EXPOSURE RESPONSE OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST (DEE)...
Transcript of EXPOSURE RESPONSE OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST (DEE)...
DISSERTATION
EXPOSURE RESPONSE OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST
(DEE) TOWARD UNDERGROUND MINERS IN
PT FREEPORT INDONESIA
ARIF SUSANTO
NIM: 30000213510002
DOCTORATE PROGRAM IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF DIPONEGORO
SEMARANG
2018
EXPOSURE RESPONSE OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST
(DEE) TOWARD UNDERGROUND MINERS IN
PT FREEPORT INDONESIA
Dissertation
To Obtain Doctorate Degree
in Environmental Science
To be defended in front of
Open Senate Meeting of Diponegoro University
on 11 May 2018
by
Arif Susanto
Born in Salatiga
DISSERTATION
EXPOSURE RESPONSE OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST
(DEE) TOWARD UNDERGROUND MINERS IN
PT FREEPORT INDONESIA
Arif Susanto
NIM: 30000213510002
Has been approved by:
Promotor
Prof. Dr. Ir. Purwanto, DEA.
Date: 11 May 2018
Co-Promotor 1
Dr. Henna Rya Sunoko, Apt., MES.
Date: 11 May 2018
Co-Promotor 2
dr. Onny Setiani, Ph.D.
Date: 11 May 2018
Doctorate Program in Environmental Science
School of Postgraduate Studies University of Diponegoro,
Head,
Dr. Dra. Hartuti Purnaweni, MPA.
EXPOSURE RESPONSE OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST
(DEE) TOWARD UNDERGROUND MINERS IN
PT FREEPORT INDONESIA
Arif Susanto
NIM: 30000213510002
Has been defended to obtain Doctorate Degree in Environmental Science in front of Jury
on 11 May 2018
Team of Jury
1. Prof. Dr. Ir. Purwanto, DEA.
(Head/Promotor/Jury)
2. Dr. Henna Rya Sunoko, Apt., MES.
(Co-Promotor/Jury)
3. dr. Onny Setiani, Ph.D
(Co-Promotor/Jury)
4. Dr. Hartuti Purnaweni, MPA.
(Secretary/Jury)
5. Dr. H. Totok Prasetyo, B.Eng., M.T.
(External Jury)
6. Dr. Ir. KRMT Haryo Santoso Harjokusumo, MM.
(External Jury)
7. Dr.Ing. Sudarno Utomo, S.T., M.Sc.
(Jury)
untuk Eyang-uti, untuk Eyang-kung dari putra-putriku:
Rayhanna Nafila Zahra Najmatullail,
Heaven Abqary Odyssey,
Keyzein Abqary El-Ayyuby,
Farrel Atthar Firdauzy,
dan ibuk mereka: Enisah
STATEMENT
Signed below,
Student : Arif Susanto
NIM. : 30000213510002
declares that :
1. Dissertation entitled 'Exposure Response of Diesel Engine Exhaust (DEE) toward
Underground Miners in PT Freeport Indonesia’ is the original scientific paper and has
never been submitted to obtain an academic degree (doctorate) at any college.
2. This dissertation does not contain works or opinions that have been written or
published by others except the works or the opinions as a reference by mentioned by
author’s name and original title as well as listed in the bibliography.
This statement has been made in truth and if there was any distortion and untruth in this
statement, I am willing to accept any academic sanction in the form of revocation of the
degree I have obtained, and other sanctions in accordance with applicable norms at
University of Diponegoro.
Semarang, 11 May 2018
The Author,
Arif Susanto
CURRICULUM VITAE
Name : ARIF Susanto
Place, date of birth : Salatiga, 04 Juni 1979
Address : Buana Cigi Regency No. C4
Jl. Cijaura Girang V, Kel. Sekejati, Kec. Buahbatu, Kota Bandung, 40286
Education : Doctor of Science in Environmental. School of Postgraduate Studies, University of
Diponegoro. Semarang, 2018.
Master of Business Administration. School of Business and Management.
Postgraduate Program. Bandung Institute of Technology. Bandung, 2017.
Master of Science in Environmental. School of Postgraduate Studies, University of
Diponegoro. Semarang, 2011.
Master of Management in Health. Postgraduate Program, Management High
School. Jakarta, 2009.
Bachelor of Engineering in Environmental Engineering. Faculty of Civil and
Planning Engineering, University of Kebangsaan. Bandung, 2005.
Diplome of Health in Medical Records & Health Information. Polytechnic of
Ganesha. Bandung, 2002.
Diplome of Health in Environmental Health. Polythechnic of Health, The Ministry
of Health. Bandung, 2000.
Occupation : Superintendent, Environmental Engineer & Health-Safety Training.
Environmental, Safety & Health Department, Concentrating Division, PT Freeport
Indonesia, 2017-present.
Superintendent Environmental Engineer. Safety & Health Department,
Concentrating Division, PT Freeport Indonesia, 2013-2017.
Chief Environmental Engineer. Loss Control Department, Concentrating Division,
PT Freeport Indonesia, 2012-2013.
Environmental Engineer. Loss Control Department, Concentrating Division, PT
Freeport Indonesia, 2011-2012.
Public Health & Diseases Control. International SOS, 2004-2011.
Industrial Hygiene & Sanitation Supervisor, Production Department, PT
Gizitatapangan Sejahtera, 2002-2004.
Organization : Member of Indonesian Environmental Scientist Association (IESA).
Member of Indonesian Industrial Hygienist Association (IIHA).
Member of the Institutions of Engineers Indonesia (PII).
Member of Environmental Health Specialist Association (EHSA).
Member of the Indonesian Society of Sanitary and Environmental Engineer
(IATPI).
Member of the Indonesian Environmental Pollution Control Association (APPLI).
Journal : Arif Susanto, Purwanto Purwanto, Henna R. Sunoko & Onny Setiani. Assessment
of Diesel Particulate Matter Exposure of Underground Miners in Indonesia.
Journal of Ecological Engineering; 19(4) (2018) pp. 34-42 . ISSN 2299-8993.
Arif Susanto & Nur Budi Mulyono. Risk Assessment Method for Identification of
Environmental Aspects and Impacts at Ore Processing Industry in Indonesia.
Journal of Ecological Engineering; 19(2) (2018) pp. 72-80. ISSN 2299-8993.
Arif Susanto & Nur Budi Mulyono. The Transitional Change on The
Implementation of ISO 14001:2015 in Copper Ore Mill – Case Study . Journal of
Ecological Engineering; 18(5) (2017) pp. 27-36. ISSN 2299-8993.
Arif Susanto, Edi K. Putro & Fauzi Jatmiko. Occupational Exposure to Lead in
the Quality Control Laboratory. Journal of Industrial Pollution Control 33(1)
(2017) pp. 670-673. ISSN 0970-2083.
Arif Susanto, Edi K. Putro & Fauzi Jatmiko. Chemical Inventory and Management
in PTFI Quality Control Laboratory. Journal of Industrial Pollution Control 33(1)
(2017) pp. 689-695. ISSN 0970-2083.
Arif Susanto, Purwanto Purwanto, Henna R. Sunoko & Onny Setiani. Diesel
Engine Exhaust Emisions Survey of Underground Mine in Indonesia. Journal of
Industrial Pollution Control 32(2) (2016) pp 608-616. ISSN 0970-2083.
Arif Susanto, Roro N. Wulan & Edi K. Putro. Used Oil Utilization for Lime
Production as Hazardous Waste Minimization. International Journal of Waste
Resources 6(4) (2016). ISSN 2252-5211.
Arif Susanto. The Influence of Green Open Space Re-vegetation toward
Microclimate Modifications in the Control of Malaria Diseases. 2012. Bulletin of
SPIRAKEL Paper Competition on Mosquitos and Borne Diseases. The Ministry
of Health of Republic Indonesia. Indonesia. ISSN 2086-1346.
Proceeding : Arif Susanto & Nur Budi Mulyono. Information Management of Web Appilication
Based Environmental Performance Management in Concentrating Division of
PTFI. E3S Web Conference 31, 12001 (2018). ISSN 2267-1242.
Arif Susanto, Purwanto Purwanto, Henna R Sunoko & Onny Setiani. A Kriging
Method for Mapping Underground Mine Air Pollution. Advance Science Letters
23(3) (2017) pp. 2329-2332(4). ISSN 1936-7317.
Arif Susanto, David Suryanegara & Edi K. Putro. Indoor Air Quality in Quality
Control Laboratory Concentrating Division, PT Freeport Indonesia. 2013.
National Conference on Environmental and Natural Resources Management.
Program of Environmental Studies Graduate School of University of Diponegoro.
Semarang, Indonesia. ISBN: 978-602-17001-1-2.
Arif Susanto, Edi K. Putro, Roro N. Wulan & Wiliam Yochu. Globally
Harmonized System (GHS) Implementation and Management of Hazardous
Substances (B3) in PT Freeport Indonesia. 2013. 1st International Conference on
Sustainable Agriculture and Environment. Graduate School of University of
Sebelas Maret. Solo, Indonesia.
Bustanul Arifin & Arif Susanto. Personnel Protective Equipment Compliance
Determination at Coal Yard PT X Unit 3 and 4, Jepara year 2012. 2012.
Proceeding Occupational Health & Safety. University of Gadjah Mada.
Yogyakarta, Indonesia. ISBN: 978-602-95436-7-4.
Arif Susanto, Hendrikus Budyanto & Edi K. Putro. Waste Utilization for Coal Ash
and Tailings Utilization as Bricks. 2012. 1st International Conference on
Sustainable Civil Engineering Structure and Construction Material. Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering. Gadjah Mada University. Yogyakarta,
Indonesia. ISBN 978-602-95687-7-6.
Hendrikus Budyanto & Arif Susanto. Coal Ash and Tailings Utilization as Road
Construction Material. 2012. 1st National Seminar on Waste Management.
Proceeding Waste Management for Sustainable Urban Development. Institut
Teknologi Sepuluh November. Surabaya, Indonesia. ISBN 978-602-95595-4-5.
Arif Susanto, Purwanto Purwanto & Agus Hadiyarto. Model Analysis of Water
Quality on the Fluoridation Water System of Drinking Water Distribution Network
in the City of Tembagapura. 2011. The 2nd International Seminar on
Environmental Health. Proceeding Water and Green Hospital. Universitas
Airlangga. ISBN 978-602-19420-0-0.
i
FOREWORD
The author would like to express gratitude to Allah SWT, the Almighty God for the
blessing and kindness, shalawat and Salam for the Prophet Muhammad SAW, so that the
dissertation entitled: ‘Exposure Response of Diesel Engine Exhaust (DEE) Toward
Underground Miners in PT Freeport Indonesia’ can be accomplished.
Honorably, I express gratitude to:
1. Prof. Dr. Ir. Purwanto, DEA., as Director of School of Postgraduate Studies University
of Diponegoro and lecturer of Chemical Engineering Department of Faculty of
Engineering who has been willing to be Promoter and also provides guidance and
direction in the preparation of this dissertation.
2. Dr. Dra. Henna Rya Sunoko, Apt., MES as lecturer of Faculty of Medicine and
Postgraduate Studies in Environmental Science University of Diponegoro who has
been willing to be Co-Promoter 1 and also provides guidance and direction in the
preparation of this dissertation.
3. dr. Onny Setiani, Ph.D., as lecturer of Faculty of Public Health and Postgraduate
Studies in Environmental Science University of Diponegoro who has been willing to
be Co-Promoter 2 and also provides guidance and direction in the preparation of this
dissertation.
4. Dr. Dra. Hartuti Purnaweni, MPA., as Head of Postgraduate Studies in Environmental
Science University of Diponegoro who has been willing to be reviewer and also
provides guidance and direction in the preparation of this dissertation.
ii
5. Mr. Riza Sani, MBA., who has provided the willingness to provide locus, focus, data
and information for this dissertation.
6. Mr. Edi K. Putro, S.Pd., MBA., who has supported the author to be able to complete
the education in the environment field.
7. Parents and families who have given encouragement and prayer so that this dissertation
can be properly completed.
8. Management of PT Freeport Indonesia and all those who have given contribution in a
composing this dissertation which could not be mentioned one by one.
May Allah SWT reciprocates the kindness from all of beloved colleagues, with a hope that
this dissertation can be useful for the advancement of science and technology in our
beloved country.
Tembagapura, 11 May 2018
The Author,
Arif Susanto
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Foreword i
Table of Contents iii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures viii
List of Appendices xi
Abbreviation xii
Abstrak xvi
Abstracts xvii
Ringkasan xviii
Summary xxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. Background 1
1.1.1. Sustainable Development 1
1.1.2. Sustainable Concept in Mining Industry 3
1.1.3. Sustainable Mining in Indonesia 6
1.1.4. Underground Mines Air Pollution 8
1.1.5. Diesel Fuel and Engine Exhaust 13
1.2. Research Problem Identification and Steps of Research 16
1.3. Research Objectives 17
1.4. Originality and Novelties 18
1.5. Research Benefits 21
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1. Underground Mine 28
2.2. Ventilation System 37
2.3. Diesel Engine Exhaust (DEE) 39
2.3.1. DEE Composition 41
iv
2.3.2. DEE as Indoor Air Pollutant Component 44
2.3.3. Primary Emissions 46
2.4. Geostatistics 49
2.4.1. Kriging 50
2.4.2. Universal Kriging 52
2.5. Diesel Particulate Matter and Product of Combustion Gases 55
2.5.1. Diesel Particulate Matter (DPM) 55
2.5.2. Nitrogen Oxide as Product of Combustion (POC) 56
2.5.3. Carbon Monoxide as Product of Combustion (POC) 57
2.5.4. DEE Acute and Chronic Exposure 58
2.5.5. Functions of Lungs and COPD 61
Chapter 3 Theoritical Framework, Conceptual Framework & Hypothesis
3.1. Theoritical Framework 64
3.1.1. Indoor Air Pollution in Workk Environmental 66
3.1.2. Response of Air Pollution on Lungs Functions 67
3.1.3. Lungs Functions 71
3.1.4. Respiration Mechanism 72
3.1.5. Change in Lungs Functions due to Air Pollution 74
3.1.6. Measurement of Lungs Functions 76
3.2. Conceptual Framework 78
3.3. Hypothesis 79
Chapter 4 Research Methods
4.1. Research Location and Time 80
4.2. Research Design 84
4.3. Research Population and Sample 85
4.3.1. Miners population and samples 85
4.3.2. DEE as air pollutant samples 86
4.4. Research Variables 93
4.4.1. Dependent Variables 93
4.4.2. Independent and Interventing Variables 93
v
4.5. Definitions of Conceptual Variables 93
4.6. Data Collections 95
4.7 Data Analysis 113
Chapter 5 Results & Discussion
5.1. Research Results 120
5.1.1. General Characteristics of Research Site 120
5.1.2. Miners Characteristics 133
5.1.3. Result of DEE Survey and Measurement 135
5.1.4. Distribution of DEE Pollutants in DOZ Underground
Mine
137
5.1.5. Miners Respiratory Health 145
5.2. Discussions 148
5.2.1. Air Pollution Caused by DEE in DOZ Underground Mine 148
5.2.2. Distribution of DEE Pollutant in DOZ Underground Mine 155
5.2.3. Miners Respiratory Health 172
5.2.4. Model Development of safety and Environmental
Management in Underground Mine
187
5.3. Research Limitation 195
Chapter 6 Conclussions & Recommendations
6.1. Conclussions 198
6.2. Recommendations 201
References
Appendices
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1.1 Previous air pollutants researches 22
Table 1.2 Previous studies of PM and gaseous pollutants related to lung
function
24
Table 4.1 Considerations in performing spirometry 112
Table 4.2 Corresponding value the number of area samples used and citation
threshold
117
Table 4.3 Classification of COPD based on GOLD 2017 119
Table 5.1 Descriptive statistics of miners’ demography 133
Table 5.2 Descriptive Statistics for Miners who Smoke 134
Table 5.3 Descriptive statistics of DOZ Truck Haulage for POC components 135
Table 5.4 Descriptive statistics of DOZ Truck Haulage for DPM 136
Table 5.5 Descriptive Statistics of Spirometric Measurement Results 145
Table 5.6 Descriptive statistics for GOLD classification 146
Table 5.7 Result of assessment of airflow limitation with COPD 147
Table 5.8 Main fans performance 149
Table 5.9 Exhaust fans performance balance 150
Table 5.10 Intake fans performance balance 151
Table 5.11 Types and quantity of diesel equipment in use and total airflow
quantity
152
Table 5.12 Diesel fuel quality analysis 155
Table 5.13 Severity of airflow limitation assessment with COPD 183
Table 5.14 Model summary test results 185
Table 5.15 ANOVA test results 186
Table 5.16 Airflow quantity requirement based on Government of Indonesian
Regulation
192
Table 5.17 Optimised airway sizes and air velocities according to typical 193
vii
airflow quantities
Table 5.18 Air velocity criteria 194
Table 5.19 Specific areas direct to exhaust 195
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 Block caving method 28
Figure 2.2 Undercut level 29
Figure 2.3 Draw point 31
Figure 2.4 Panel 32
Figure 2.5 Draw point and panel 33
Figure 2.6 Production level 34
Figure 2.7 Truck haulage level 35
Figure 2.8 Exhaust (Gallery) level 36
Figure 2.9 Main fan 2200 HP 37
Figure 2.10 Diesel smoke 40
Figure 2.11 DEE schematic diagram 42
Figure 2.12 Deposition and particulate diameter 43
Figure 2.13 Special chemical composition for DPM (PM2.5) heavy duty
engine
47
Figure 3.1 Theoretical framework 64
Figure 3.2 Conceptual framework 78
Figure 4.1 PT Freeport Indonesia project area 80
Figure 4.2 Location of DOZ mine operation 81
Figure 4.3 DOZ underground mine production area and its ventilation
system
82
Figure 4.4 Flow of the survey 87
Figure 4.5 Grid sampling at truck haulage area for POC and DPM
measurement
88
Figure 4.6 Grid sampling at panel area for POC and DPM measurement 89
Figure 4.7 Grid sampling at undercut area for POC and DPM measurement 90
ix
Figure 4.8 Grid sampling at gallery drift area for POC and DPM
measurement
91
Figure 4.9 Grid sampling at intake drift area for POC and DPM
measurement
92
Figure 4.10 OC-EC aerosol analyzer 95
Figure 4.11 Escort pump 96
Figure 4.12 Cassette 105
Figure 4.13 Gas detector 107
Figure 4.14 Wheathemeter 107
Figure 4.15 Spirometer 111
Figure 5.1 Mining and processing operations 123
Figure 5.2 Grasberg open pit mine 124
Figure 5.3 Grasberg open pit mine process schedule 126
Figure 5.4 Overburden placement 127
Figure 5.5 Golden horsehoe 128
Figure 5.6 DOZ production profile 129
Figure 5.7 Grasberg open pit and underground mine complex 130
Figure 5.8 DOZ ore production rate 131
Figure 5.9 Topographic of truck haulage in DOZ underground mine 132
Figure 5.10 Age frequency distribution and the miners’ height 133
Figure 5.11 Frequency distribution of miners’ working duration 134
Figure 5.12 Frequency Distribution of Miners who Smoke and Not 135
Figure 5.13 CO pollutant concentration map at turck haulage area 137
Figure 5.14 CO pollutant concentration map at panel 138
Figure 5.15 CO pollutant concentration map at gallery drift area 139
Figure 5.16 CO pollutant concentration map at intake area 140
Figure 5.17 CO pollutant concentration map at undercut area 141
Figure 5.18 DPM pollutant map at the truck haulage area 142
Figure 5.19 Descriptive statistics for GOLD classification 143
Figure 5.20 DPM pollutant map at the intake drift area 144
Figure 5.21 Frequency distribution of Spirometrically measurement results 145
x
Figure 5.22 Frequency Distribution of GOLD Classification 146
Figure 5.23 Size and morphology (SEM images) of DPM in intake area with
different magnification x5,000 (DPM size 0.291~1.449 µm);
x10,000 (DPM size 0.180~0.372 µm); x15,000 (DPM size
0.137~0.275 µm); and x20,000 (DPM size 0.112~0.278 µm)
156
Figure 5.24 Size and morphology (SEM images) of DPM in truck haulage
area with different magnification x5,000 (DPM size 0.344~1.682
µm); x10,000 (DPM size 0.297~2.005 µm); x15,000 (size
0.161~2.009 µm); and x20,000 (size 0.071~2.009 µm)
157
Figure 5.25 Size and morphology (SEM images) of DPM in panel area with
different magnification x5,000 (DPM size 0.256~1.488 µm);
x10,000 (DPM size 0.120~1.195 µm); x15,000 (size
0.057~1.437 µm); and x20,000 (size 0.058~1.434 µm).
158
Figure 5.26 Size and morphology (SEM images) of DPM in gallery drift area
with different magnification x5,000 (DPM size 0.349~2.096
µm); x10,000 (DPM size 0.072~2.108 µm); x15,000 (size
0.048~0.840 µm); and x20,000 (size 0.063~0.599 µm)
159
Figure 5.27 Exposure assessment and estimating intakes concept 173
Figure 5.28 Etiology, pathobiology and pathology of COPD 177
Figure 5.29 FEV1 progression over time 178
Figure 5.30 Spirometry for Normal Trace and Obstructive Disease 180
Figure 5.31 Pathways to the diagnosis of COPD based on research condition 180
Figure 5.32 Spirometric classification of COPD severity based on post-
bronchodilator
182
Figure 5.33 Flow of map generation 188
xi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Surat Keterangan Hasil Analisis Sampel
Appendix 2 Descriptive Frequencies of Miners’ based on Age
Appendix 3 Descriptive Frequencies of Miners’ based on Body Height
Appendix 4 Descriptive Frequencies of Miners’ based on Working Years
(Experiences)
Appendix 5 Descriptive Frequencies of Miners’ based on FEV1/FVC Ratio
Appendix 6 Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for the Analysis of Organic and
Elemental Carbon (OC/EC) on Quartz Fiber Filters
xii
ABBREVIATION
Au : Aurum
AD : Articulate Dump
CAD : Computer-aided Drafting
CDS : Callibration Data Sheet
CFM : Cubic Feet Meter
CH4 : Methane
CO : Carbon Monoxide
CO2 : Carbon Dioxide
COPD : Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
CSD : Commission on Sustainable Development
Cu : Cuprum
DAE : Diameter Aerodinamic
DE : Diesel Exhaust
DEE : Diesel Engine Exhaust
DEMS : Diesel Exhaust in Miner Study
DEP : Diesel Exhaust Particulate
DOZ : Deep Ore Zone
DPM : Diesel Particulate Matter
DWP : Dewatering Plant
EC : Elemental Carbon
EC/TC : Elemental Carbon to Total Carbon ratio
EGFR : Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor
EPA : Environmental Protection Agency
FEV1 : Forced Expiratory Volume in First Second
FID : Flame Ionization Detector
Ft : Feet
FPM : Feet per Minute
FVC : Forced Vital Capacity
FVC : Forced Vital Capacity
xiii
GIS : Geogrpahic Information System
GoI : Government of Indonesia
GOLD : Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease
GRI : Global Report Initiative
HAPs : Hazardous Air Pollutants
HEAT : Heavy equipments access trails
HP : High-powered
HR : Hazard Ratio
H2S : Hydrogen Sulfide
IARC : International Agency for Cancer Reasearch
ICMM : International Council on Mining and Metals
IISD : International Institute for Sustainable Development
IR : Infrared
IUCN : International Union for the Conservation of Natural Resources
JPOI : Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
LEL : Lower Exposure Limit
LHD : Load Haul Dump
LP : Loading Point
MEFR : Maximum Expiratory Flow Rate
MEFV : Maximum Expiration Flow Volume
MMSD : Mining, Mineral and Sustainable Development
MMSS : Mining and Metals Sector Supplement
MSHA : Mine Safety & Health Administration
NAAQS : National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NIOSH : National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
Nm : Nanometer
NO : Nitrogen Monoxide
NOx : Nitrous Oxides
NO2 : Nitrogen Dioxide
OC : Organic Carbon
OEM : Original Equipment Manufacturer
xiv
OHS : Overburden handling systems
OSHA : Occupational Health and Health Administration
O2 : Oxygen
PAH : Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
PBEC : Primary Bronchial Epithelial Cells
PEL : Permissible Exposure Limit
PID : Photo Ionized Detector
POC : Product of Combustion
PTFI : PT Freeport Indonesia
REC : Respirable Elemental Carbon
SD : Sustainable Development
SOF : Soluble Organic Fraction
SOx : Sulfur Oxide
SO2 : Sulphur Dioxide
STEL : Short Term Exposure Limit
TC : Total Carbon
TGFɑ : Transforming Growth Factor Alpha
TWA : Time Weighting Average
UCL : 95% Upper Confidence Limit
UG : Underground Mine
UN : United Nations
UNCED : United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCSD : United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
USEPA : United State Environmental Protection Agency
UTM : The Universal Transverse Mercator
VC : Vital Capacity
VOCs : Volatile Organic Compounds
WBCSD : World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WCED : World Commission on Environment and Development
WCS : World Conservation Strategy
WGS : World Geodetic System
xv
WSSD : World Summit on Sustainable Development
µg/m3 : Micrograms per Cubic Meter
µg/ml : Micrograms per Milliliter
xvi
ABSTRAK
Sesuai Undang-undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 yaitu untuk menjaga fungsi maupun
kualitas lingkungan yang berkelanjutan, khususnya udara yang merupakan sumberdaya alam
yang harus dilindungi untuk kehidupan manusia dan mahluk hidup lainnya, maka kualitas
udara harus memenuhi peraturan perundangan agar sesuai dengan standar kualitas
lingkungan.
Di PT Freeport Indonesia, terdapat tambang logam mineral seperti tembaga (Cu) dan
emas (Au), yang dilakukan dengan membuat terowongan menuju tambang bawah tanah.
Diesel engine exhaust (DEE) merupakan campuran gas nitrogen oksida (NOx), karbon
monoksida (CO), dan diesel particulate matter (DPM) yang dihasilkan dari penggunaan
bahan bakar diesel untuk mesin berupa kendaraan alat berat bertenaga diesel yang beroperasi
di lingkungan bawah tanah operasi tambang .
Tujuan studi ini adalah untuk menganalisis respon pemajanan Diesel Engine Exhaust
(DEE) pada tambang bawah tanah di PT Freeport Indonesia terhadap kesehatan pernapasan
pekerja tambang bawah tanah. Data diesel particulate matter (DPM) diukur dengan metode
NIOSH No. 5040 dan menerapkan metode geostatistikal dalam memetakan kosentrasi di area
tambang bawah tanah. Pengukuran spirometrik dilakukan untuk mendiagnosis Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) pada 314 pekerja.
Hasil menunjukkan bahwa konsentrasi diesel engine exhaust (DEE) khususnya diesel
particulate matter (DPM) tinggi dan melebihi permissible exposure limit (PEL) yang
ditetapkan yaitu 160 TC µg/m3. Adapun hasil pengukuran spirometrik mengindikasikan
bahwa sebanyak 26 pekerja (8.3%) mengalami COPD (post bronchodilator <0.70). Adapun
hasil pengukuran keparahan gangguan aliran udara pada pekerja yang mengalami COPD,
keparahan batasan aliran udara klasifikasi sedang didapati pada 14 pekerja (54%); klasifikasi
parah (GOLD 3) didapati pada 10 pekerja (38%), dan klasifikasi sangat parah (GOLD 4)
didapati pada 2 pekerja (8%).
Terkait topik, permasalahan dan tujuan penelitian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengaruh
paparan khususnya oleh DPM terhadap keparahan batasan aliran udara dengan COPD yaitu
bernilai 0.03. Pemetaan konsentrasi DEE dapat diterapkan pada area tambang lain untuk
mengukur dampaknya pada kesehatan pekerja berdasarkan pada perkiraan paparannya di
operasi tambang bawah.
Rekomendasi yang dapat diberikan yaitu pekerja tambang bawah tanah yang telah
mengalami keparahan gangguan aliran udara dapat berotasi ke area tambang terbuka atau
tugas lainnya di luar area tambang. Untuk perlindungan bagi pekerja tersebut yaitu dengan
program perlindungan pernapasan, melalui kewajiban penggunaan masker partikulat P100
yang memiliki efektifitas 99,9% dalam mencegah respirable particulate masuk melalui sistem
pernafasan. Peningkatan pengetahuan gaya hidup bersih dan sehat juga dilakukan bagi pekerja
yang menderita COPD untuk mencegah tingkat keparahan yang lebih tinggi.
Kata kunci: gangguan aliran udara; COPD; DEE; geostatistik; pekerja tambang bawah tanah.
xvii
ABSTRACT
Based on Act Number 32 year 2009, i.e. to keep the function and sustainable
environmental quality, especially the air that has been natural resources that must be protected
for human and other creatures’ life, then the air quslity must comply regulations so that it is in
line with the environment quality standard.
At PT Freeport Indonesia (PTFI), there is a mine for mineral metal like copper (Cu) and gold
(Au), by doing tunnels towards the underground mine. Diesel engine exhaust (DEE) is a mixture of
nitrogen oxide (NOx) gas, carbon monoxide (CO), and diesel particulate matter (DPM) resulted from
the use of diesel fuel for machines in a form of diesel-powered vehicles (heavy equipments) in mine
operation’s underground environment.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the exposure response of Diesel Engine Exhaust (DEE)
in underground mine at PTFI on the respiratory health of underground mine workers. The data of
diesel particulate matter (DPM) is measured by using NIOSH No. 5040 and applying geostatictical
method in mapping the concentration in underground mine area. Spirometric measurement is
conducted to diagnose Choronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) on 314 miners.
The result shows that the diesel engine exhaust (DEE) especially diesel particulate matter
(DPM) is high and exceed the stated permissible exposure limit (PEL), i.e. 160 µg/m3. The result of
spirometric measurement indicates that 26 workers (8.3%) have COPD (post bronchodilator
<0.70). Furthermore, the measurement result of severity of airflow limitation with medium
classification is found on 14 miners (54%); severe classification (GOLD 3) is found on 10
miners (38%), and very severe classification (GOLD 4) is found on 2 miners (8%).
Regarding the topic, problem and the objectives of this research, it can be concluded
that the exposure influence especially by DPM on the airflow severity with COPD is 0.03.
DEE concentration mapping can be applied in other mine area to measure its impacts for
workers’ health based on the estimation of its exposure in mine operation.
The recommendation that can be given is that the underground workers who have severity of
airflow limitation can rotate to open pit mine area or other assignments outside the mine area. For
protection of those workers, i.e. with respiratory protection program, is through the mandatory usage
of P100 particulate mask that has 99.9% effectiveness, in preventing respirable particulate to go into
the respiratory system. The improvement of clean and healthy life style knowledge can also be done
for workers who have COPD to prevent a more severe level.
Keywords: airflow limitation; COPD; DEE; geostatistics; underground workers.
xviii
RINGKASAN
Di PT Freeport Indonesia, terdapat tambang bawah tanah untuk logam mineral seperti
tembaga (Cu) dan emas (Au), yang dilakukan dengan membuat terowongan menuju
penambangan mineral bawah tanah. Pengukuran konsentrasi polutan air di DOZ merupakan
langkah pertama dalam mengidentifikasi bahaya dan resiko kesehatan dan lingkungan para
pekerja tambang. Penggunaan bahan bakar diesel (DF) dan mesin diesel (DE) meningkat karena
kehandalan dan efisiensi pembakaran bahan bakar hidrokarbon. Namun, terdapat kekhawatiran
bahwa hasil pembakaran mesin diesel dalam bentuk diesel engine exhaust (DEE) yang berbahaya
bagi kesehatan pekerja tambang.
Mesin diesel (DE) memiliki perangkat industrial termasuk dalam pertambangan (off-
road). Kendaraan/alat berat bertenaga diesel (HE) yang beroperasi di lingkungan bawah tanah
(UG) (tambang dan terowongan) ditentukan dengan cara mengkalikan tenaga kendaraan dengan
tingkat ventilasi; yang dimandatkan oleh peraturan-peraturan atau ditentukan secara empiris dari
kuantitas yang telah diketahui. Pada proses penambangan bawah tanah, (HE) seperti loader dan
alat lainnya menggunakan mesin diesel (DE). Di samping loader, haul truck, development jumbo,
truck dan kendaraan atau alat tambang lainnya yang menggunakan DE juga berada di terowongan
bawah tanah.
Partikel-partikel dalam DEE adalah diesel particulate matter (DPM) yang terdiri atas
pusat inti karbon yang disebut elemental carbon (EC) dan senyawa organik serapan yang disebut
organic carbon (OC), dan sejumlah kecil sulfat, nitrat, logam dan unsur lainnya. DEE
diklasifikasikan sebagai carsinogenic bagi manusia (Grup 1). Keputusan ini berdasar pada studi
yang dilakukan oleh National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) bersama US
National Cancer Institute (NCI) yang menunjukkan hubungan respon paparan antara paparan EC
terhirup dan tingkat kematian karena kanker paru-paru pada pekerja tambang bawah tanah.
Tingkat tertinggi EC dilaporkan untuk lokasi kerja bawah tanah dalam pertambangan.
Penilaian paparan merupakan proses mengukur atau memperkirakan magnitudo, frekuensi
dan durasi paparan manusia ke senyawa di lingkungannya. Evaluasi paparan manusia
menjelaskan sifat dan ukuran populasi yang terpapar kontaminan atau pencemar lingkungan
udara serta magnitudo dan durasi paparannya. Dosis, durasi dan waktu, sifat dan ukuran dari
xix
pengukuran kritis paparan untuk karakterisasi resiko. DPM biasanya berlangsung kurang dari satu
mikron, yang menyebabkannya mudah terhirup dan tersimpan di dalam tubuh. Saat ini industri
pertambangan di Amerika Serikat berada dalam proses pembuatan peraturan yang lebih ketat
terkait dengan partikulat diesel di tambang bawah tanah. Batas paparan DPM yang diadopsi oleh
MSHA untuk tambang bawah tanah logam dan non-logam (non-batubara). PEL saat ini untuk
DPM sesuai MSHA (30 CFR 57.5060(b)) adalah 160 μg TC/m3, yang disebut sebagai kandungan
karbon total (TC).
Penelitian ini dilakukan di DOZ, yang merupakan area produksi terletak di bawah tanah.
Studi ini dilakukan di tambang bawah tanah DOZ pada titik koordinat 733250-734250 Easting;
951250-952250 Northing; UTM Zone 53 South. Lokasi penambangan berada di pegunungan
Jayawijaya, Distrik Mimika Timur, Propinsi Papua, Indonesia. Pengukuran yang diambil
meenggambarkan kondisi ambien dan analisis kimia komprehensif dilakukan. Data DPM sebagai
TC disebut sebagai jumlah EC dan OC. EC dan OC diukur dengan nomor metode 5040 NIOSH.
Studi ini menerapkan analisis spasial dengan universal kriging untuk memetakan
konsentrasi DPM di di DOZ. Data yang didapatkan dari perhitungan tersebut kemudian diproses
ke dalam sebiuah kerangka menggunakan model spasial. Model tersebut telah digunakan paling
sering untuk memberikan kondisi batasan ke pemodelan dinamis dari polutan udara. Dalam studi
kali ini, ArcGIS digunakan untuk menghasilkan peta. Pengukuran spirometrik dilakukan untuk
mendiagnosis COPD dan penilaian Batasan aliran udara didasarkan pada GOLD, yang dilakukan
pada 314 pekerja tambang yang bekerja di DOZ.
Area aliran udara tambang DOZ memerikan cukup aliran udara yang diperlukan
berdasarkan perhatian kecepatan minimum dalam jalur lalu lintas dan dilusi kontaminasi diesel.
Kebutuhan aliran udara total adalah 1.498 m3/detik. Aliran udara ke masing-masing tingkat
utama, undercut, extraction dan haulage berdasar pada penyediaan 0,079 m3/detik/kW pada
kendaraan atau alat diesel dan minimum kecepatan udara 0,76 m/detik di area dimana personil
dan non-diesel beroperasi. Aliran udara intake (masuk) dan exhaust (keluar) diperlukan untuk
menyediakan aliran udara yang cukup. Hal ini disebabkan oleh multiple parallel drifts pada
tingkat extraction (produksi) untuk mengendalikan tambang block caving. Terkait dengan jalur
utama, aliran udara diperlukan untuk dilusi kontaminasi dan kecepatan minimum. Sistem
ventilasi dirancang untuk memastikan semua personil yang bekerja di truck haulage drifts
xx
mendapat udara segar. Penentuan jumlah aliran udara dipengaruhi oleh peralatan tambang dan
variasi luas dalam karekteristik emisi bahkan di antara kendaraan yang memiliki ukuran dan
tenaga yang mirip. Jumlah parameter mempengaruhi total aliran udara yang diperlukan untuk
jumlah DE.
Analisis interpolasi spasial menggunakan model dispersi dengan memproses data emisi
dan meteorologis secara numerik. Metode kriging merupakan metode umum yang digunakan dan
menggambarkan fenomena yang berlangsung terus-menerus secara spasial. Sebuah metode telah
membuat dasar pemetaan polusi lingkungan di beberapa tahun terakhir. Metode ini menjelaskan
model paparan kualitas udara di tambang DOZ untuk memprediksi konsentrasi DPM dimana para
pekerja tambang terpapar. Analisis polusi udara dan titik pemantauan dan pengukuran (truck
haulage drifts and tunnels) yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah beragam polutan dari
pengoperasian HE di lingkungan bawah tanah.
Pengukuran data polutan udara yang digunakan dalam penilaian menggunakan metode
Geographic Information System (GIS)-based Kriging untuk menghasilkan informasi paling
akurat dan berguna tentang pola interpolasi spasial dari konsentrasi DPM di DOZ. Pemetaan
dibuat dalam ArcGIS, yang mengintegrasi data relevan pada truck hauling drifts, terowongan dan
tingkat ventilasi. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa DPM dapat diperkirakan, dipetakan dan
divisualisasikan dalam GIS-framework. Distribusi spasial polutan merupakan komponen integral
dari aspek evaluasi risiko yang terkait dengan kesehatan dan lingkungan. Teknik yang digunakan
untuk menggambarkan distribusi spasial memberikan makna dalam memperkirakan kemungkinan
nilai atribut, yang melebihi batasan yang diperlukan dalam lokasi tertentu.
Hasil pemetaan konsentrasi polutan udara dengan universal kriging mengindikasikan
konsentrasi yang tinggi, atau kondisi yang buruk pada area truck haulage. Hampir semua area
memiliki konsentrasi DPM yang beragam dari 343,26 hingga 618,23 µg/m3. Bahkan di beberapa
area, tingkatnya 618,24 hingga 1168,18 µg/m3. Walaupun kualitas udara di dalam DOZ
dipengaruhi oleh keseimbangan total udara intake dan exhaust, sebagai bagian dari sistem
ventilasi untuk mensuplai kebutuhan udara, kualitasnya masih tidak mampu mendilusi polutan
udara, khususnya DPM. Kebutuhan udara semua pekerja tambang adalah untuk 650 individu
dengan faktor operasional 100%, dimana total alitan udara per unit adalah 0,03 m3/detik.
Lagipula, kuantitas aliran udara untuk masing-masing tipe unit peralatan diesel yang tergantung
xxi
pada faktor operasionalnya pada unit tenaga (dalam unit horsepower), yang berbeda dari tipe unit
dan dipengaruhi oleh faktor operasional dari masing-masing unit peralatan.
Nilai aliran udara minimum adalah 0,03 m3/s/pekerja dan 0,067 m3/s/kW untuk dilusi
DEE sesuai dengan Peraturan Pertambangan Indonesia. Sebenarnya, 0,08 m3/s/kW merupakan
nilai desain dan lebih tinggi daripada jumlah alat MSHA pada umumnya yang disediakan untuk
kepatuhan gas. Untuk jalan haulage truck, kecepatan maksimumnya adalah 6,1 m/detik. Ventilasi
untuk bengkel diesel berdasar pada dilusi gas exhaust untuk dua loader, yang memerlukan sekitar
40,0 m3/detik. Ventilasi bengkel non diesel telah diputuskan 23,5 m3/detik berdasarkan
pengalaman di tambang tersebut. Aliran udara melalui area lube shop telah diputuskan 28,2
m3/detik berdasar pada penggunaan alat yang diperkirakan. Faktor pengoperasian
menggambarkan presentase waktu alat yang akan bekerja dan harus diterapkan untuk
menentukan perkiraan kebutuhan aliran udara.
Paparan lingkungan oleh asap, gas, dan debu pada pekerja berkontribusi pada kerusakan
fungsi paru. Faktor resiko lingkungan paling menonjol untuk COPD adalah merokok, yang terkait
dengan tingkat kematian yang lebih tinggi, gejala gangguan pernapasan dan ketidaknormalan
fungsi paru, serta penurunan fungsi paru. Pengukuran spirometrik untuk diagnosa COPD
dilakukan kepada 314 pekerja tambang yang bekerja di DOZ.
Rata-rata para pekerja tambang telah bekerja di DOZ selama 15 tahun. Hal ini sesuai
dengan umur tambang DOZ yang mulai beroperasi tahun 1998. Lamanya bekerja sesuai dengan
jumlah waktu terpapar DEE. Paparan terhadap partikel merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi
perkembangan penyakit, walaupun juga dipengaruhi usia dan jenis kelamin, meskipun dalam
studi ini, jenis kelamin tidak digunakan sebagai variabel independen karena semua pekerja
tambang di DOZ adalah laki-laki. Kemunculan COPD lebih tinggi pada perokok dan mantan
perokok dibandingkan dengan non perokok. Jumlah non perokok adalah 142 pekerja (45,2%) dari
total pekerja, lebih sedikit dibanding pekerja yang perokok, yaitu 172 (54,8%) dari total pekerja,
atau 9,8% lebih tinggi daripada pekerja non perokok. COPD dianggap dalam sejarah paparan
sebagai faktor resiko untuk penyakit. Hasil pengukuran spirometrik, munculnya post-
bronchodilator FEV1/FVC <0.70 mengkonfirmasi adanya batasan aliran udara yang tetap pada
314 pekerja, yaitu sebanyak 26 pekerja (8,3%). Jadi dapat dikatakan bahwa paparan oleh DEE
dapat menyebabkan COPD pada pekerja yang bekerja di DOZ.
xxii
Untuk mengukur keparahan gangguan aliran udara ke pekerja tambang yang mengalami
COPD, uji lanjut pada pekerja dengan FEV1 (% terprediksi) yang diujikan pada pekerja dengan
FEV1/FVC <0.70, didapatkan hasil tingkat klasifikasi keparahan batasan aliran udara bagi
pekerja dengan COPD adalah sebagai berikut: klasifikasi sedang (GOLD 2) 14 pekerja atau 54%,
parah (GOLD 3) 10 pekerja atau 38%, dan sangat parah (GOLD 4) 2 pekerja atau 8%. Uji
ANOVA dilakukan dengan memasukkan metode untuk menentukan jumlah waktu kerja
(paparan) DPM terhadap keparahan batasan aliran udara dengan COPD serta apakah faktor lain
seperti usia, kebiasaan merokok juga dapat mempengaruhi keparahannya. Hasil yang didapatkan
dari uji-uji tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai R=0.173 dengan nilai F=2.395 pada nilai
signifikansi (α) = 0.05, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa kategori GOLD dipengaruhi oleh 3%
dari lama paparan DPM, tinggi badan, kebiasaan merokok dan usia pekerja. Dari pengukuran
keparahan gangguan aliran udara pada pekerja yang mengalami COPD, jumlah durasi kerja
(paparan) DPM terhadap keparahan batasan aliran udara dengan COPD 3%, dimana faktor
lainnya seperti usia dan kebiasaan merokok juga mempengaruhi keeparahannya. Dari hasil-hasil
tersebut, disimpulkan bahwa pemetaan konsentrasi polutan dapat digunakan untuk mengevaluasi
hubungan paparan-respon. Paparan polutan DEE direkomendasikan untuk dilakukan sebagai
bagian studi untuk memprediksi apakah polutan memberikan dampak pada kondisi kesehatan
pekerja tambang dalam paparan jangka panjang.
xxiii
SUMMARY
In PT Freeport Indonesia, there are underground mines for mineral metal such copper
(Cu) and gold (Au), done by making tunnels towards the mineral underground mining. Air
pollutant concentration measurement in DOZ is first step in identifying environmental-health
hazards and risk to the miners. The use of diesel fuel (DF) on Diesel Engine (DE) increases
because of the reliability an efficiency of hydrocarbon fuel oxidation. However, there is a worry
that the result of diesel engine oxidation is in the form of diesel engine exhaust (DEE) which is
dangerous for miner’s health.
Diesel engines (DE) have of industrial applications including in mining (off-road). Diesel-
powered heavy equipment (HE) operating in underground (UG) environments (mines and
tunnels) were determined by multiplying the vehicle power by a ventilation rate; that was either
mandated by regulation(s) or determined empirically from known quantities. In the process of
UG mining, (HE) such as loader as well as other equipments that uses diesel engine (DE). Beside
loader, haul truck, development jumbo, truck and other mine equipments that use DE are also in
the underground tunnels.
The particles in DEE are diesel particulate matter (DPM) consisting of the center of
carbon nucleus defined as elemental carbon (EC) and absorbed organic compounds defined as
organic carbon (OC), and a small number of sulphate, nitrate, metal, and other elements. DEE
classified as carcinogenic to human (Group 1), the decision was based on National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and US National Cancer Institute (NCI) study showed
exposure-response relationships between respirable EC exposure and lung cancer mortality in UG
miners. The highest levels of EC were reported for enclosed UG work sites in mining.
Exposure assessment is the process of measuring or estimating the magnitude, frequency
and duration of human exposure to a compound in the environment. Human exposure evaluation
involved describing the nature and size of the population exposed to a air contaminants and
magnitude and duration of their exposure. The dose, its duration and timing, the nature and size
of the critical measures of exposure for risk characterization. DPM usually less than one micron,
which causes them to be more easily inhaled and retained in the body. Presently the United States
mining industry is in the process of phasing in stringent regulations relating to diesel particulates
in underground mines. Exposure limits for DPM adopted by MSHA for metal or non-metal
xxiv
underground mines (non-coal). The present PEL for DPM as per MSHA (30 CFR 57.5060(b)) is
160 μg TC/m3, with the defined as total carbon (TC) content.
Research is carried out in DOZ, which is a production area of UG located The study was
held at the DOZ UG mine on the coordinate points of 733250-734250 Easting; 951250-952250
Northing; UTM Zone 53 South. The mining site is situated in Jayawijaya Mountain, East Mimika
District, Papua Province, Indonesia. Measurement were taken represent ambient conditions and a
comprehensive chemical analysis was performed. Data of DPM as TC was defined as the sum of
EC and OC. Both EC and OC were measured by NIOSH method number 5040.
This study applied spatial analysis by universal kriging for mapping DPM concentration
in the area trcuk haulage drift at DOZ. The data obtained from these calculations were then
processed into a frame using a spatial model. It has been most frequently used for providing
boundary conditions to dynamic modeling of the air pollution. In the current study, ArcGIS were
used for generating maps. A spirometric measurement were conduct to diagnose COPD and
assessment airflow limitation based on GOLD, is conduct to the 314 miners that work at the
DOZ.
DOZ mine airflow area provides sufficient for airways were required were based on
minimum velocity concern in main travelways and dilution of diesel contamination. Total airflow
demand is 1.498 m3/s. Airflow to each primary level, undercut, extraction and haulage was based
on providing 0.079 m3/s/kW over diesel equipment and a minimum air velocity of 0.76 m/s in
areas where personnel and non-diesel operate. Intake and exhaust airways were required to
provide sufficient airflow. It caused by the multiple parallel drifts on the extraction (production)
level to control block caving mines. Concerning to main trailways, airflow required for dilution
of DEE contamination and minimum velocity. For ventilation system designed to assure all
personnel working in truck haulage drifts in fresh air. Determination of airflow quantity that
influence by mining equipment and wide variations in characteristics of emissions even amongst
vehicle of similar size and power. The number of parameter affecting the total airflow required
for a amount of DE.
Spatial interpolation analysis is using air dispersion model by numerically processing
emission and meteorological data. Kriging method is a common method used and represents
spatially continuous phenomena. A method has formed the basis for environmental pollution
xxv
mapping in recent years. This method describe DOZ mine air quality exposure model for
predicting DPM concentrations to which the miners’ is exposed. Air pollution analysis and points
of monitoring and measurement (truck haulage drifts and tunnels) used in this studies of various
pollutants from HE operating in UG environments.
Air polutant data measurements are use in assesses use of Geographic Information System
(GIS) based Kriging method to produce the most accurate and providing useful information about
the spatial interpolation patterns DPM concentration in DOZ. A mapping was built in ArcGIS,
integrating relevant data on truck haulage drifts, tunnels and ventilation rate. The result that show
DPM can be estimated, mapped and visualized within a GIS framework. The spatial distribution
of the pollutants is an integral component from risk evaluation aspect concerning health and
environment. Technique used for illustrating the spatial distribution provides a meaning for
estimating the probability of the attribute value, which exceeds required threshold in a particular
location.
Results of the air pollutant concentration mapping was DPM with universal kriging. In
general, it indicated a high concentration, therefore, denoting bad condition at the truck haulage
area, even though no difference in DPM concentration was found. Almost areas had the DPM
concentration ranging from 343.26 to 618.23 g/m3. Even at some areas the rates were 618.24 to
1168.18 g/m3. Although the air quality inside the DOZ was affected by balance of the total air
intake and exhaust, as the part of ventilation system to supply the needs for air, the quality is still
not capable of diluting air pollutants, in particular DPM. The air requirement of all mining
workers was 650 individuals with operational factor of 100 %, where the total airflow per unit
was 0.03 m3/s. Besides, the airflow quantity necessary for each unit type of the diesel equipment
depended its operational factor on the power unit (in horsepower unit), which was different from
unit type and affected by operational factor of each unit equipment.
Minimum airflow value of 0.03 m3/s/worker and 0.067 m3/s/kW for DEE dilution as per
Indonesian Mining Regulation. Actually, 0.08 m3/s/kW is a design value and is higher than the
typical MSHA equipment quantities provided for gaseous compliance. For truck haulage routes is
6.1 m/s as the maximum velocity. Ventilation for diesel shops based on the dilution of exhaust
gaseous for two large loaders, which requires approximately 40.0 m3/s. Ventilation of non-diesel
shops has been established at 23.5 m3/s based on experience at the mine. Airflow through the lube
xxvi
shop areas has been determined to be 28.2 m3/s based on expected equipment usage. Operating
factors represent the percentage of time that the equipment will be running and have to applied to
determine approximate airflow requirements.
Environmental exposures to fumes, gases, air pollutants, and occupational dusts
contribute to impaired lung function. The most prevalent environmental risk factor for COPD is
cigarette smoking, which is associated with a higher mortality rate, a higher burden of respiratory
symptoms and lung function abnormalities, and greater decreases in lung function. Spirometric
measurement for COPD diagnosis is done to 314 miners that work at the DOZ.
The miners work in DOZ for 15 years ratably. This is in line with the mining age of DOZ
which began operating in 1998. The years of working are in line with the amount of time exposed
by DEE. Exposure to particles is a factor that affects disease progression, although it is also
affected by age and sex, although in this study, gender is not used as an independent variable
because all miners in DOZ are male. Prevalence of COPD was higher in smokers and ex-smokers
compared to non-smokers. The number of non-smokers are 142 miners (45.2%) of the total
miners, which is less when compared with the miners who smoke, 172 miners (54.8%) of the
total miners are 9.8% higher than miners as non-smokers. COPD is considered in a history of
exposure to risk factors for the disease. The results of spirometry measurement, the presence of a
post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC <0.70 confirms the presence of persistent airflow limitation on
314 miners as many as 26 miners (8.3%). Thus it can be said that exposure to DEE can cause
COPD on the miners who worked in DOZ.
To measure the severity of airflow obstructive toward the miners who experience COPD,
a follow-up test on miners with FEV1 (% predicted) assessed on miners' with FEV1/FVC <0.70,
and it is obtained the result of severity of airflow limitation classification for miners with COPD
those are: for moderate (GOLD 2) is 14 miners or 54%, severe (GOLD 3) is 10 miners or 38%,
and very severe (GOLD 4) is 2 miners or 8%. ANOVA test is conducted by enter method to
determine the amount of working time (exposure) DPM against severity of airflow limitation
with COPD and whether other factors those are age, smoking habits can also affect the severity.
The results obtained from these tests shows that the value R=0.173 with value F=2.395 on the
value of significance (α) = 0.05, so it can be concluded that the GOLD category is influenced by
3% of the length of exposure to DPM, height, smoking habits, and age of miners. From the
xxvii
severity measurement of airflow obstructive to miners experiencing COPD, the amount of
working duration (exposure) DPM against severity of airflow limitation with COPD by 3%, in
which the other factors are age and smoking habits also affects the severity. From these results,
concluded that the concentration mapping can be used to evaluate exposure-response
relationships. The estimated exposure of the DEE pollutant was recommended to perform as the
part of the study on predicting whether the pollutant gives any impact on health condition of the
mining workers in a longterm exposure.