.

Saturated fats - -emak tepu/ nsaturated fats - -emak tak tepu/

Similarities - persamaan/

Both are triglycerides -keduadua ialah trigliserida/ ,hey yield 5 ' per gram - enghasilkan per gram/

,heir molecules congregate into globules because of their

hydrophobic properties. (molekul mengumpal menjadi partikel

kerana si%at hidro%obiknya.)

:ifferences - perbe&aan/

%igher melting point/akat lebur yang tinggi

7o&er melting point/akat lebur yang rendah

solids at room temperature $e pejal pada suhu bilik

li+uids at room temperature3e*air pada suhu bilik

More li'ely to cause diseases of the

heart and arteries -ebih *enderung menyebabkan

penyakit jantung dan arteri

7ess li'ely to cause diseases of the

heart and arteries Kurang *enderung menyebabkan

penyakit jantung dan arteri

More stable at room temperature

and less readily become rancid. -ebih stabil dan t idak senang menjadi

tengik

nstable at room temperature and

readily become rancid Kurang stabil dan senang menjadi

tengik (o double bond and can not react

&ith hydrogen./iada ikatan ganda dua dan tidak boleh

bertindak balas dengan hidrogen.

%as double bond and can react &ith

hydrogen. empunyai ikatan ganda dua dan boleh

bertindak balas dengan hidrogen.

)n+yme ( Enzim

En1ymes are proteins &hich act as biological catalysts. ,hey

speed up biochemical reactions in the cell. :n&im ialah protein yang digunakan sebagain mangkin biologi. erekamemper*epatkan tandak balas biokimia dalam sel.

,he substance &hose reacti"ity is increased by an en1yme is

'no&n as a substrate.esuatu tindak balas metabolisme bermula dengan molekul substrat dan berakhir dengan hasil.


11/21

,housand of simultaneous biochemical reactions occur in li"ing

cells. 6ithout en1ymes these biochemical reactions &ould be too

slo& to sustain life. 0alam sel, tindak balas biokimia mestilah berlaku dengan kadar yang pantas supaya proses hidup sentiasa dipelihara

,eneral characteristics o- en+ymes ( Sifat-sifat enzim

o )n+yme or/ 0ery rapidly (Enzim bertindak dengan

pantas)

One molecule of en1yme can turn thousands or millionsof substrate molecules into products per minute. #or

e)ample catalyse can transform appro)imately si)

million hydrogen pero)ide molecules into o)ygen and

&ater molecules per minute.

o )n+yme are not destroyed by the reactions hich that

catalyse and only needed in small 1uantity (Enzim tidak

musnah selepas akhir tindak balas dan hanya diperlukan

dalam kuantiti yang sangat kecil)

Since en1ymes are not altered by the reactions they can

be used again. 8 small concentration of en1ymes can bring about a large amount of biochemical reactions.

o )n+ymes can or/ in either direction (Enzim bertindak

secara berbalik)

,he en1yme &hich catalyses a reaction &or's in such a &ay

that the reaction can proceed from left to right or from right

to left depending on circumstances. (ote the t&o&ay

arro&s.

o )n+ymes are extremely speci-ic (Enzim adalah sangat

spesifik kerana mempunyai tapak aktif yang spesifik)

Most en1ymes are specific to one particular substrate

molecule. ,hus a gi"en en1yme &ill catalyse only one

reaction or one type or reaction. Maltase for e)ample

act only on maltose.

o )n+ymes are denaturated by high temperature (Enzim

mengalami denaturasi oleh suhu tinggi)

8n en1yme is inacti"e at "ery lo& temperatures. 8s

temperature rises its acti"ity increases until the

optimum temperature is reached. ,he optimumtemperature is around 4=GC. 8bo"e the optimum

temperature the rate of reaction decreases rapidly

causing altogether at about ;=GC. ,his is because

en1ymes are made of protein so they are denatured athigh temperature. 6hen en en1yme becomes

denatured the bonds are bro'en and the polypeptide

chains open up. ,he en1yme loses its normal shape

and becomes inacti"e.

o )n+ymes are sensiti0e to p2 (Enzim peka terhadap pH)

E"ery en1yme has its o&n optimum p% in &hich itfunctions best. Small changes in the p% of the medium

&ill denature the en1yme and render it inacti"e.

8lternation in the ionic charges of the acidic and basic

groups of the en1yme changes the shape of the

en1yme.


12/21

o )n+yme inhibit by inhibitor (Enzim diberhentikan oleh

perencat)

,he acti"ity of en1yme &ill inhibit or slo& do&n by

inhibitors such as plumbum and mercury.

o $ome en+ymes need co-actor ( Sesetengah enzim

memerlukan kofaktor)

Some en1ymes need cofactor such as iron copper or "itamin

B to &or' efficiently.

Naming o- en+ymes based on the substrate (enamaan enzim)

8n en1yme is named by attaching the suffi) Hase to the

name of the substrate on &hich it acts. #or e)ample

maltase acts on maltose sucrase on sucrose and

cellulose on cellulose. #ama en&im didapati dengan menambahkan imbuhan akhir ase kepada nama substrat

yang dimangkinkannya

,he Iase@ rule does not apply to en1ymes disco"ered

before the Iase@ idea &as introduced. #or e)ample

pepsin rennin ptyalin and trypsin.

ntracellular and extracellular en+ymes

(Enzim intrasel dan enzim luar sel)

En1ymes formed and retained in the cell are 'no&n as intracellular

en1ymes and occur in the cytoplasm organelles or the nucleus. E)amples

of intracellular are :(8 polymerase *(8 polymerase and 8,P synthetase.

:n&im disintesis oleh selsel tertentu.:n&im yang tidak dirembes ke luar sel tetapi

dikekalkan untuk kegunaan dalam sel dinamakan en&im intrasel.:n&im intrasel terdapat dalam sitoplasma, nukleus, kloroplas atau membran plasma.:n&im oksidoreduktase

yang terdapat dalam organel mitokondrion ialah en&im yang memangkinkan respirasi

sel.3ontoh lain seperti 0#A polimerase, #A polimerase, dan A/$ synthetase.

E)tracellular en1ymes are produced in the cell then pac'ed and secreted

from the cell. E)tracellular en1ymes catalyst their reactions outsides the

cell. Most digesti"e en1ymes are e)tracellular en1ymes. #or e)ampleamylase cellulose and 1ymase. en&im yang disintesis dalam sel dan kemudiannya dirembes keluar untuk bertindak diluar sel disebut en&im luar sel. 3ontoh+ amilase, selulase dan &imase.

o $ite o- en+yme synthesis (!apak mensintesis enzim

Since en1ymes are made of proteins they are

synthesised by ribosomes.

0ntracellular en1ymes are synthesised on Ifree@

ribosomes &hile e)tracellular en1ymes aresynthesised on ribosomes attached to the

endoplasmic reticulum. ibosom didapati terlekat pada jalinan endoplasma kasar atau bebas dalam

sitoplasma.aklumat untuk sintesis en&im terkandung dalam molekul 0#Anukleus. Urutan bes bernitrogen pada 0#A yang berlainan menggekodkan

protein yang berbe&a.0alam proses, bebenang tunggal molekul #A dibentuk

untuk menterjemah kodkod tersebut menjadi satu urutan asid amino.


13/21

#ormation and secretion of e)tracellular en1ymes

$embentukan dan rembesan en&im luar sel :(8 in nucleus contains information for the synthesis of en1yme.

,he instruction for ma'ing the e)tracellular en1yme is transcribed

from deo)yribonucleic acid -:(8/ to ribonucleic acid -*(8/ in the

nucleus.

,he *(8 then lea"es the nucleus through the nuclear pore and

attaches itself to the ribosome located on the rough endoplasmic

reticulum. 6hen the en1yme synthesis has completed it is e)truded into the

interior of the endoplasmic reticulum.

,he en1yme is then encapsulated in a transport "esicle.

,he transport "esicle fuses &ith the ?olgi body releasing theen1yme into the ?olgi body.

0n the ?olgi body the en1yme is further modified before pac'ing the

en1yme in a secretory "esicle.

,he secretory "esicle transports the en1yme to the plasma

membrane.

,he secretory "esicle membrane fuses &ith the plasma membrane

and the en1yme is released outside the cell.

• aklumat untuk sintesis en&im terkandung dalam molekul 0#A

nukleus.

• Urutan bes bernitrogen pada 0#A (kod 0#A) yang berlainan

menggekodkan protein yang berbe&a.

• aklumat dalam bentuk kod genetik ditranskripsikan kepada m#A.

• m#A kemudian dihantar keluar dari nukleus ke ribosom dan diangkut

di dalam jalinan endoplasma kasar.

•

m#A diterjemah menjadi satu urutan asid amino($rotein).• $rotein yang disintesis dalam ribosom diangkut melalui lumen jalinan

endoplasma kasar . Apabila sampai di hujung jalinan endoplasma

kasar, bahagian membran di situ membentuk tunas yang menggenting

untuk menghasilkan esikel angkutan.

• $rotein yang terkandung dalam esikel angkutan kemudian bergerak

menuju ke arah jasad golgi dan ber*antum dengannya.

• 0alam jasad golgi diubah suai.

• Kemudian, en&im dirembes ke dalam esikel rembesan yang terbentuk

di hujung jasad golgi berhampiran dengan membran plasma.

• esikel rembesan yang mengandungi protein yang diubah suai akan

bergerak menuju ke membran plasma.• esikel ini akan berpadu dengan membran plasma sebelum

membebaskan protein keluar daripada sel sebagai en&im luar sel.

Problem

6hat is the effect of temperature on en1ymecatalysed reactionsJ

%ypothesis ,he en1yme is inacti"e at lo& temperatures. 0t is most acti"e


14/21

&hen the optimum temperature is reached. Beyond the optimum

temperature the acti"ity of the en1yme decrease rapidly.

Manipulated "ariable ,emperature

*esponding "ariable *eaction rate

#i)ed "ariable Folume and concentration of starch solution "olume and

concentration of sali"a solution p% of starch and sali"a

solutions.

Materials 3A starch solution iodine solution and ice cubes

8pparatus Bea'er tripod stand &ire gau1e Bunsen burner thermometer

dropper measuring cylinder test tubes &hite tile and

stop&atch.

Method

3. ,he mouth is rinsed &ith distilled &ater.

2. ,he sali"a solution is prepared by spiting into a small bea'er and

diluting it &ith e+ual amount of distilled &ater.

5. #i"e &ater baths are prepared at the follo&ing temperature =GC

2=GC 5GC !=GC and ;=GC.4. ,&o test tubes are labelled P and D.

!. 4 cm5 of starch solution are placed in test tube P and 3 cm5 of sali"a

solution is placed in test tube D.

;. Both test tubes are placed into the first &ater bath -at =GC/ for fi"e

minutes.

. ,he starch solution from test tune P is poured into the sali"a solution

in test tube D. ,he stop&atch is started immediately.

. E"ery minute a drop of solution is ta'en from test tube D and tested

&ith iodine solution on the &hite tile.

9. ,he time ta'en for the complete hydrolysis of starch is recorded in a

table that is until the iodine solutions do not turn blue anymore.

3=. Steps 4 to 9 repeated for the other temperatures.33. 8 graph of reaction rate against temperature is platted.

*esults

,emperature of

&ater bath -GC/

,ime ta'en for complete

hydrolysis of starch -minutes/

*eaction rate 3


15/21

5. !ml of egg albumen suspension and 3ml of pepsin are placed into

each test tube.

4. ! drops of distilled &ater added to test tube P.

!. ! drops of dilute hydrochloride acid are added to test tube D.

;. ! drops of dilute sodium hydro)ide are added to test tube *.

. 8ll the three test tubes are placed into a &ater bath at 5GC for 3!

minutes.

. ,he appearance of the contents in each tube is recorded at the beginning and at the end of the acti"ity.

*esults

,est tube Contents 8ppearance of content

Beginning End

P 8lbumen > pepsin >

distilled &ater

6hite

suspension

6hite

suspension

D 8lbumen > pepsin >dilute hydrochloric acid

6hitesuspension

Clear suspension

* 8lbumen > pepsin >

dilute sodium

hydro)ide

6hite

suspension

6hite

suspension

:iscussion

3. ,he mi)ture in test tube D is clear at the end of the acti"ity because

the albumen has been hydrolysed.

2. Pepsin do not catalyse the hydrolysis of albumen in neutral and in

al'aline conditions.

Conclusion

Pepsin catalyses the hydrolysis of protein in acidic conditions. ,he

hypothesis is accepted.

4echanism o- en+yme action ( "ekanisme tindakan enzim

o Each en1yme molecule has a region &ith "ery precise shape called

the acti"e site.etiap molekul en&im mempunyai satu bahagian yang mempunyai bentuk tetapdipanggil tapak akti%.

o ,he substrate molecule fits into the acti"e site of the en1yme li'e a

'ey into a loc'.

olekul substrat bergabung dengan tapak akti% pada en&im seperti mangga

dan kun*i.

o Farious types of bonds including hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds

hold the substrate-s/ in the acti"e site to form an en1ymesubstrate

comple). $elbagai ikatan dibentuk untuk mengikat substrat dalam tapak akti% dan

membentuk kompleks en&imsubstrat.

o ,he en1yme then changes the substrate-s/ either by splitting it

apart -for e)ample hydrolysis/ or lin'ing them together -for e)ample -condensation/. :n&im menukarkan bentuk substrat sama ada membahagikan ataumenggabungkan mereka.

o Once formed the products no longer fit into the acti"e site and

escape into the surrounding medium lea"ing the acti"e site free to

recei"e further substrate molecules.elepas perubahan bentuk substrat, bentuknya tidak lagi bersesuaian dengan

tapak akti% dan hasil itu meninggalkan en&im. en&im tersebut bebas bertindak

dengan substrat lain.

o ,he e)planation of en1yme action in 'no&n as the loc' and 'ey

hypothesis@ &here the substrate is li'e a 'ey &hose shape is

complementary to the en1yme or loc'. ekanisme tindakan en&im yang spesi%ik dikenali sebagai hipotesis mangga dan kun*i

kerana penggabungan substrat kepada en&im dapat dianalogikan sebagai kun*i dammangga.

o ,he Iloc' and 'ey@ hypothesis is able to e)plain

6hy en1ymes are specific

6hy any change in en1yme shape alters its effecti"eness.

!al ini menerangkan kenapa en&im adalah spesi%ik dan sebarang perubahanterhadap bentuk en&im akan menggurangkan keberkesanan en&im.


16/21

#actors a--ecting en+ymes ( faktor yang mempengaruhi enzim

o p% Most en1ymes are effecti"e in only narro& p% range.

Kebanyakan en&im hanya berkesan pada julat p! yang ke*il.

,he optimum p% is the particular p% at &hich the rate of

reaction is the highest. p! optimum ialah p! dimana kadar tindak balas adalah tertinggi.

:e"iations from the optimum p% decrease the rate of

reaction because bonds maintaining the tertiary shape of

the en1yme are bro'en.

$erubahan p! dari p! optimum menurun kadar tindak balas keranaikatan yang digunakan untuk mengekalkan bentuk tertier en&im telah putus.

,he acti"e site loses its shape and the en1ymesubstrate

comple) can no longer be formed. ,he en1yme is

denatured./apak akti% kehilangan bentuk dan gagal membentuk kompleks en&im

substrat. :n&im akan mengalami denaturasi.

o ,emperature -uhu/

0nitially an increase in temperature leads to an increase in

the rate of reaction because the 'inetic energy of the

en1yme and substrate molecules produces more

collisions and therefore more en1ymesubstrate

comple)es are formed. $eningkatan suhu pada peringkat aal meningkatkan kadar tindak balas kerana peningkatan tenaga kinetik en&im dan substrat

menghasilkan lebih banyak pelanggaran. "leh itu, lebih banyak

kompleks en&imsubstrat terbentuk.

,he rate of reaction &ill increase up to a ma)imum

'no&n as the optimum temperature. Kadar tindak balas men*apai maksimu pada suhu optimum.

8fter the optimum temperature the rate of reaction falls

+uic'ly because the bonds maintaining the structure of

the en1yme start to brea' and the acti"e site loses its

shape. ,he en1ymesubstrate comple)es can no longer

form and the en1yme is denatured.elepas suhu optimum, adar tindak balas menurun kerana ikatan

dalam en&im terputus dan kehilangan bentuk tapak akti%. :n&immenjadi denaturasi.

o Substrate concentration - Kepekatan substrat/

0nitially an increase in substrate concentration increases

the chance of en1ymesubstrate collisions and the rate of

reaction increases. $eningkatan kepekatan substrat pada peringkat aal meninggikan

kadar pelanggaran en&im dan substrat dan menyebabkan kadar tindak balas meningkat.

E"entually all the acti"e sites are filled at any one time

and the rate remains constant. ,he reaction has reached

its ma)imum rate Fma). $ada satu peringkat, semua tapak akti% telah digunakan (men*apai

takat tepu) dan kadar tindak balas menjadi malar (kadar maksimum)


17/21

#urther addition of substrate &ill not increase the rate of

reaction anymore because constant en1yme concentration

becomes the limiting factor. $enambahan substrat seterusnya tidak lagi meningkatkan kadar tindak

balas kerana kepekatan en&im telah menjadi %aktor pengehad..

o En1yme concentration - Kepekatan en&im/

8s the concentration of en1yme increases there are more

chances of en1ymesubstrate collisions. ,he rate of

reaction increases linearly as long as no other factors are

limiting. Kadar tindak balas meningkat se*ara linear dengan peningkatan

kepakatan en&im kerana tiada %aktor pengehad.

5ses o- en+ymes in daily li-e and in industries ( #egunaan enzim

3. En1ymes for industrial uses are obtained from animals plants and

microorganisms -bacteria and fungi/ :n&im yang digunakan untuk industri diperoleh daripada haian, tumbuhan danmikroorganisma (bakteria dan kulat)

8pplication En1yme se

:airy industry

ndustri susu

*ennin

enin

Coagulant for mil' and in

cheese production $engumpalan protein susu dan

penghasilkan keju

7actase

-aktase

%ydrolysis of lactose to gi"e

lactosefree mil' products. enghidrolisis laktosa danmenghasilkan susu tanpa laktosa.

Bre&ing industry

ndustri

penampaian

Protease amylase

cellulose

$rotease, amilase,

selulase

Brea'do&n of starch and

proteins. Pre"ent cloudiness

during storage of beers. enguraikan kanji dan protein.

engelakkan simpanan bir

menjadi keruh.

Biologicaldetergents

0etergen biologi

Protease lipaseand amylase

$rotease, lipase

dan amilase

*emo"al of organic stainssuch as blood oil and sali"a enyingkirkan tandatandaorganik seperti darah, air liur,

minyak.

Ba'ing industry

ndustri roti

8mylase

Amilase

Brea'do&n of starch maltose

production enguraikan kanji, penghasilan

maltosa

Protease Brea'do&n of proteins enguraikan protein

?lucose o)idase

6lukosa oksidase

#or stability of dough enstabilkan adunan

Meat industry

ndustri daging

Protease papain ,enderisation of meat elembutkan daging

,e)tile industry ndustri tekstil

8mylase Amilase

*emo"al of starch that isapplied to the threads of

fabrics. enyingkirkan kanji dari benang

7eather industry ndustri kulit

Protease *emo"al of hairs from hides enyingkirkan rambut daripada

kulit haian

Paper industry

ndustri kertas

7igninase *emo"al of lignin from pulp enyingkir lignin dari pulpa


18/21

&iological detergents ( $etergen biologi

3. En1ymes are used in biological detergents because

a. En1ymes are acti"e at "ery lo& concentrations. :n&im adalah akti% pada kepekatan yang sangat rendah.

b. En1ymes can remo"e stains at lo& temperatures sa"ing both

energy and chemicals. :n&im boleh menyingkirkan tandatanda kotor pada suhu yang rendah

(jimat tenaga dan bahan kimia)

c. ,hey are highly biodegradable. ereka adalah biodegradasi.

d. ,hey are e)tremely efficient reducing both duration of

&ashing time and &ater consumption.angat berkesan (jimat masa dan kos)

2. Biological detergents contain protease amylases and lipases.3ontoh+ protease, amilase dan lipase.

5. Proteases act on stains containing proteins such as blood and sali"a.

$rotease menyingkirkan tandatanda protein seperti darah dan airl liur .

4. 8mylases remo"e stains containing starch such as sauces ice creams

and gra"y. Amilase menyingkirkan kotaran kanji seperti sos, ais krim dan kuah.

!. 7ipases are effecti"e in remo"ing oil and grease. -ipase menyingkirkan minyak dan gris.

;. *ecently cellulase has been added to brighten the colors and soften

the cloth.elulase ditambah ke dalam detergen untuk menjadikan arna pakaian lebihterang dan melembutan pakaian.

enderisation o- meat (melembutkan daging

3. Meat can be treated &ith proteases to brea' do&n fibrous proteins in

the connecti"e tissues thus increasing the tenderness of the meat. 0aging boleh ditambah dengan protease untuk menguraikan protein pada tisu

penghubung dan melembutkan daging.

2. ,he protease papain present in papaya is sold commercially as

meat tenderiser for home application. $rotease papain yang hadir di dalam betik dijual se*ara komersil untuk

melembutkan daging.

#ructose syrup ( Sirup fruktosa

3. #ructose syrup is in greater demand than glucose as a food and

drin' s&eetener because it is s&eeter and has a lo&er calorific

"alue than glucose.irup %ruktosa mendapat permintaan tinggi daripada glukosa kerana ia lebih

manis dan mempunyai nilai kalori yang rendah.

2. ,he ra& material for fructose syrup is corn starch. ahan mentah sirup %ruktosa ialah kanji jagung.

5. ,he con"ersion of starch to syrup re+uires three types of

en1ymes 8mylase glucoamylase and glucose isomerase. $ertukaran kanji kepada sirup memerlukan tiga jenis en&im seperti amilase,

glukoamilase dan glukosa isomerase.

4. ?lucoamylase is obtained from fungi &hereas amylase and

glucose isomerise are obtained from bacteria.6lukoamilase diperoleh daripada kulat manakala amilase dan glukosa

isomerase diperoleh daripada bakteria.

White bread (%oti putih)

3. 7ipoo)ygenase en1ymes are used to bleach the dough. -ipooksigenase en&im digunakan untuk melenturkan arna adunan.

2. 8mylase catalyses the brea'do&n of flour starch to glucose. Amilase memper*epatkan penguraian tepung kanji kepada glukosa.

#ruit 7uice ( &us buah-buahan

3. Plant cell &alls contain pectins &hich ma'e the fruit $uice "iscous

and difficult to e)tract. $ektin yang terkandung dalam dinding sel menyusahkan pengekstrakan jus

buahbuahan.

2. ,o o"ercome this problem fruit is treated &ith pectinase to

con"ert pectins to shortchain sugars.


19/21

Untuk memerangi masalah ini, buahbuahan di*ampur dengan pektinase untuk

menukarkan pektin kepada rantai gula yang pendek.

5. *emo"al of pectins increases the "olume of $uice e)tracted speeds

up filtration of the $uice pre"ents the fla"our from deteriorating and

pre"ents the $uice from becoming cloudy during cold storage. $enyingkiran pektin meningkatkan isipadu jus, memper*epatkan proses tapisan jus, mengelakkan jus daripada menjadi keruh semasa simpan dalam peti sejuk.

he importance o- the chemical composition in the cells

#epentingan komposisi kimia di dalam sel

Chemical

component( #omponen kimia

#unction('ungsi

Conse1uence o-

de-iciency( Akibat kekurangan

?lucose

6lukosa

8 ma$or source of

energy for plant and

animal cellsumber tenaga utama untuk

sel haian dan tumbuhan.

,he cells lac' energy to

carry out life processes.el kekurangan tenaga untuk

proses kehidupan.

Starch

Kanji

Ma$or carbohydrate

storage in plant cells

impanan karbohidrat utama dalam sel tumbuhan

,he cells lac' energy to

gro& and di"ide such as

during seed germination.el kekurangan tenaga untuk membesar dan pembahagian sel

semasa per*ambahan biji benih

?lycogen

6likogen

Ma$or carbohydrate

storage in animal cells

impanan karbohidrat utama dalam sel haian

7i"er and muscle cells

&ould not be able to carry

out their high metabolic

acti"ities. !ati dan sel otot tidak boleh

menjalankan aktiitimetabolisme.

Cellulose

elulosa

?i"es structural support

to cell &alls

emberi sokongan kepada

struktur dinding sel

Plant cells &ould lose their

shape. ,he cells &ould

burst &hen e)cess &ater

enters by osmosis.el tumbuhan kehilangan

bentuk. dan pe*ah apabila air yang berlebihan memasuki sel

se*ara osmosis.

Microfilaments

ikro%ilamen

8ssociated &ith muscle

contraction embantu penge*utan otot

Muscle cells unable to

contractel otot gagal menge*ut

Microtubules

ikrotubulus

#ormation of cilia and

flagella $embentukan silia dan

%lagela

nicellular organism such

as Paramecium sp and

Euglena sp unable to mo"e."rganisma unisel seperti

$aramesium dan :uglena gagal bergerak.

Channel proteins

and carrier

proteins $rotein liang dan

protein pembaa

,ransportation of ions

across the plasma

membrane $engangkutan ion merentasi

membran palsma

0ons &ould not be able to

enter or lea"e the cell.

onion tidak dalam masuk dan

keluar dari sel

%aemoglobin

!emoglobin

Carrier of o)ygen engangkut oksigen

*ed blood cells unable to

carry o)ygen.el darah merah gagal

mengangkut oksigen

8ntibodies Antibodi

0mportant in defenceagainst infectious

diseases and in

de"eloping immunities. $enting dalam pertahananbadan

Cells &ill be in"aded by pathogens such as bacteria

and "iruses.

el akan diserang patogen seperti bakteria dan irus

%ormones

!ormon

Causes changes to the

metabolic reactions of

cells. enyebabkan perubahan pada tindak balad

metabolisme sel

Cells unable to control

metabolic reactions

el tidak dapat mengaal tindak balas metabolisme

#ats and oils

-emak danminyak

Certain unicellular

a+uatic organisms

produce oil droplets toaid buoyancy. embantu organismaakuatik untuk terapung

nicellular a+uatic

organism unable to float

"rganisma unisel akuatik tidak mampu untuk terapung.

6a)es

-ilin

6aterproofing material

ahan kedap air

Cells in the lea"es fruits

and seeds &ill suffer from

e)cessi"e loss of &ater.


20/21

el tumbuhan mengalami

kehilangan air yang berlebihan

Phospholipids

'os%olipid

0mportant constituent of cell membrane

ahan penting membran sel

,here &ould be no cellmembranes. 6ater and all

other substances could

enter or lea"e the cells

freely./iada membran sel. emua

bahan bebas masuk keluar dari sel.

Steroids

teroid

Cholesterol strengthens

the cell membranesmanufactures "itamin :

and se) hormones. Kolesterol memperkuatkanmembran sel, menghasilkan

itamin 0 dan hormon pembiakan.

Cell membranes &ould be

&ea'. Cells &ould not beable to produce "itamin :

and se) hormones. embran sel sangat lemah dan sel gagal menghasilkan itamin

0 dan hormon pembiakan

En1yme

:n&im

Speed up the rate of

biochemical reactionsin cells. emper*epatkan kadar

tindak balas biokimia sel.

Biochemical reactions

&ould be too slo& tosustain the lifespan of cells. Kadar tindak balas biokimia

menjadi sangat perlahan.

8uestion "

,he figure sho&s the organelles in"ol"ed in the production of e)tracellular

en1ymes. ajah menunjukkan organelorganel yang terlibat dalam penghasilan en&im luar sel.

-a/ -i/ sing a name e)ample e)plain the term e)tracellular en1yme. 0engan menggunakan satu *ontoh, terangkan istilah en&im luar sel.

N2 mar's

-ii/ Based on the organelles sho&n e)plain ho& e)tracellular en1ymesare produced. edasarkan organelorganel yang ditunjukkan, terangkan bagaimana en&im luar seldihasilkan.

N mar's

-b/ ,he figure sho&s a reaction of an en1yme and its substrate. E)plain

the mechanism of the en1ymatic reaction. N3= mar's ajah menunjukkan en&im dan substrat. /erangkan mekanisme tindak balas en&im.

8uestion :"

:iscuss the uses of en1ymes in the household industries.

6hy are en1yme used in these industries. in*angkan kegunaan en&im dalam rumah tangga dan industri. engapakah en&im tersebut digunakan dalam industri tersebut.


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8ns&er- a/ -i/ E)tracellular en1yme is produced in a cell then pac'ed and

secreted from the cell.

0t catalyses its reaction outside the cell. 8n e)ample is amylase.

-ii/ ,he instruction for ma'ing the e)tracellular en1yme is transcribed

from the deo)yribonucleic acid

o -:(8/ to ribonucleic acid -*(8/ in the nucleus.

o ,he *(8 then lea"es the nucleus through the nuclear pore

o and attaches itself to the ribosome located on the endoplasmic reticulum.

o 6hen the synthesis of the en1ymes is completed

o it is encapsulated in a transport "esicle &hich fuses &ith the golgi body.o 0n the golgi body the en1yme is further modified before being pac'ed in a

secretory "esicle.

o ,he secretory "esicle transports the en1yme to the plasma membrane

&here it fuses &ith it

o and the en1yme is released outside the cell.

-b/ ,he e)planation of en1yme action is 'no&n as the Iloc' and 'ey

hypothesis@.

Q ,he substrate molecule fits into the acti"e site of the en1yme molecule.

Q ,he substrate is the I'ey@ that fits into the en1yme Iloc'@.

Q Farious types of bonds such as hydrogen and ionic bonds hold thesubstrateQ in the acti"e site forming the en1ymesubstrate comple).

Q Once the comple) is formed the en1yme changes the substrate to its

product.

Q ,he product lea"es the acti"e site.

Q ,he en1yme is not altered by the reaction and it can be reused.

D. :iscuss the uses of en1ymes in the household industries.

6hy are en1yme used in these industries.

8ns&er

En1ymes are used as biological detergents.

Q Protease degrades coagulated proteins into soluble shortchain peptides.

Q 7ipase degrades fat or oil stains into soluble fatty acid and glycerol.

Q 8mylase degrades starch into soluble shorterchain polysaccharides and

sugars.

En1ymes are used in the ba'ing industry.

Q Protease is used in the brea'do&n of proteins in flour for the production

of biscuits.

Q 8mylase is used in the brea'do&n of some starch to glucose in flour for

ma'ing &hite bread buns and rolls.

En1ymes are used in the medical field.

Q ,rypsin is used to remo"e blood clots and to clean &ounds.

Q Farious other en1ymes are used in biosensors.

En1ymes are used in industries becauseQ,hey are effecti"e.

Q,hey are cheap and easy to use.

Q,hey can be reused thus only small amounts are needed.

Q ,hey donRt re+uire high temperature to &or' thus this reduces fuel

costs.

f4 Biology Chapter4 Bilingual

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