EXPLORING MONA BAKER’S EQUIVALENCE THEORY IN TRANSLATING

KINYARWANDA GENDERED PROVERBS RELATED TO WOMEN INTO ENGLISH

AND FRENCH

A Thesis Submitted to the University of Rwanda in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Award of Master of Arts (M.A) Degree in Translation and Interpreting Studies

Option: Translation

By

Pascal BASIGAYABO

Student Registration Number: 218014321

College of Arts and Social Sciences

Supervisor: Dr. Pierre Canisius RUTERANA

June, 2020

i

DECLARATION

I, Pascal BASIGAYABO, do hereby declare that this dissertation entitled Exploring Mona

Baker’s Equivalence Theory in Translating Kinyarwanda Gendered Proverbs Related to

Women into English and French submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Arts in Translation and Interpreting at University of Rwanda, College of

Arts and Social Sciences, is my original work and has not previously been submitted and

reported elsewhere. I also do declare that a complete list of references indicating all sources of

information quoted or cited is provided.

BASIGAYABO Pascal

Signature

Date: June 15, 2020

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DEDICATION

To the Almighty God,

To my beloved wife,

To my daughters, my sons-in-law and my grand-children,

To my sons,

I dedicate this work.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, praise is due to the Almighty God for giving me strength and ability to complete this

study.

I convey my sincere thanks to my beloved family and relatives for having supported me morally

and financially. My deep recognition is extended to my beloved wife for her service as stress

alleviator. I appreciate her moral, economic and social support throughout my studies.

I am thankful to my supervisor, Dr. Pierre Canisius RUTERANA, for the patient guidance,

encouragement and advice provided throughout my time as his student. I have been very lucky

to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work and who responded to my questions and

my queries kindly. I owe him all respect because without his orientation, this thesis couldn‟t be

completed.

I extend my appreciation to the administration of the College of Arts and Social Sciences, to the

Coordination of Master‟s Program of Translation and Interpreting, as well as the teaching staff

for their commitment in transforming us into professional translators.

I am also grateful to Mr. Wallace Mlaga for his tangible assistance in research. The books sent to

me helped me in getting English equivalents to Kinyarwanda proverbs. May God bless him and

his family? My deep recognition is sent to Mr. Théogène Twagirimana, for having accepted to

proofread and edit this dissertation. His experience helped producing a consistent work in both

form and content. Special thanks are sent to Mr. Isaïe Nyirinkwaya and Mr. Sylvestre Ngarambe

for their assistance in data gathering.

Last but not least, I am thankful to everyone who helped me in this thesis.

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ABSTRACT

Over the past years, some anthropologists, linguists and undergraduate students have attempted

to translate Rwandan proverbs into foreign languages (mainly English and French), from both

sociolinguistic and anthropological perspectives. However, the translation quality of some of

these works is, at varying degrees, below the standards, mainly due to the use of inadequate

translation strategies. This study is an attempt to translate Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs by

applying the equivalence theory through Baker‟s (1992) translation strategies, namely, using a

proverb of similar meaning and similar form, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar

form, paraphrasing and omission.

This qualitative study relied on a corpus of 80 Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs related to

woman, randomly selected from three main collections of Kinyarwanda proverbs (Bigirumwami,

2004; Crépeau and Bizimana, 1979; Sibo, 2012, and some other open sources) and thematically

categorized. The identified main themes are namely: women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy,

jealous, deceitful and willful; women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and

dependent; women portrayed as sexual objects; women‟s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare

for men; women portrayed as talkative and troublesome; and women portrayed as households‟

good managers, children bearers and educators. Then, English and French equivalent proverbs

from identified collections of proverbs (Schipper, 2010; Kershen, 2012; Rasul, 2015; Maloux,

2009) were provided to the selected Kinyarwanda proverbs. In case of non-equivalence, the

researcher has resorted to translation by paraphrasing. The findings have shown that the most

frequently used strategy in translating a proverb, both from Kinyarwanda to English and French,

was to translate with a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form. On the other hand, it was

found that translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English or French by using other strategies

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such as using a proverbs of similar meaning and similar form or paraphrasing was less frequent,

simply because of distant cultural and linguistic universals between Kinyarwanda, a Bantu

language, and English and French, Indo-European languages. Furthermore, it was also shown

that Baker‟s strategies are to some extent subjective and cause cultural loss. This is quite

understandable because every culture has its own mores and norms that have no equivalent

anywhere else. In spite of these challenges, works of this kind need to be pursued and

encouraged since they contribute to the dialogue of cultures and facilitate better integration into

today‟s world of globalization. In short, the current study has only dealt with the translation of

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs related to women. Further research can carry on where the

present study has left off and focuses, among other things, on proverbs about men and children,

marriage and so on. The field is still fresh and wide open.

Key words: Proverb, gendered proverb, equivalence, Baker‟s translation strategies.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................... i

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................ ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS ...................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... x

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the study ....................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 6

1.3 Problem statement ................................................................................................................. 8

1.4. Research objectives ............................................................................................................ 10

1.4.1. Main objectives ............................................................................................................... 10

1.4.2. Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 10

1.5. Scope and limitations of the study ..................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 11

2.1. Review of theoretical literature .......................................................................................... 11

2.1.1. Common linguistic and textual features of proverbs ...................................................... 11

2.1.2. Equivalence and equivalence effect in translation theories ............................................ 12

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2.1.2.1. Different scholars‟ views on the equivalence theory in translation. ............................ 13

2.1.2.1.1. Linguistic approach ................................................................................................... 13

2.1.2.1.2. Formal and dynamic equivalence ............................................................................. 14

2.1.2.1.3. Semantic and communicative translation ................................................................. 15

2.1.2.1.4. Linguistic and communicative approach to translation ............................................ 17

2.2. Review of empirical studies ............................................................................................... 18

2.3. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 24

3.1. Research design ................................................................................................................. 24

3.2. Research approach ............................................................................................................. 24

3.3. Study sample ...................................................................................................................... 25

3.4. Data collection and settings ............................................................................................... 27

3.5. Data collection tools .......................................................................................................... 28

3.5. Data coding and presentation ............................................................................................. 28

3.6. Data analysis and discussion .............................................................................................. 30

3.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION................. 31

4.1. Data presentation ............................................................................................................... 31

4.2. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 50

4.3. Discussion of the findings.................................................................................................. 51

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4.3.1. Baker‟s strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs into ............. 51

English and French ................................................................................................................... 51

4.3.1.1. Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence) ....... 51

4.3.1.2. Using a proverbs of similar meaning and similar form (formal equivalence) ............. 53

4.3.1.3. Translation by paraphrasing ......................................................................................... 55

4.3.2. Cultural loss .................................................................................................................... 59

4.3.3. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 60

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................. 62

1. General Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 62

2. Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 63

2.1. Institutions in charge of culture and language planning in Rwanda .................................. 63

2.2. Translators ......................................................................................................................... 63

2.3. Teachers for translation courses ........................................................................................ 64

3. Avenues for Future Research ............................................................................................. 64

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 65

APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... 72

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LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS

B: Bigirumwami

CASS: College of Arts and Social Sciences

CEDAW: Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women

C: Crépeau

GMO: Gender Monitoring Office

K: Kerschen

M: Maloux

MIGEPROF: Ministère du Genre et de la Promotion Féminine

nd: no date

NIRDA: National Industrial Research and Development Agency.

OS: Open source

RALC: Rwanda Academy of Language and Culture

SC: Source Culture

SCH: Schipper

ST: Source Culture

SL: Source Language

TC: Target Culture

TL: Target Language

TT: Target Text UN: United Nations

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Comparison of some major equivalence theories (Primary source) ............................... 21

Table 2: Women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful ........................ 37

Table 3: Women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent ....................... 40

Table 4: Women portrayed as sexual objects ............................................................................... 44

Table 5: Women‟s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men ................................................ 46

Table 6: Women portrayed as talkative and troublesome ............................................................. 47

Table 7: Women portrayed as households good managers, children bearers and educators ……49

Table 8: The most commonly translation strategies used ............................................................. 50

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CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Translation has played and will continue to play a significant role in many aspects of our daily

life. Not only does translation help to know foreign languages and foreign cultures, but it also

helps people to know each other and hence coexist peacefully, because, as Schipper (2010:13)

says:

When we translate, we find out what people experience or have experienced jointly.

What we have in common as humans is not only due to globalization, as some seem to

believe, but also to old human universals, because we share not only the shape of our

body but also some fundamental needs and experiences as human beings.

It is in this regard that the present research intends to translate Kinyarwanda proverbs into

English and French, applying the equivalence theory, to assess what Rwandans share with other

people, namely English and French, in terms of gendered language and culture.

But, why were proverbs chosen rather than any other language component? As it is well known,

in any society around the world and from time immemorial, proverbs have played a great role in

everyday communication, especially in nations with strong oral traditions. This great importance

of proverbs results mainly from the fact that they are “transmitters and reflectors of accumulated

wisdom, and a manifestation of the traditional values of a society” (Rasul, 2015:53). Rasul

shares the view with Dabaghi, Pishbin& Niknasab (2010) who state that proverbs are a powerful

tool to transfer cultural and social values.

However, despite their great role of being „transmitters‟ and „reflectors‟ of wisdom, many

proverbs have meanings which are outdated and, hence do not fit in the modern society full of

great changes in different spheres of life, nationally and internationally. This is the case of many

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gendered proverbs around the world which are discriminatory against women yet people

continue to use them carelessly in this era of gender equality promotion. The major reason was

that many traditional societies in the world, including the Rwandan society, were patriarchal. In

this system, men had “power to dominate both physically and economically in society”

(Schipper, 2010: 206). Women were requested just to be „ideal wives‟, that is, “chaste, reserved,

decent, silent, invisible, reliable, zealous, profitable, and willingly let herself be molded by her

husband into the wished for submissiveness” (Schipper, 2010: 268).Under this patriarchal

system, many proverbs which were coined, especially by men, insist on the reasonableness of

existing hierarchies and self-evidence of male superiority (Schipper, 2010: 207).

On the other hand, some other proverbs talk of a woman positively, considering her as a good

manager of household, a source of procreation and good educator of children. However, the few

proverbs talking of women in such a way can be considered as recent, because, while conducting

the current research, it has been noticed that even the famous Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs

speaking in favor of women, such as Umugorê ni umutîma w‟ȗrugȏ or Ukȗrusha umugorê

akurusha urugȏ are not on the list of proverbs collected by the scholars who dealt with this

genre, such as Bigirumwami (2004), Crépeau and Bizimana (1997) and Sibo (2012). This has led

to the assumption that there was a sort of influence from outside (religious, political, economic)

which pushed men to change a bit their traditional conception and perception of women. A

research is needed here to shed more light on this change of mind. The following examples

below illustrate both a good and bad image of women in proverbs:

Umugorê ni umutîma w‟ȗrugȏ (OS).

The man may be the head, but the wife is the heart of the home (SCH2010, Gikuyu,

p.39).

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La maison n‟est pas fondée sur le sol mais sur la femme (M2009, p.197).

Ukȗrusha umugorê akurusha urugȏ(OS).

A woman with many talents fills the house to the ceiling (SCH2010, Portuguese, p. 230).

Le foyer n‟est pas une pierre, mais une femme (M2009, p. 198).

Umugorê w‟îngaȃre agirwa n‟iingȏongo y‟ȗmuhoro (S685).

A quarrelsome woman is rightly hit (SCH2010, Latin/ German, p. 262).

La virago ne cède qu‟à la brutalité (C3395).

Ibaanga ry‟ȗmugorê ni icyȏ ataazî (OS).

Women are born chatterboxes (Schipper, 2010:211).

Le seul secret que gardent les femmes, c‟est ce qu‟elles ont oublié (Maloux, 2009: 202).

Due to the importance of proverbs in communication and regulation of social relations, various

scholars strived to mark and trace the origin, history and nature of proverbs. Many studies have

been conducted aiming at comparing variants of proverbs across cultures and languages. For

instance, Schipper (2010) examined proverbs related to women from around the world.

Moreover, studies have also been conducted in order to analyze the challenges encountered by

translators of proverbs and have suggested suitable translation strategies to overcome them.

Baker (1992) suggested strategies which are helpful in translation of idioms and proverbs. These

strategies are namely:

(i) Using an idiom/ proverb of similar meaning and form

(ii) Using an idiom/proverb of similar meaning but dissimilar form

(iii) Paraphrasing

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(iv) Omission.

Faharani and Ghasemi (2012) used the above mentioned strategies in translating idioms and

proverbs from English into Arabic. Thalji (2015) also explored the same strategies in her study

which assesses the obstacles encountered while translating proverbs and strategies to overcome

those obstacles.

In the same view, Rasul (2015), by using equivalence theory, compared the image of the woman

in English proverbs with the one in Urdu proverbs, in her paper entitled „Gender and Power

Relationships in the Language and Proverbs: Image of a Woman‟, published in FWU (Fatima

Jinnah Women University) Journal of Social Sciences. Her thematic categorization of proverbs

has influenced the way Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs have been presented in the current

study.

Recently, Zheng (2018), in her article „The analysis of Sexism in English Proverbs‟, applied the

equivalence theory in translating English proverbs into Chinese and made people aware of the

discrimination against women and reminds them to eliminate sexism from their discourse.

In Rwanda, some scholars have also shown interest in proverbs (see Crépeau and Bizimana,

1979:6-9). At the beginning, the research in this area was conducted by missionaries-

anthropologists who collected Kinyarwanda proverbs and translated them into either French or

English. Hurel (1920) is known to be the first scholar to have collected and published

Kinyarwanda proverbs. Other researchers of that time dealt with the collection of Kinyarwanda

proverbs and translated them into French. Pagès (1947-1948) published a series of articles

grouping 554 proverbs, under the title: Proverbes et sentences du Rwanda. In the same period,

Pauwels (1953) collected 236 proverbs and published them under the French title of Le

Munyarwanda et ses proverbes. The majority of the works produced by these fathers was in

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French. The first book of Kinyarwanda proverbs translated into English was published by

Merriam and Armstrong (1954) under the title of Banyarwanda proverbs. Their translation in

English is too literal and may be misleading. Given that these fathers aimed at harmonizing

Rwandan beliefs and Christian values, the selection and the translation of proverbs they did were

somehow biased (Crépeau and Bizimana, 1979). Other collections were only in Kinyarwanda

notably Kagame (1953) with 1722 proverbs and Bigirumwami (1968) with 4332 proverbs. The

lack of their translations into foreign languages was reported here as a barrier for foreigners to

get access to the meanings of these proverbs.

Two decades ago, the University of Rwanda students and other private researchers started to

conduct studies in English on proverbs and other language components such as riddles, idioms

and the like. Some of these students worked on gender in Kinyarwanda proverbs, translating the

examples given into English, applying various strategies of translation. For instance, Harerimana

(2002), in his research, “Gender in Kinyarwanda Proverbs: A Sociolinguistic Study”, discussed

the discrimination against women in proverbs and women‟s attitudes towards these proverbs. In

the same line, Sibo (2012) wrote a book that he entitled: Imigani y‟Ikinyarwanda n‟ibisobanuro

byayo mu Cyongereza [Kinyarwanda proverbs with their meanings in English] (Trans. mine).

This book has two parts. The first one is a collection of 988 Kinyarwanda proverbs with their

literal and figurative meanings. The second part strives to explain the origin of 100 Kinyarwanda

proverbs. These explanations are in Kinyarwanda but titles are explained in English.

The current study explores the equivalence theory in translating Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs

into English and French. According to Vinay and Darbelnet (1995:342), “equivalence is the ideal

method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival

phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds”. The researcher‟s interest in Kinyarwanda

gendered proverbs, especially proverbs related to women, stems from the fact that many of them

are sexist and discriminatory against women and therefore, should be used with utmost caution.

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1.2 Significance of the study

This study is important for various reasons: First, the researcher was firstly interested by the

importance of a proverb in everyday communication. Thanks to their simple and fixed structure,

as well as their cultural-bound meanings, proverbs allow people to deliver strong messages in a

few words and a concise manner. In a metaphoric language, Oha (cited in Dogbevi, 2011:1)

describes proverbs as “the palm- oil with which the words are eaten”. Gyekye (cited in Dogbevi,

2011:3) added that: “Wisdom is expressed in proverbs. A wise person must understand proverbs

and be able to use these sayings to solve some of the daunting issues of life”.

Second, translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages is also a way of promoting

Kinyarwanda as a language and the Rwandan culture, which is in the line with RALC‟s (Rwanda

Academy of Language and Culture) main objective of “preserving and promoting Rwandan

national language, culture and historical heritage”. It will help to have a glimpse into the

Rwandan psyche through one of its language expressions, i.e., proverbs. This will contribute to

the dialogue of cultures which is an essential ingredient for better human relations.

Third, the current study is a good linguistic tool for the Rwandan youth and a good number of

the Rwandan population who grew up in exile for historical and political reasons, and did not get

a chance to deeply learn their mother tongue. Therefore, finding equivalents in English or French

to Kinyarwanda proverbs will help them to compare both versions and hence get access to the

meanings in a simplified way.

Similarly, this work is also important for French and English speaking foreigners who are

interested in the Rwandan culture. By comparing Kinyarwanda proverbs with their equivalents in

English and French, they can easily understand and use them.

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This study also seeks to raise people‟s awareness of the discriminatory content of these proverbs

so that they may change their mindset and attitude towards women. In fact, people continue to

use such proverbs, in spite of the international community‟s condemnation of any form of gender

discrimination wherever it may come from. So, as a response to UN call, many governments,

including the Rwandan Government, undertook different initiatives aiming at eradicating such

kind of discrimination. Rwanda has made successful achievements in this regard thanks to the

strong will and commitment of the country‟s leadership to promote gender equality and

empowerment. As reported by the Gender Monitoring Office‟s (GMO) (2018:4) annual report,

the President of the Republic of Rwanda, His Excellent Paul Kagame expressed this national and

international commitment in the following terms,

Women and men are equal in terms of ability and dignity, and they should also be

equal in terms of opportunities. As Rwandans, as a global community, we need

every member of our society to use his or her talents to the fullest if we are ever to

reach our development goals.

Furthermore, the translation of gendered proverbs will help any interested reader, especially the

youth, to broaden their world view by comparing some cultural aspects that are conveyed

through proverbs, namely, the role and image of women as they have been passed on through

generations in different societies. The ultimate goal is to bring about behaviour change: since

most proverbs depict women in a negative way, the reader will be forced, in light of recent

societal changes at all institutional levels worldwide (e/g: laws prohibiting any form of

discrimination against women), to change his/her attitude towards women, namely, will refrain

from using those proverbs and sayings that devalue women.

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Finally, this research will serve as a reference for further research in applying the equivalence

theory in the translation of fixed linguistic expressions such as proverbs, idioms or riddles.

1.3 Problem statement

The translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages has been at times, if not,

frequently, tainted with many errors. These errors result from using inadequate translation

strategies such as literal translation, calques, interpretation or explanation of the SL proverbs

instead of seeking equivalent in the target language. This kind of translation is marred with

problems that prevent the rendering of the same effect of the ST proverb into the TT proverb;

hence this hinders or alters the meaning of the proverb. Here below are examples of

misinterpretation or distortion of meaning:

Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî (C3381).

Une femme doit être menée durement (C3381).

Whereas the proverb in Kinyarwanda means that a woman should be well treated and fed, the

translator has come up with an opposite meaning: a woman should be treated severely.

Uruvȗze umugorê ruvuga umuhoro (S830).

If you quarrel with your wife, think of availability of matchet (S830).

In this translation, we have the same problem: the translator has not understood the real meaning

of the proverb. This proverb warns people not to let women rule the household because it can

only lead to conflicts. In other words, women are not fit for leadership. In the translation, the

issue has been reduced to simple marital in-fighting whereby husbands are being advised to

remember to use their matchets in order to win the war against their wives. Such translation are

not only misleading, they can also be used or interpreted inappropriately by some ill-intentioned

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people. In simpler terms and from men‟s perspective, the proverb means that the family led by

woman is exposed to serious problems.

As earlier seen, these errors result from using inadequate translation strategies such as literal

translation, interpretation or explanation of the SL proverbs instead of seeking equivalent in the

target language. This kind of translation is marred with problems that prevent the rendering of

the same effect of the ST proverb into the TT proverb, hence this hinders or alters the meaning of

the proverb. The example below is a case of literal translation from Harerimana (2002) among

many other dissertations done by University of Rwanda students.

Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî (C3381).

A woman is like a goat: she is tied where the thistles grow (Harerimana, 2002:58).

Equivalence has been proposed by various translation scholars (Baker, 1992; Vinay and

Darbelnet, 1995) as a suitable translation strategy to be used in translation of proverbs. Not only

has it been suggested, but also it has empirically been experimented by different translator

scholars (Thalji, 2015; Al- Shawi and Mahadi, 2012) and has yielded good results. However, the

effectiveness of equivalence theory in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign

languages is neither well known, nor documented. To the best of the researcher‟s knowledge,

there is no deep research done in Rwanda on application of equivalence theory in translation of

Kinyarwanda proverbs, and if nothing was done about it, problems of mistranslation could

continue to increase; hence translators could continue to mislead and confuse readers. Therefore,

the current study attempted to fill the abovementioned gaps by using equivalence theory,

especially Baker‟s (1992) strategies in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs.

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1.4. Research objectives

This study aims to assess Baker‟s (1992) strategies in translating Kinyarwanda gendered

proverbs related to women into English and French.

1.4.1. Main objectives

To provide English and French equivalents for the selected Kinyarwanda gendered

proverbs

1.4.2. Specific objectives

To use Baker‟s(1992) strategies in translating the selected Kinyarwanda gendered

proverbs into English and French

To assess the strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs.

1.5. Scope and limitations of the study

This study deals with 80 Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their equivalents in English and

French. These proverbs are selected purposively from a large number of Kinyarwanda proverbs

from Bigirumwami‟s (2004, 2nd

edition), Sibo‟s (2012) and Crépeau and Bizimana‟s (1979)

collections of proverbs. We only worked on 80 proverbs because it was impossible to work on

all gendered proverbs, given the time and means allotted to this research and the complexity of

the work. In addition, we could have examined gendered proverbs related to men, but it was not

possible due to the same reasons mentioned above. Further research in this area is welcome.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews two types of literature. It discusses the theoretical literature related to

strategies used in translation of proverbs and looks into some empirical studies that discuss the

use of translation strategies in practice by former translation scholars.

2.1. Review of theoretical literature

2.1.1. Common linguistic and textual features of proverbs

As Thalji (2015, 7) states, “Proverbs have common uses, features and patterns which translators

must be familiar with when translating proverbs”. Translators have to take into account common

features to proverbs while translating because proverbs all around the world resemble each other

on various aspects. First, at the semantic level, the ideas or topics presented in proverbs across

the globe are the same. They reflect people‟s worldview and everyday life experience. At the

formal level, all proverbs are presented in fixed structures that have remained unchanged for

generations. It is only the choice of language, use of rhetorical devices and application of

imagery that varies from language to language and culture to culture (Rasul, 2015:54). This

similarity between proverbs is mainly due to the fact that, as human beings, we share

fundamental needs and experience (Schipper, 2010:13). This common experience results in

human universals which are found in different spheres of life, including communication. For

instance, Mieder (cited in Thalji,2015: 8) identified the common structure of English proverbs as

follows: “better X than Y”; “like X, like Y” ; “No X without Y”; “One X doesn‟t make a Y”; “if

X; then Y”. These features and others appear to be similar in proverbs from different parts of the

world (Schipper, 2010:25), including Kinyarwanda proverbs. These common features help

12

translators to easily identify the equivalents of the SL proverbs into the TL. The chapter four of

this research will discuss in deep this component.

In addition, as Owomoyela (cited in Thalji, 2015:8) mentions it, proverbs share all the devices in

English poetry like: assonance, alliteration, metaphor, occasional inverted word order, unusual

construction, and personification. Furthermore, proverbs also have a mood: they can be sad,

gloomy, humorous or happy. All these linguistic and extra-linguistic elements make proverbs

sound well and create effects on the audience in SL. Therefore, translators should take into

account all these elements while translating so as to maintain the same effect on the receptors of

message into the TL. Dolet (cited in Lefevere, 1992: 26), advises the translator to “link and

arrange words with sweetness that the soul is satisfied and the ears are pleased”. Nida (cited in

Munday, 2012:69) himself was aware that “the artistic sensitivity is an indispensable ingredient

in any first-rate translation of a literary work”.

2.1.2. Equivalence and equivalence effect in translation theories

Many translation scholars started to work on the concept of equivalence very recently in the

middle of the twentieth century. Roman Jacobson was the first to use this term in his book

published in 1959. Later on, various researchers in translation field have included this concept of

equivalence in their studies and tried to define and develop theories on it. In the current study,

the researcher has tried to summarise the reflections and views of some of these scholars, namely

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Jacobson (1959), Nida and Taber (1964,1969), Newmark (1981,

1988) and Baker (1992). The next section will try to examine the different scholars‟ views on

the equivalence theory and the way these views may influence translation.

13

2.1.2.1. Different scholars’ views on the equivalence theory in translation.

2.1.2.1.1. Linguistic approach

For Vinay and Darbelnet (1995:32), equivalence is defined as “a procedure in which the same

situation is replicated as in the original but different wording is used”. They also state that

through this procedure, the stylistic impact of the source language text can be maintained in the

target language text. Therefore, while translating proverbs and other fixed expression,

equivalence is concerned more with sense than formal expression.

According to these authors, “a necessary and sufficient condition for equivalent expressions

between language pairs to be acceptable is to be listed in a bilingual dictionary as full

equivalents”(Vinay &Darbelnet, 1995: 255). However, this condition is really impossible

because there are so many glossaries and collections of idiomatic expressions in such a way that

no one can exhaust them. In addition, it is not enough to put an expression from the SL and its

equivalent into a dictionary or a glossary to pretend to have a successful translation because the

context in which the term or expression is used is also very important in determining the used

strategy. As the same authors put it, “the situation is what determines the need for creating

equivalences”. Therefore, translators are advised to first examine the situation of the SL before

making a decision whether they use equivalence or not (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995:255).

According to another linguist, Jacobson (1959:233), “translation involves two equivalent

messages in two different codes”. Therefore, the role of the translator is to produce the same

message, regardless different grammatical, lexical and semantic structures of ST and TT. In other

words, the most suitable way to translate the text is to try to reach the most possible equivalence.

Basing on different views given above, there are some similarities between Vinay and

Darbelnet‟s (1995) theory of translation and Jacobson‟s (1959). They both support linguistic

14

approach of translation and consent that “translation exists despite cultural or grammatical

differences between SL and TL. They also recognize some shortcomings of the linguistic

approach and hence welcome any other procedures which enable the translator to do his task

more effectively and in a more comprehensive manner (Panou, 2013:2).

2.1.2.1.2. Formal and dynamic equivalence

Scholars have continued the study of translation theory and have developed their own

understanding and theories of equivalence. For instance, Nida (1964) proposed two translation

methods or strategies: „formal‟ and ‘dynamic equivalence‟. Formal equivalence, on the one hand,

“focuses on the message, in both form and content” (Nida quoted in Munday, 2012, 66-67). In

this translation approach, the message in the receptor‟s language should be as close as possible to

the message in the source language (Monday, 2012: 66). Formal equivalence attempts to

reproduce the ST structure into the TT structure and hence exerts strongly influence on the

accuracy and correctness of translation. Being very rigorously attached to the form and the

meaning of the ST, formal equivalence risks to distort the grammatical and stylistic patterns of

the target language, and hence render the message itself incomprehensible (Leonardi, 2000:6).

On the other hand, dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalence effect, where

“the relationship between the receptor and the message should be substantially the same as that

which existed between the original receptors and the message”(Nida, quoted in Munday,

2012:67). In dynamic equivalence, the translator aims to translate the original meaning in such a

way that the ST wording will exert the same impact on the TC audience as the original did upon

the ST audience. The form of the original text is frequently changed in both SL and TL, but the

message is preserved (Leonardi, 2005: 6).

15

The goal of dynamic equivalence is to search for the closest natural equivalent to the source

language message (Nida, 1964a:166; Taber and Nida, 1969:12). This receptor- oriented approach

tries to adjust grammar, lexicon, and cultural references in order to achieve naturalness. In this

regard, the TT language should not show interference from the SL, and the foreignness of the ST

setting is minimized (Munday, 2012:67).

Although the Nida‟s theory contributed a lot to the development of translation theory, it has

criticized for a number of reasons. For Newmark (Munday, 2012: 68), the equivalent effect is

inoperant if the text is out of TL space and time. He gives an example of English translator of

Homer. For him, no modern translator can possibly expect to produce the same effect on the

reader of the written TT as the oral ST test had on its listeners in Antiquity. He also mentions

questions related to the readers to whom Nida orients his dynamic equivalence, asking if they

receive everything clear and explained for them (Munday, 2012: 70). Broeck and Larose, (cited

in Munday, 2012: 68), on their side, considered equivalent effect or response to be impossible.

For them, the whole question of equivalence inevitably entails subjective judgment from the

translator or analyst.

Despite these criticisms, Nida added a step forward to the translation activity. He produced a

systematic and analytical procedure that helped translators to deal with all kinds of texts. He is

thanked of having brought into translation game the receptors and their cultural expectations.

2.1.2.1.3. Semantic and communicative translation

Newmark (1981) is another scholar who contributed to the development of translation theory. He

brought two new concepts of „semantic‟ and „communicative‟ translation that he pretended to

replace Nida‟s concept of „formal‟ and „dynamic‟ equivalence. The author (cited in Munday,

2012:70) defines and distinguishes these concepts as follows:

16

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible

to that obtained on the readers on the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as

closely as the semantic and syntactic structures allow, the exact contextual meaning of

the original.

In other words, semantic translation focuses on the ST and tries to render the meaning and the

form of the original text into the TL with accuracy and effectiveness. In semantic translation,

there is tendency to over-translate, which means that the translator gives more information in the

translation, by e.g. additions, giving two versions of the same fragment or adding footnotes.

Newmark (1981: 64) states that “Formal translation differs from literal translation in that it

respects context, interprets, and even explains”. Basing on its definition, semantic translation has

similarities with Nida‟s formal equivalence.

Communicative translation is receptor-oriented because it tries to create effect on the TT readers.

Whereas semantic translation tends to over-translate, communicative translation tends to under-

translate, that is, the translator gives less information than the information in the original by

omitting, using hypernyms, neutralisations and other techniques. Briefly, communicative

translation tends to be smoother, more direct and easier to read. Newmark communicative

translation resembles Nida‟s dynamic equivalence in that both focus on effect of the original

message on the TT readers/ receptors.

Newmark‟s work (1981) has been criticized for its prescriptivism (Munday, 2000:46), but it has

also been appreciated in that it contains practical examples that guide both trainees and

experienced translators.

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2.1.2.1.4. Linguistic and communicative approach to translation

This approach was proposed by Baker (1992) whereby she distinguishes equivalence at the level

of the word, at the grammatical level, and at the level of the text. Pragmatic equivalence deals

with the purpose of communication and also makes an important contribution to the translation

process. All these levels are important for the translator and should be taken into consideration

during the translation process because only their combination can result in translation which can

come closer to the original texts.

Basing on the early criticisms toward Nida‟s concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence, Baker

(1992) proposed four translation strategies to be used when dealing with translation of idioms

and proverbs. You can:

1. Use a proverb of similar meaning and form

2. Use a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form

3. Translate by paraphrasing

4. Translate by omission

The two first strategies resemble Nida‟s formal and dynamic equivalence: the translator uses a

TL idiom or proverb that has a similar meaning and lexical items similar to the source language.

In „using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form‟, the translator uses a TL idiom or

proverb that has a similar meaning but different lexical form.

Considering that in translation of proverbs “the readers are not handed everything on a plate with

everything explained” (Munday, 2012: 70), Baker suggested two other strategies to be used in

case equivalence between the ST and TT is not possible. These are „translation by paraphrasing‟

and „translation by omission‟ (Thalji, 2015: 17-18). Translation by paraphrasing is used when

18

there is no target language equivalent matching with the source text idiom / proverb or, when the

style of the target text differs from the source text. Gaber (2005) added that paraphrasing is also

applied when the translator is required to explain the meaning of a source word or phrase that

he/she finds difficult for the reader to understand. In „translation by omission‟, the translator

deletes the whole idiom/ proverb because there is no target idiom or proverb matching with the

source.

Baker (1992) offered the clearest and most practical translation strategies that she believed

professional translators use when they encounter a translation problem while performing a

translation task (Owji, 2013). Therefore, the current research will use these strategies in

translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French. The two first strategies will be

applied where it is possible to obtain the equivalent of Kinyarwanda proverb into English and

French, while paraphrase and omission will be used in case obtaining equivalent is not possible

2.2. Review of empirical studies

This section reviews some of the empirical studies conducted on translation of proverbs. The

focus is put on studies conducted on translation strategies, to see which are the most strategies

used in the translation process. The researcher cannot pretend to be exhaustive. He only reviews

the findings of some translation scholars who conducted empirical research in the field of

translation of culture- bound texts, namely idioms and proverbs. Here below, the works of

Farahani and Ghasemi (2012), Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012), Alshammari (2015) and Dweik

and Thalji (2016) will be explored as illustration.

For instance, Farahani and Ghasemi (2012) conducted their research on strategies used in

translation of idioms and proverbs from English to Persian and presented the most frequently

used strategies. They selected some proverbs from a novel, translated them, examined the

19

translations in order to see which were the most frequently used strategies. The findings revealed

that about two third of the proverbs were replaced by an equivalent of a local proverb. Other

strategies were also identified with their respective percentages. Therefore, this study gives a

picture that proverbs should be translated in an idiomatic manner.

Similarly, Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012) carried out a study on strategies which could help in

overcoming the problems of translating idioms from Arabic into English and vice versa. The

findings of the research illustrated that there exist several strategies that can help find solutions

to the encountered translation challenges, namely, using a proverb of similar meaning and

similar form, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form, paraphrasing, annotation,

and others.

In the same perspective, Alshammari (2015) examined the applicability of Nida‟s translation

theory in rendering Arabic proverbs into English. For this purpose, the researcher selected 20

Arabic proverbs and translated them into English using Nida‟s formal and dynamic strategies.

Then, the researcher analyzed and compared the data with their formal and dynamic translations.

The results illustrated that while formal and dynamic methods were able to render Arabic

proverb to some extent, there were inevitable cultural and beliefs losses. The researcher has

concluded that dynamic equivalence can be employed to facilitate communication in the TL,

while formal equivalence can conserve the SL culture with risk of misinterpretation. Therefore,

both strategies should be used in parallel, whenever it is possible to do so.

Dweik and Thalji (2016) also carried out a research on strategies that could be used in translation

of proverbs from English into Arabic. They prepared a test of translating English proverbs into

20

Arabic. The test was administered to the novice translators and the study concluded that the

main strategies used were namely cultural equivalence, literal translation, paraphrasing,

borrowing and glossing.

Globally, these are the few among many studies conducted on the strategies of translating

proverbs and other idiomatic expressions. The findings showed the main translation strategies

used in translation of proverbs. Some of these studies were conducted on the strategies proposed

by Baker (1992) for translating proverbs; Therefore, these studies, especially one conducted by

Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012) will serve as a baseline to the current study that aims to translate

Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French.

2.3. Conclusion

A successful translation of proverbs depends not only on the effective knowledge of the source

and target languages and cultures but also on the appropriate strategies to be used. Various

scholars viewed equivalence as a basic method of the translation process and some of them have

proposed equivalence as a suitable strategy to be used in the translation of proverbs (Vinay and

Darbelnet, 1995). Here below is a comparison that summarises similarities and differences

between different main equivalence theories. The table is inspired by Newmark‟s comparison of

semantic and communicative translation (Munday, 2012:71).

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Table 1: Comparison of some major equivalence theories (Primary research)

Theories

Parameters

- Semantic translation

- Formal equivalence

- Using proverb of similar

meaning and similar

form

- Communicative translation

- Dynamic equivalence

Using proverb of similar meaning

and dissimilar form

-

Transmitter/addr

essee focus

Focus on the transmitter of the

message individually and enough

details on the way the message has

been processed.

Emphasis on communication with readers or

receptors of the message in the TT.

Culture Respect to the SL culture and

effort to translate all cultural

elements contained in the SC.

Respect to the TC and effort to adapt the

translated text into the TC.

Time and origin Changeable whenever need be, be

it in time or space, from generation

to generation.

Related to its own contemporary context; does

not last forever.

Relation to ST Always „inferior‟ to SL; „loss‟ of

meaning.

May be „better‟ than the ST; „gain‟ of force

and clarity even if loss of semantic content.

Use of form of SL „Loyalty to ST author; if ST norms

deviate, then this must be

replicated in TT.

Respect for the form of the SL but overriding

„loyalty‟ to TL norms.

Form of TL More details; tendency to add

more information.

Smother, more conventional; tendency to give

less information.

Appropriateness For serious and literary texts e.g.

autobiography.

Used for majority of texts, especially

standardized ones.

Criterion for

evaluation

Accuracy and effectiveness of the

meaning of the message of ST.

Accuracy and effect of communication of ST

message in TT.

Table no 1: Table 2: Comparison of some major equivalence theories (Primary research)

22

Apart from some minor differences related to ideology and terminology, the above mentioned

theories present similarities depending on their focus. For instance, formal equivalence, semantic

translation and using proverb of similar meaning and similar form focus on the accuracy of the

message in the SL and the form of the original, whereas dynamic equivalence, communicative

translation and using proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form aim at producing the same

effect of the original message on the receptors of this message in the TL, despite the

dissimilarities at the level of form and structure.

In addition, all these equivalence concepts present both effectiveness and shortcomings. Some

are SL and SC oriented, focusing on the accuracy of the message and the form of the ST while

others are TL and TC oriented, focusing on effect of the message on receptors in the TL.

Therefore, while translating proverbs, the translation strategies oriented to the ST should be in

parallel with the strategies oriented to the TT for the sake of accuracy and effect of the message

to be translated (Alshammari, 2015).

Baker‟s (1992) strategies suggested for translation of proverbs evaluated in the current study fall

into the wide equivalence theories described above. They are practical means of rendering the

meanings of original proverbs into the target language. Baker suggested the use of equivalent

proverbs while translating original proverbs. In case of non-equivalence, the translator should

refer to paraphrasing.

The current study aims at assessing the effectiveness and the shortcomings. It enters into a wide

range of other empirical studies conducted on strategies used in translating proverbs in general.

Some works have been conducted on Bakers strategies suggested for translating idioms and

proverbs from and into other languages, and the findings confirmed that they are practical and to

23

some extent complete. Therefore, these previous studies will serve as guidance to the current

study, aiming at evaluating Baker‟s translation strategies in translating Kinyarwanda proverbs

into English and French, and up to now, no research has been conducted on this topic.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the research design, research approach, research sample, data collection

methods and procedures, methods for data analysis as well as problems and limitations of the

study.

3.1. Research design

This dissertation subscribes to a qualitative design. The research described systematically and as

accurately as possible the image portrayed to women in Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and

their equivalents in English and French. It also analysed the linguistic and cultural similarities

and differences between those proverbs. Practically, Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs were

selected from three main collections of Kinyarwanda proverbs (Bigirumwami, 2004; Crépeau

and Bizimana, 1979; Sibo, 2012; and other open sources), analysed and thematically categorized,

and their equivalents in English and French were provided.

3.2. Research approach

The current study uses mainly three approaches: critical discourse analysis, thematic analysis and

comparative analysis approach. To categorise and analyse Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs, the

researcher used critical discourse analysis, because Fairclough (cited in Rasul, 2015:56) states

that, “the „critical‟ element of discourse analysis can reveal hidden connections and causes

within texts and can provide opportunities and resources for those who may be disadvantaged”.

Therefore, this approach allowed the researcher to categorize Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs

most of which are discriminatory against women.

In addition, the thematic analysis approach helped the researcher to group the selected proverbs

under the main identified themes.

25

Moreover, a comparative analysis approach helped the researcher to compare Kinyarwanda

gendered proverbs with their equivalents in English and French with the purpose of assessing the

linguistic and cultural similarities/differences between proverbs from these three languages.

3.3. Study sample

This study dealt with 80 gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs for which the researcher strove to find

equivalents and translate into English and French. The sample of 80 gendered proverbs has been

obtained through the following process:

Firstly, 504 proverbs related to women were selected from three main collections of

Kinyarwanda proverbs and open sources, and represented respectively as follows: Crépeau and

Bizimana (239 proverbs), Bigirumwami (180 proverbs); Sibo (35 proverbs) and open sources (50

proverbs). The retained proverbs were the ones that refer to women either explicitly or implicitly.

Explicitly, all Kinyarwanda proverbs containing the words umugorê (woman), umukoȏbwa

(girl), umukeêecuru (old woman), inkumî (young girl), and other female qualifications related to

her body or behaviours were gathered. The researcher also took into account Kinyarwanda

proverbs relating to women implicitly, that is, using different types of metaphors to refer to

women or their behaviours. For example, we can mention, Akabȗno karusha isȗka gucȃ

inshȗro(B315) (Women can earn money lying down / La débauche profite plus que le travail) or

Ayȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzi siyȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzikazi (C597) (Give your love to your wife but tell your

secrets to your mother /Donne ton amour à ta femme, mais ton secret à ta mère ou à ta soeur).

Then, the researcher proceeded to the selection of proverbs which are biased towards women.

The researcher was then left with one hundred and sixty (160) gendered proverbs. The researcher

decided to work on a half of them (80), considering that this sample is representative enough for

26

him to draw a significant conclusion, and this decision is in line with Ritchie and Lewis‟ (2003)

view stating that large sample sizes discourage the occurrence of biases and research errors.

Hence, eighty (80) proverbs were obtained and used as a sample of the current study.

These proverbs were also represented disproportionally in different thematic categories

depending on the image depicted to women in Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs.

1. Women as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful: 27

2. Women as physically and intellectually weak and dependent: 19

3. Women as sexual objects: 14

4. Women‟s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men: 7

5. Women as talkative and troublesome: 7

6. Women as households‟ good managers and as children‟s bearers and educators:6

From English sources, all proverbs about females in which words such as woman, girl, lady,

wife, maid, maiden, daughter, widow, were taken as sample to be used as equivalents of

Kinyarwanda proverbs. The proverbs that have the pronouns “she” and “her” as a reference

to a female are also included, as well as proverbs using metaphors but whose meanings are

gendered and oriented to women. In the same view, all French proverbs in which words such

as femme, fille, vieille, épouse, belle-mère, bru, veuve, marȃtre were taken as samples. The

words such as “poule”, “pot”,” four”, “marmite” are also used metaphorically to mean

females. Therefore, the proverbs containing the abovementioned metaphorical words were

used as French equivalents of Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs, as well as French proverbs

containing the personal pronoun “elle (s)” and the demonstrative pronoun “celle (s)”.

27

3.4. Data collection and settings

In this study, the researcher used mainly the documentary research whereby different documents

relevant to this topic were consulted. These documents dealt with proverbs in general, gendered

proverbs, translation theories and translation works, and more specifically, application of

equivalence theory in translation of proverbs.

The researcher‟s three main sources of Kinyarwanda proverbs were especially Bigirumwami

(2004), Crépeau and Bizimana (1979) and Sibo (2012). These three sources were chosen because

of their contribution to the linguistic and cultural studies on Kinyarwanda proverbs. In this

respect, Bigirumwami managed to collect a good number of Kinyarwanda proverbs (4,293),

including proverbs related to women; Crépeau and Bizimana collected 4,454 proverbs and

attempted their literal translation and/or their interpretation and explanation in French. Lastly,

Sibo‟s collection was chosen, mostly for the English translation of some Kinyarwanda proverbs

despite their relatively small number (988) and sometimes inaccurately translated. To the

proverbs selected from these sources were added some Kinyarwanda proverbs from electronic

links1.

The selected proverbs were then translated into English and French, applying the equivalence

theory. Schipper‟s (2010) and Maloux‟s (2009) collections of proverbs were thoroughly used for

English and French equivalents respectively. Schipper (2010) has been important to the current

study because of his collection of proverbs related to women from around the world. Proverbs in

this collection are not only in English, but also they are interpreted. This study has also benefited

1. https://www.google.com/ search?q =imigani+ivuga+ku+mugore&oq= IMIGA&aqs=

chrome.1.69i57j69i59.23709021j0j4&sourceid= chrome&ie=UTF-8

28

a great deal from Maloux‟s dictionary of proverbs and maxims because it facilitated to find

French equivalents for Kinyarwanda proverbs. Besides the above mentioned main sources,

electronic and online sources have also been used to complement library resources.

Several libraries have been visited in order to find reliable materials. The visited places include

the UR (University of Rwanda) main library, NIRDA (National Industrial Research and

Development Agency) library, all based in Huye District. Moreover, we had also access to

GMO‟s (Gender Monitoring Office) documentation. Various GMO reports were consulted and

helped in framing the topic, enriching it, structuring it as well as limiting it to the way it is

presented now.

3.5. Data collection tools

For conducting field research, the researcher got a letter from the School of Arts and Languages.

The copy of this letter is found at the end of the current study as appendix. In addition, before

conducting research, which was mainly a documentary research, the researcher had to write a

letter, précising what was the object of the research. For instance, the researcher wrote to the

Gender Monitoring Office (GMO) to get access to the information related to gender in Rwanda.

The letter addressed to this institution is also found as a sample at the end of this work in the part

of appendices.

3.5. Data coding and presentation

In order to indicate the origin of Kinyarwanda proverbs, initials of the authors‟ family names

precede the numbers of proverbs as they appear in the concerned books. Hence, the letter B (i.e.

B554) Stands for Bigirumwami; the letter C (i.e. C3250) for Crépeau and Bizimana; and S (i.e.

S225) for Sibo. To facilitate their reading, Kinyarwanda proverbs have been written using supra-

29

segmental signs (amasakȗ) or Kinyarwanda tonality in other words. Kinyarwanda proverbs are

also written in italics to show that Kinyarwanda is a local language.

For the equivalents in English, three main sources have been consulted: Schipper (2010),

Kerschen (2012) and Rasul (2015). For Schipper, the initials SCH stand for this name to

distinguish it from S standing for Sibo as mentioned above. Therefore, for identification of the

English proverbs from Schipper‟s book, the initial SCH, plus the year of publication, plus the

language from which the proverb originates, plus the page on which the proverb is found have

been put between parentheses in front of the selected proverb (i.e. SCH 2010, Hindi, p.51). For

more information about the languages mentioned in the English equivalents, the list of these

languages, cultures and countries is in Schipper‟s book (2010: 318-323). For the English

equivalents from Kerschen‟s (2012) book, the researcher will use the following code: the initial

K to stand for Kerschen, plus the year of publication, plus the page on which the selected

proverb appears. To identify the proverbs from Rasul‟s (2015) book, the initial R of the author‟s

name, the year of publication plus the page have been put between parentheses in front of the

selected proverb (i.e. R2015, p. 50). For English equivalents selected from other sources apart

from the above mentioned sources, they have been referred to as OS (Other sources) put between

parentheses in front of the used proverb. The equivalents in French have been indicated by using

the letter M (Maloux) plus the year of publication, plus the page on which the French proverbs

used in the current study are located (i.e.M2009, p.151).

As for the data presentation, gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs with their English and French

equivalents have been presented in different tables in accordance with the main identified

themes. Hence, six tables containing 80 gendered proverbs have been presented and the data

30

were thematically analysed in order to assess linguistic and cultural universals between

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their equivalent ones in the two major world languages.

3.6. Data analysis and discussion

In the data analysis, the researcher evaluated the accuracy and effectiveness of the equivalence

theory in rendering Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French. The evaluation tested

Baker‟s (1992) translation strategies, namely using a proverb of similar meaning and form, using

proverbs of similar meaning and dissimilar form, paraphrase and omission, in transferring

linguistic features and cultural aspects from Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French. In

this regard, the discussion was divided into two major parts. The first part focused on the

translation of the linguistic features while the second discussed the translation of the cultural

elements expressed in SL proverbs.

3.7. Conclusion

This chapter has dealt with the methodology followed to conduct the current study. First, it has

explored the documentary research used in collecting gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs and their

English and French equivalents, as well as gathering information related to equivalence theory in

translation. Next, it has described three research approaches used in this study: the critical

discourse analysis and thematic analysis used in categorizing thematically Kinyarwanda

gendered proverbs and the comparative analysis used in comparison of Kinyarwanda proverbs

with their English and French equivalents to sort out similarities between them. Then, the

researcher has described how the documentary research was used in collecting data. Finally, the

researcher has described the method which was used to analyse the data.

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs with their equivalents in English and

French. It also analyses the translations and discusses the strategies used in translation based on

the findings.

4.1. Data presentation

Data were presented in tables. These tables represent the main themes identified in Kinyarwanda

proverbs that reflect the image of women. Few of the Kinyarwanda proverbs speak of woman

positively and they have been grouped in one table. Furthermore, proverbs and their equivalents

are numbered from one (1) to eighty (80) to facilitate the way of referring to them in data

analysis and discussion. Moreover, tables are classified in descending order, that is, starting from

the table containing the highest number of proverbs and ending with the table with the lowest

number. Here below are the aforementioned data in different tables.

Category 1: Women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful

The table below contains 27 Kinyarwanda proverbs with their equivalents in English and French.

However, for some proverbs whose equivalents were not found, the researcher paraphrased them

either in English or French. In addition, this is the biggest category in the current study with

various proverbs equating a woman to evil, qualifying her as a betrayer and inconsistent creature.

Some proverbs go further and even propose tough punishment in case a woman becomes very

wicked as the examples below highlight it:

32

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 1 with their equivalents in English and French

Nº of

Item

Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

1. Agakoni k‟ȗmukoȏbwa ni

nkora ngeendê (B104, C123)

Who has a woman has an eel

by the tail (R2015, p.60).

Le lièvre et la femme sont à

vous tant que vous les tenez

(M2009, p.195).

2. Agatîinze kȃzaanduruka ni

inkumî (C176, B166).

A daughter is like a raindrop:

she‟ll fertilize other‟s field

(SCH2010, Luba, p.206).

La fille n‟est que pour

enrichir les maisons

étrangères (M2009, p.208).

3. Ayȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzi si yȏ

ubwiirȃ umucȗzikazi

(C643, B553)

Give your love to your wife

but tell your secrets to your

mother (SCH2010,

Irish/Spanish, Guatemala,

p.129).

Donne ton amour à ta

femme, mais ton secret à ta

mère ou à ta sœur (M2009,

p.330).

4. Hasabwa Nyirȃnkumî

hakaroongorwa

Nyiranzaratsi (C795, B757).

All are good girls, but where

do the bad wives come from?

(SCH2010, English, USA,

p.104).

Toutes sont les filles

parfaites: d‟où viennent les

méchantes épouses ?

(M2009, p.198)

5. Indirira kwaambara

y‟ȗmugorê yahêjeje umugabo

i Ruumbasha (B1441).

Water, fire and women will

never say, „enough‟

(SCH2010, Polish, p.189).

L‟eau, le feu et la femme ne

disent jamais : Assez

(M2009, p. 188).

33

6. Injȃangwê yaraayê haanzê

yiitwa intȗuro (OS).

Women and chickens get lost

by wandering from house to

house (SCH2010, Hindi,

p.288).

Les filles et les poules par

trop errer se perdent

(M2009, p.207).

7. Intȃazî y‟ȃgasȏre ikamira

umugorê (C1773, B1695).

The quite stupid praises his

wife (SCH2010, Allagish/

Turkey, p.255).

Souvent la femme varie,

bien fol est qui s‟y fie

(M2009, P.195).

8. Inyȃbiizi ibyaara

ingoongerezi (C1818).

Like mother, like daughter

(SCH 010, English, p.135).

Telle mère, telle fille

(M2009, p.345).

9. Inyama y‟ûmugorȇ ishya

yȋihina (C1834, B1755).

Maids want nothing but

husband, and then they want

everything (K2012, p.47).

Les habitudes de la femme

changent négativement au

fur et à mesure qu‟elle vit

avec son mari (my

paraphrase)

10. Ntaa guhȏra muu ntȏboro

imwê nk‟îgifuungo (OS).

A change of saddle yields

pleasure (SCH2010, Arabic,

p.175).

Celle qui n‟a pas changé de

turban n‟a pas connu les

délices (M2009, p.194).

11. Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura

uk‟ûmugabo arȋ ko

kuguhaȃhira (C3190).

A bad woman cooks and eats

food alone and forgets the

bread provider (my

paraphrase).

La femme mange et s‟essuie

la bouche puis elle dit : « Je

n‟ai rien fait » (M2009,

p.195).

34

12. Umugorê abyaara abȃawê

ntaabȃ uwȃawê (C3364).

A woman of bad character

flees one penis for another

one (SC2010, Lega, p.192)

On ne peut pas sauter d‟un

arbre à un autre arbre, mais

on peut sauter d‟un homme

à un autre homme (M2009,

p.196).

13. Umugorê gitȏ agutaatira

agȗseguye (C3372, B3256).

He that has a bad wife has a

devil at his elbow (SCH

2010, English, USA, p. 105).

La femme parle à un

homme, en regarde un autre,

et pense à un troisième

(M2009, p.195).

14. Umugorê gitȏ arutwa

n‟ȗumwȃanzi gicȃ (C3374,

B3229).

Better to live with a dragon

than with a bad woman

(SCH2010, English, p. 26)

Une méchante épouse, celui

qui la tient est pareil à celui

qui tient un scorpion

(M2009, p.258).

15. Umugorê gitȏ ntimuburȃ

kubyȃarana (C3376, B3260).

One keeps a wicked woman

because of the children

(SCH2010, Minyanka, p.

109).

Si traitresse que soit la mer,

plus traitresse les femmes

(M2009, p. 187).

16. Umugorê ni umugogoro (OS) A wicked wife is a daily

fever (SCH2010, Italian,

p.108).

Une femme est une douleur

toujours présente (M2009,

p.186).

35

17. Umugorê umukamirȃ

impêenda impîindukȃ yaazȃ

ukamusaanga imbere iyo

(C3388, B3246).

A woman‟s mind and winter

wind change often (R2015,

p.58).

“Le lièvre et la femme sont

à vous tant que vous les

tenez” (M2009, p.195).

18. Umugorê urî ku mutibȃ

ntaaburȃ umutîma (C3386,

B3269).

A house well-furnished

makes a woman wise (OS).

Jamais surintendant ne

trouva de cruelles (M2009,

p.192).

19. Umugorê w‟uubwêenge

n‟ûmugabo w‟ûbweena iyȏ

uburȏ bweezê bagura ibirago

bibiri,(B3254, C3398).

The cunning of woman has

beaten man (SCH, Turkish,

p. 236).

La ruse de

l'homme est grande,

mais celle de la femme est

plus profonde (Proverbes

danois, OS).

20. Umukoȏbwa w‟ȗbwiira

asaambana yȃrasȃbwe

(C3468).

The impatient virgin

becomes a mother without

being a bride (SCH2010,

English, USA, p.97).

En amour comme en

chirurgie, il ne faut pas

montrer ses outils avant

l‟opération (Proverbes

français, OS).

21. Umukoȏbwa abeenga cyaane

agasaanga intȃgohêka

(B3339).

A bad woman refuses every

man who asks for hand

(SCH2010, Iraq, p. 51).

La femme qui hésite et

délibère est perdue (M2009,

p.190).

36

22. Umupfȃakazi ni wê murozi

(B3430).

It‟s dangerous to marry a

widow, because she hath cast

of her rider (SCH2010,

English, UK, p.122).

Celui qui épouse une veuve

trouvera souvent une tête de

mort dans son assiette

(M2009, p.535).

23. Umutîma w‟înkumî

usuuzumwa n‟îinkȃanda

(C3651, B3528, S746).

Marriage is the supreme

blunder that all women make

(SCH 2010, English, USA, p.

103).

L‟amour n‟a de preuve que

dans l‟épreuve (OS).

24. Umwȃana asa na nyina

(C3732).

Mama‟s baby, papa‟ s maybe

(SCH2010, English, Jamaica,

p.206);

Le vrai père de l‟enfant est

connu par sa mère (my

paraphrase).

25. Urugȏ rubî rugutuma amȃazi

n‟ȗmuriro (C3863, B3770,

S808).

Don‟t take a wife who has

money; she will treat you

with arrogance and will say

to you: “Fetch water”

(SCH2010, Arabic,

Morocco, p.118).

Une mauvaise épouse est

pire que la mort (C.3864).

26. Utȃazî umugaambaanyi

yiiriingira umugorê (C4164,

B4035).

He knows little who tells his

wife all he knows (K2012, p.

26).

La race des femmes est de

nature traîtresse (M2009, p.

186).

37

Table 3: Women portrayed as evil, untrustworthy, jealous, deceitful and willful

Category 2: Women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent

Close to the second table, woman in table 3 below (18 proverbs) is referred to as weak,

powerless and dependent vis-à-vis her husband. These prejudices portrayed to woman in

proverbs by Rwandan folk wisdom also exists in English and French proverbs as it appears in

English and French equivalents listed below

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 2 with their equivalents in English and French

No

of

Item

Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

28.

Abagorê ni inzaȃbya

zoorȏshye (OS).

Daughters are brittle ware

(SCH2010, English, USA, p.

95).

La femme et le verre sont

toujours en danger (M2009,

p.204)

29. Akabȗza umukoȏbwa inzu

arakageendana (C318,

B291).

Woman and cherry are

painted for their own harm

(R2015, p.57)

Les filles et les vignes sont

difficiles à garder (M2009,

p.207).

30 Ifûuni y‟îmborȏ iruta

umujyoojyo w‟îgituba (OS).

A man of straw is worth a

girl of gold (K2012, p.41)

Un homme de paille vaut une

femme d‟or (M2009, p.259).

27. Utȃazi umugomȇ asigira

umugorȇ urugô (C4166

B3999).

When the husband‟s away,

the wife will play (K2012,

p.38).

Quand le chat n‟est pas là,

les souris dansent (OS)

38

31 Ingabo y‟ȗmugorê

iragushoora ntiigukȗura ku

rugaȃmba (B 1460).

If a cow leads the herd, all

the cattle will fall into the

pool (SCH2010, Venda,

p.235).

Il est descendu aux enfers

beaucoup d‟hommes auxquels

les femmes avaient mis les

armes à la main (M2009,

p.189)

32. Inkokȏkazi ntiibikȃ isaȃke

ihȃri (C2372, B1557, S312).

Where men are speaking,

women should keep their

mouths shut (SCH2010,

Dutch, p.47).

La maison est à l‟envers

lorsque la poule chante aussi

haut que le coq (M2009,

p.330).

33 Iyȏ umukoȏbwa avuzȇ “oya”

aba yemeye (OS).

A woman‟s nay is a double

yea, they say” (SCH2010,

English, UK, p.169).

Entre le oui et le non de la

femme, on ne ferait pas tenir la

pointe d‟une aiguille (M2009,

195).

34 Magirȋrane, umugorê agirwa

n‟ȗmugabo (B2120)

A woman without a man is

like a handle without a pan

(K.2012, p. 51).

La femme toute seule n‟est

rien (M 2009, p .189)

35 Ntaa gicumȃ gipfuundîkira

ikiîndi (C2271, B2207).

Butter with butter is no sauce

(SCH2010, Scottish, p.172).

Deux dames à coté l‟une de

l‟autre font une froide

température (M2009, p.29)

36. Ntaa mugorê ugîra ijaambo

(C2320).

A hen shall not crow

(SCH2010, Ovambo, p.166)

Un homme peut braver

l‟opinion, une femme doit s‟y

soumettre (M2009, p.

202).

39

37 Nyir‟ȗmukoȏbwa na

nyir‟întuȗmbi bahuungira

hamwê (B2515).

When a girl is born, even the

roofs cry (Bulgarian, p.89).

Quand naît une fille, c‟est

comme sept voleurs

pénétraient dans la maison

(M2009, p.208).

38. Umugorê arabyîna

ntaasiimbȗka (C3366,

B3250).

Oh, a woman is always a

woman (K2012, p.47).

La femme règne et ne

gouverne pas (M2009, p.330).

39 Umugorê gitȏ abyaara

icyoomaanzi (B2822).

Lenient housewife, lazy

daughters (SCH2010,

Estonian, p.136).

Mère piteuse fait fille

teigneuse (M2009, p.345).

40. Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê,

bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî

(C3381, B3263).

To feed a cow, you need a

store of grass (SCH 2010,

Tibetan, p.103).

Là où la chèvre est attachée, il

faut qu‟elle broute (M2009,

p.198).

41. Umugorê w‟înyaȃnda yiitwa

Baantaanze urusyo (C3397,

B3282).

If a woman does not want to

dance, she says her skirt is

too short.(SCH2010,

English, p.26)

La femme paresseuse, le poil

lui pousse dans la main

(Proverbe français, OS).

42 Umugorê w‟ȗmupfȗ agira

ngo mukeebȃ yaagabuye

(C3400).

A sick man with many wives

dies of hunger (SCH2010,

Twi, p.117).

La femme sotte s‟imagine que

sa rivale a fait le service

(C3400).

43 Umugorȇ w‟ûmupfû imbeba

imutwaara umurwi (C3405,

B3289).

The more women look in

their glass, the less they look

to their house (R2015, p.57).

Une femme qui ne veille un

peu, aura maigre pot-au-feu

(Proverbes espagnols, OS).

40

44 Umukîro w‟ȗmukoȏbwa uba

imbere yê (C556, B3366).

The woman with a

storehouse under the navel

will not die of hunger or cold

(SCH2010, Ladino, Hebrew,

p.60).

La raison des femmes est dans

la partie de leur corps que

cache la pudeur

(M2009,p.187)

45. Umukoȏbwa usîgaye muu

nzu ntaȃgaseke uwashȃatse

ni umuruho wa bȏose

(B3340).

Girls, rejoice not over your

wedding dress; there is much

trouble behind it (SCH2010,

Arabic, p.99).

Le mariage est comme une

place assiégée; ceux qui sont

dehors veulent y entrer, et

ceux qui sont dedans veulent

en sortir (M2009, p.326).

46 Urugȏ ruvuzȇ umugorê,

ruvuga umuhoro (C3841,

B3807, S380).

Women‟s wisdom destroys

the house (SCH2010,

Russian, p. 208).

La maison va mal quand la

quenouille commande à l‟épée

(M2009, 330).

Table 4: Women portrayed as physically and intellectually weak and dependent

41

Category 3: Women portrayed as sexual objects

Table 4 below contains 15 proverbs referring to woman as sexual objects. All Kinyarwanda

proverbs have their equivalents in English and French. In these proverbs, women are referred to

as “available and purchasable commodities” for sexual satisfaction. In some proverbs, women

are associated with material objects like pots and firewood, whereas in others, women are

qualified as good for sex only. The example below illustrates all the above mentioned images

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 3 with their equivalents in English and French

Nº of

Item

Kinyarwanda proverbs Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

47. Agashyitsî kagiiyê keêra

kavuumbika umuriro (C3863,

B3770, S808).

Old oven is soon heated

(SCH2010, English, UK,

p.186).

Un vieux four est plus aisé à

s‟échauffer qu‟un neuf

(M2009, p. 191).

48 Akabȗno karusha isȗka gucȃ

inshȗro (C316, B315).

Women can earn money

lying down. (SCH2010,

Portuguese, Brazil, p.216).

La débauche profite plus que

le travail (M2009, p.316).

49. Akȏ umukoȏbwa ashaakȃ

karamugarika (C449, B408).

When a woman wants to,

she can do anything

(SCH2010, Italian/

Germany, p.238).

Si l'argent poussait dans les

arbres, les femmes

épouseraient des singes.

(Proverbe sur les femmes,

OS).

42

50. Akuungo gakuzê ni kȏ

karyooshyȃ imbogȃ (OS).

An old hen makes a good

soup (SCH2010, Creole,

Papiamantu, Spanish,

p.157).

Dans un vieux pot, on fait la

bonne soupe (M2009,

p.205).

51 Icyȏ umugorê ashaakȃ, Imȃana

nayô iba igîshaaka (OS).

What a woman wants, God

also wants (SCH2010,

Turkish, p.238).

Ce que femme veut, Dieu

(ou le diable) le veut

(M2009, p.187).

52 Icyȗuma gishya gîkubiswe

(B925).

A woman is like a bottle of

medicine, shake before use

(SCH2010, Portuguese,

Brazil, p. 185).

Le frottement polit la femme

et le diamant (M2009,

p.191).

53 Imishîishi y‟îmishîno ntiishirȃ

inȏgonora (OS).

To mount a donkey is

better than to go by foot

(SCH2010, Arabic,

Maghreb, p.155).

On voit bien encore aux

tessons ce que fut le pot

(M2009, p. 204).

54 Nshiimwê nshiimwê ikobora

injumȃ (C2239, B2207).

If a woman offers her sex

to everyone, pestles are

used on it (SCH2010,

Minyanka, p.64).

“A force de vouloir

satisfaire sexuellement à

tous les hommes, la femme

finit par avoir son sexe

blessé”. (my paraphrase).

43

55. Ntaa mukoȏbwa upfȃ bȃtagizê

ngo erekera inȏ (B2275).

An old spinster will

become a young wife

(SCH2010, Hungarian, p.

98).

Il n‟y a point de chapelle, si

petite soit-elle, où l‟on ne

prêche au moins une fois

dans l‟année (M2009, p.

193).

56 Nyiragabura imitȗra yarȗse

nyiragabura amabȗno (C2672,

B2535).

Eating is preferable to

amorousness (SCH2010,

Japanese, p.179)

Une femme travailleuse

quoique malhabile est

supérieure à une femme

paresseuse (C2672)

57. Ubuuntu muu nnyo buuzaana

mburugu (C2824, B2715).

Beautiful woman bring

diseases (SCH2010,

Bassar, p.84).

Une belle femme, à moins

qu‟elle ne soit honnête, elle

apporte du malheur à son

mari (Proverbe sur femmes,

OS).

58. Umugorê mwiizȃ atȃaba uwȃawȇ

yaaba uwa mȗkuru waawe

(C3380, B3262).

Marry beauty, marry

trouble (SCH2010,

Hebrew, English, USA, p.

86).

On a tué beaucoup de maris

à cause de leurs belles

femmes (M2009, p. 64).

59. Umugorê w‟ȗmusȃaza

ntaaherkezȃ urwêenyȃ (C3408).

A young woman married to

an old man, must behave

like an old woman

(SCH2010, English, UK, p.

154)

La jeune femme qui se marie

avec un vieil homme doit se

comporter comme une

vieille femme (my

paraphrase).

44

60 Umugorê w‟ȗundî yiirabuza

akanwa (C3410, B3292).

Another man‟s wife is

always the prettiest

(SCH2010, Hebrew, p.

173)

Dans la femme des autres, le

diable met une cuillerée de

miel (OS).

Table 5: Women portrayed as sexual objects

Category 4: Women’s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men

Seven (7) proverbs in table five (5) talk about female beauty. A quite number of sayings suggest

that the attractiveness of the female body has power over male reason. Women‟s breasts, lips,

sex, buttocks seem to be fascinating and there are many proverbs about the irresistible appeal of

the female bosom. Though different parts of women have power to attract men, beauty and looks

of women have a negative connotation. Women are advised not to count on them because they

are useless and cannot prevent them from being poor if it is their fate. Vanity and arrogance of

women in proverbs are also denounced because they end up with negative results. So, men are

discouraged to praise women very much because it is the way of spoiling them.

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 4 with their equivalents in English and

French

No of

Item

Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

61 Inkubȃ irakȗbita inkumî

igakiinga ibêere (C1690,

B1584).

Two tits pull more than a

hundred wagons

(SCH2010, Spanish,

Panama, p.59).

Un cheveu de femme tire

plus que dix paires de bœufs

(M2009,p. 189).

45

62. Ntaa nkumî yiigȃya

n‟îyarwȃaye igisebe ica

inzaratsi (C2376, B2306,

S458).

Every woman keeps a

corner in her heart where

she is always twenty-one

(SCH2010, English,

USA, p 152)

Aucun miroir n‟a jamais

reflété une femme laide

(M2009, p.203).

63. Ubwîizȃ bw‟ȗmukoȏbwa

ntibwaȃmubujije kuruha

(C2049).

The woman who has a

pretty face is usually

unhappy (SCH2010,

Spanish, Puerto Rico,

p.83).

Les jolies filles ne sont pas

toujours heureuse et les

garçons intelligents sont

rarement beaux

(M2009, p. 62).

64. Ubwîizȃ ntȋburiibwȃ

(C2937).

A fair face will not keep

the pot boiling

(SCH2010, Hebrew, p.

83).

La beauté de la femme

n‟amène pas de quoi vivre

(OS).

65. Umugorê bamwiita

Nyirabareenzi yaajyȃ

kuvooma akamena ikibiîndi

(C3369, B3224).

Tell a woman she is fair,

and she will soon turn

fool (R2015, p.58).

Dites une seule fois à

une femme qu'elle est jolie,

le diable le lui répétera dix

fois par jour (Proverbe

Proverbes français, OS).

66. Umugorê si amabêere n‟

îhenê igira abiri (C3385,

B3237, S683).

Breasts are like beard:

even a barren woman has

them (SCH2010, Ganda,

p.56).

Ce n‟est pas tout pour une

femme d‟être de son sexe ;

elle doit aussi posséder

quelques qualités (C3385)

46

67. Umugorê si umwîizȃ

nk‟ȗwuȗmva (C2357).

It is better to be graceful

than to be pretty

(SCH2010, Spanish,

Bolivia, p.80)

Beauté ne vaut rien sans

bonté (M2009, p.62)

Table 6: Women’s beauty portrayed as vain and a snare for men

Category 5: Women portrayed as talkative and troublesome

Table 6 contains seven (7) proverbs and their English and French equivalents. These proverbs

present women as useless talkative and troublesome. Some proverbs just warn women on their

attitude of wasting much time talking of meaningless stories and hence spreading rumors. Other

proverbs present women as quarrelsome and propose tough punishment to such women as the

examples in the table below show it.

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 5 with their equivalents in English and French

No of Item Kinyarwanda proverb Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

68. Agahȗgu k‟ȃbagorê ntikaburȃ

amazîmwe (C107, B88, S21).

Where there are women and

geese there wants no noise

(R2015, p.58)

La coquetterie, c‟est la

véritable poésie des

femmes (M2009, p. 194)

69. Ibaanga ry‟ȗmugorê ni icyȏ

ataazî (OS).

Women are born chatterboxes

(SCH2010, Japanese, 211)

Le seul secret que gardent

les femmes, c‟est ce

qu‟elles ont oublié

(M2009, 2002).

47

70 Imbogȃ z‟ȗmupfȗ zuumira kuu

nkooko (C1271, B1215, S243).

The vegetables on her head

have dried out long ago and

she goes on talking (SCH2010,

Arabic, Jewish, Yemen, p 37)

Le poil pousse dans la

main d‟une femme

paresseuse (Proverbes sur

femmes, OS).

71. Inzîmuzi y‟ȗmugorê ntiireengȃ

umuhana (C1873, B1813,

S357).

A woman‟s tongue wags like a

lamb‟s tail (R2015, p.58).

La langue des femmes est

leur épée, et elles ne la

laissent jamais

rouiller(Proverbes sur

femmes, OS).

72. Karabȃaye ntiyeendwȃ (C2076,

B2072)

Men fear having sex with a

foolish woman (my

paraphrase).

A femme sotte, nul ne s‟y

flotte (Proverbes français,

OS).

73. Umugorê amenya

ay‟ûmukazȃana muu nkiîke

ntaamenyȃ ay‟ûmukoȏbwa muu

mpiînga (C3365).

Mother-in-law and daughter –

in-law are tempest and

hailstorm (SCH2010, English,

UK/USA).

La belle mère et la bru

dans la même maison sont

comme deux chats dans

un sac (M2009, p. 61).

74 Umugorê w‟ ȋngaȃre agirwa

n‟ȋingȏongo y‟ ȗmuhoro

(C3395, B3280, S685).

A quarrelsome woman is

rightly hit (SCH2010, Latin,

German, p. 262).

La virago ne cède qu‟à la

brutalité (C3395).

Table 7: Women portrayed as talkative and troublesome

48

Category 6: Women portrayed as households good managers, children bearers and

educators

Table 7 contains fewer Kinyarwanda proverbs (6) with their equivalents in English and French that give a

positive image of women. These proverbs talk of women as good household managers and good educators of

children. Mothers are very important for their children in such a way that they are irreplaceable as some

proverbs below portray it.

Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs under category 6 with their equivalents in English and French

No of

Item

Kinyarwanda proverbs Equivalent in English Equivalent in French

75.

Nyina w‟ȗmuuntu ni umutî uvȗura

myaambi (C 2668).

A mother has a cure to

every injury (SCH2010,

Italian, p.129).

Le paradis est aux pieds

des mères (M2009, p.

344).

76. Nyirȃmugwanêezȃ yakȃmye imbogȏ

atȃyijȋishe (C2676, B2570, S517).

A virtuous woman

commands her husband by

obeying him (K2012, p.35).

Une femme fidèle

commande à son mari en

lui obéissant (M2009,

p.329)

77. Ubyȃaye ishyano araryȏonsa

(B2823).

A mother understands the

language of her mute child

(SCH2010, Litzeburgish, p.

129).

Même si son enfant est

un serpent, la mère se

l‟enroule autour des

seins (M2009, p.345).

49

78. Umugorê ni umutîma w‟ȗrugȏ (OS).

Men make houses, women

make homes. (English

proverb, OS)

Le foyer n‟est pas une

pierre, mais une femme

(M2009, p.198).

79. Umugorê wiitȏonda umuhabaabwa

n‟îimȃana (OS).

A silent woman is a gift

from the Lord (SCH2010,

Hebrew, p.211).

C‟est un don de Dieu

qu‟une femme

silencieuse

(M2009, p. 200).

80. Utȃkurûsha umugorê ntaakurȗsha

urugȏ (C4085).

A wife is a household

treasure (SCH 2010,

Japanese, p.230).

La femme est le pilier de

la maison (OS).

Table 8: Women portrayed as households good managers, children bearers and

educators

While translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, the following Baker‟s (1992)

translation strategies have been more useful than others, for instance, using a proverb of similar

meaning and dissimilar form, using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form, as well as

paraphrasing. The table below summarizes it in statistic form as follows:

A. From Kinyarwanda to English

Strategy Frequency Percentage

Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar

form

74 92.5%

Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar

form

4 5%

Paraphrasing 2 2.5%

50

B. From Kinyarwanda to French

Strategy Frequency Percentage

Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar

form

70 87.5%

Paraphrasing 4 5%

Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar

form

6 7.5%

Table 9: The most commonly translation strategies used

4.2. Conclusion

This section has presented and analysed 80 Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and their

equivalents in both English and French. It is worth noting that, as a linguistic and socio- cultural

phenomenon, proverbs have served to support and advocate patriarchy in many societies,

including Rwanda. According to Rasul (2015:61), “Proverbs present woman as she should be,

not as she actually is”. The image of woman in proverbs is in general bad: they are weak, objects

of sexual satisfaction, untrustworthy, evil, and the like (see different tables above). However,

new changes in mentality have resulted in the creation of new proverbs presenting a positive

image of women as people who are as capable as men, though these proverbs are still few.

51

4.3. Discussion of the findings

From the outset, the researcher‟s main objective was to find equivalents from English and French

proverbs that could best translate Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs that deal with women. The

researcher has then explored several English/French proverbs which had been translated from

other Indo-European, Asian and even African languages. The discussion below focuses on the

strategies used in translation and the cultural loss resulting from these strategies.

4.3.1. Baker’s strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs into

English and French

The findings illustrated that three strategies have been used in translation of Kinyarwanda

proverbs into English and French and the results are represented disproportionally as follows:

4.3.1.1. Using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence)

Basing on the findings in the tables above, using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar

form (dynamic equivalence in Nida‟s theory) is the most frequently used in translation of

Kinyarwanda proverbs. In the current study, this strategy occupies the first rank with 74

equivalents over 80 proverbs to be translated in English (92.5%) and 70 equivalents over 80

proverbs to be translated in French (87.5%).

This big number of proverbs of similar meaning and dissimilar form result from the fact that

proverbs are cultural-bound texts and people round the world share some cultural elements

known as „cultural universals‟ because they are all human beings. Therefore, Rwandans express

views in proverbs as other humans in the world, despite the language used. The following are the

few cases among many cases of dynamic equivalence identified in the current study:

52

In the proverb Ntaa gicumȃ gipfuundîkira ikiîndi (proverb no 35) translated as “Butter with butter

is no sauce” (English) and “Deux dames à cȏté l‟une de l‟autre font une froide température”

(French), the term igicumȃ (calabash) is different from “butter” in English equivalent, as well as

“dame” (wife) in French. However, in terms meaning, they are the same, in the sense that no

calabash can cover another calabash, butter without other food stuffs is not eatable, and a wife

without a husband cannot fulfill her role as a spouse and a mother. In short, the meaning is based

on the state of three things mentioned above, that is: igicumȃ (calabash), butter and dame (wife).

Similarly, in the proverb Inkubȃ irakȗbita inkumî igakiînga ibêere (proverb no 61) translated as

“Two tits pull more than a hundred wagons” (English) or “Un cheveu de femme tire plus que dix

paires de bœufs” (French), the meaning is not based on the form of the proverb but rather on the

function of its components. In this example, it is a matter of woman‟s power based on the parts

of her body: ibêere (tit/breast) and “cheveu” (hair). In Kinyarwanda, ibêere (breast) can

neutralize the thunder beat with her breasts; In English, the same breasts are used to pull and they

are so strong that they can pull heavy loads (a hundred wagons). For French people, the same

extraordinary women force is performed by hair (cheveu) which is more powerful than ten bulls

(boeufs). Therefore, in this example, the translator succeeds to maintain the same effect on both

source and target texts receptors by well transferring the same women extraordinary force of

overcoming men‟s force.

In a word, these are few of many examples of using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar

form (dynamic equivalence) used in the current study. This leads us to prove the effectiveness of

53

Baker‟s (1992) strategy according to which using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar

form (dynamic equivalence) is the best translation strategy in the translation of proverbs.

4.3.1.2. Using a proverbs of similar meaning and similar form (formal equivalence)

In the current study, the cases where this strategy is used are few: English (5%), French

(7.25%). This small number is mainly due to the fact that “every culture has its own structure

which makes it distinguished” (Thalji, 2015:12). However, despite this particularity in structure,

the data presented above show that Kinyarwanda proverbs and their equivalents in English and

French present certain similarities, especially in the way they are formulated. For instance, the

common features that Mieder (2004:6) identified in English proverbs are also found in

Kinyarwanda Proverbs as here below follows:

(i) A is (like) B

Abagorê ni inzaȃbya zoorôshye (proverb no 28).

Daughters are brittle ware

La femme et le verre sont toujours en danger

(ii) A is not (like) B

Umugorê si amabêere n îhenê igira abiri (proverb no66).

Breasts are like a beard: even a barren woman has them.

Ce n‟est pas tout pour une femme d‟être de son sexe ; elle doit aussi posséder quelques qualités.

(iii) No A without B

Agahȗgu k‟ȃbagorê ntikaburȃ amazîmwe (proverb no 68).

Where there are women and geese there wants no noise.

La coquetterie, c‟est la véritable poésie des femmes.

54

(iv) Better A than B

Umugorê gitȏ arutwan‟ȗmwȃanzi gicȃ (proverb no 14).

Better to live with a dragon than a bad woman.

Une femme indigne est pire qu‟un ennemi déclaré.

(v) If A, then B

Icyȏ umugorê ashaakȃ, n‟ȋimȃana iba igîshaaka (proverb no51)

What a woman wants, God also wants.

Ce que femme veut, Dieu le veut.

As far as formal structure is concerned, Kinyarwanda proverbs, though they are not many, have

the same sentence structure as their equivalents in English and French:

Subject + verb + Object

Abagorê + ni + inzaȃbya zoorôshye (proverb no 28)

Daughters + are + brittle ware.

La femme et le verre + sont + en danger

Icyȏ umugorê ashaakȃ + n‟ȋimȃana + iba igîshaaka (proverb no 51)

What a woman wants + God also + wants

Ce que femme veut + Dieu aussi + le veut

For some cases, there is grammatical transformation, but the deep structures are the same, like in

the third example above, analyzed as follows:

Umugorê wiitȏonda + umuhabaabwa +n‟îimȃana (proverb no79 )

A silent woman + is a gift + from the Lord.

Une femme silencieuse + est + un don de Dieu (C‟est un don de Dieu qu‟une

femme silencieuse).

55

With regard to proverbs of similar meanings, there are enough cases in the current study, and

these meanings are mainly based on functional equivalence whereby a SL term for an object is

replaced by another term naming another object of a different shape, but both aiming the same

purpose. For instance, in Abagorê ni inzaȃbya zoorȏshye (proverb no28), the phrase inzaȃbya

zoorȏshye is replaced by „brittle ware‟ and „verre‟, all of them having the state of being

breakable. Therefore, the effect, that is, „being fragile‟ is maintained in both source and target

languages.

To conclude, it is worth noting that there are few cases of Kinyarwanda, English and French

proverbs which have at the same time similar meaning and similar form. Therefore, using a

proverb of similar meaning and similar form in translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English

and French doesn‟t much help.

4.3.1.3. Translation by paraphrasing

In translation of proverbs and other idiomatic expressions, paraphrasing is used “when there is

no target language equivalent matching the source text or when the style of the target text differs

from the source text” (Thalji, 2016:12). In the current study, this strategy occupies the third place

with 2 cases over 80 Kinyarwanda proverbs to be translated in English (2.5%), and 4 cases over

80 Kinyarwanda proverbs to be translated into French (5%).

In most cases, paraphrasing has been used to solve the issues related to the lack of English or

French equivalent to a Kinyarwanda proverb. For instance, the researcher did not succeed to get

French equivalent which has an approximate meaning to the one of the following Kinyarwanda

proverbs: Inyama y‟ûmugorȇ ishya yȋihina (proverb no 9). Therefore, he translated it by

paraphrasing as “Les habitudes de la femme changent négativement au fur et à mesure qu‟elle

vit avec son mari» (my paraphrase). In this strategy, the translator produced an alternative

56

version of translation by interpreting and giving an explanation of the meaning without changing

the original one. Therefore, for overcoming this difficulty, the researcher proceeded by

metonymy and metaphor whereby a part of a woman, ”her flesh” stands for “les habitudes de la

femme ( woman behaviors), “gushya” stands for “vivre comme époux et épouse” (living as wife

and husband) and “yȋihina” (by folding) stands for „changent négativement (change negatively).

Briefly, paraphrasing demonstrates the researcher‟s unfamiliarity with TL proverb which

matches the SL proverb. The original proverb is rendered by explanation whereby few words are

translated by more words in the TL.

Similarly, the researcher paraphrased Umwȃana asa na nyina (proverb no 24) in “Le vrai père de

l‟enfant est connu par sa mere” (French), in order to avoid confusion. In fact, the proverb does

not mean that the child resembles his/her mother, but rather, the real father of a child is known

by his/ her mother, because it is her who knows well who impregnated her. A child is never sure

that whom he/she calls his/her father is his/her real father. Paraphrasing is also here on

interpretation. In addition, English equivalent, “Mama‟s baby, papa‟s maybe” shaded light on

French paraphrase.

In the same view, the proverb Nshiimwê nshiimwê ikobora injumȃ (proverb no 54) was translated

by paraphrasing. The researcher proceeded by explaining the main concepts and expressions

found in the proverb. First, Nshiimwê nshiimwê refers to the cultural habit of Rwandan women of

doing their best to satisfy their partners, either by shaking their bodies, screaming, squirting, so

they get appreciated. This sexual performance requires much energy to a woman in such a way

that exaggeration in sexual performance results in hurting her sex; that is, “ikobora injumȃ” in

Kinyarwanda terms (injumȃ meaning a kind of vagina). Therefore, the proverb Nshiimwê

57

nshiimwê ikobora injumȃ was paraphrased as : “A force de vouloir satisfaire sexuellement à tous

les hommes, la femme finit par avoir son sexe blessé”.

Lastly, the proverb “Umugorê w‟ȗmusȃaza ntaaherekezȃ urwêenyȃ” (proverb no59) was

paraphrased in French as « La jeune femme qui se marie avec un vieil homme doit se comporter

comme une vieille femme ». For this paraphrase, the researcher also refers to interpretation of

the meaning of the original proverb. For instance, the clause “ntaaherekezȃ urwêenyȃ » does not

have the functional meaning in TL; therefore, it needs interpretation to be understood in the TL.

The expression means “stop chatting with people of the same age”; that is to say that a young girl

who is married to an old man should stop chatting with her colleagues of the same age because

her husband will consider is as cheating on him. In addition, English equivalent of Kinyarwanda

proverb, which is “A young woman married to an old man, must behave like an old woman”

inspired the researcher in his way of paraphrasing in French.

As far as English equivalents are concerned, two Kinyarwanda proverbs have been paraphrased.

First, the equivalent proverb of Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura uk‟ûmugabo arȋ ko kuguhaȃhira

(proverb no 11) was not found in English. Therefore, the proverb was translated by paraphrasing

it as “A bad woman cooks and eats food alone and forgets the bread provider” (my paraphrase).

The use of this strategy is attributed to the lack of precise knowledge of the functional meaning

of the original proverb. Therefore, the researcher referred to cultural interpretation to render the

meaning into the TL. Firstly, the clause “Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura uk‟ûmugabo” refers to the

Rwandan culture of sharing food on one traditional dish by family members. While sharing this

food, one who was greedy could eat more food than others. The clause “arȋ ko kuguhaȃhira”

58

refers to the Rwandan culture whereby it was the husband who had to provide food stuffs to his

family. Therefore, a good wife had to keep food for her husband in his absence, whereas a bad

wife could cook, eat all food alone or share that food with her children and forget her husband.

In the same view, the researcher paraphrased in English the following proverb ”Karabȃaye

ntiyeendwȃ” (proverb no 72). The researcher referred to the cultural interpretation of meanings of

the main concepts of the original proverb. For instance, “Karabȃaye” is used for a person who

alarms everybody anytime he/she encounters a problem, be it simple or tough, rather than

searching for a solution by him/herself. In this proverb, Karabȃaye refers to a talkative

woman/girl who shouts or fights whenever men touch her or talk to her about sex. Then,

“ntiyeendwȃ” is from the verb kweenda, another term to mean kuroongora (on fuck or to marry).

Therefore, the above mentioned woman/girl is qualified as stupid and hardly gets married. So,

the paraphrase translation made by the researcher, that is, “Men fear having sex with a foolish

woman” is correct, as long as it is even approximate to the French equivalent to the same

proverb, which is “A femme sotte, nul ne s‟y flotte”.

To conclude, the researcher referred to paraphrasing when there was no equivalent proverb in

English and French matching the concerned gendered Kinyarwanda proverb. Paraphrasing was

based on interpreting and explaining the meaning of the original proverb that the researcher

strove to render into the approximate meaning into the TL. The few examples of paraphrase

given above illustrate how this strategy proposed by Baker (1992) is also applicable in

translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, especially when translating

proverbs by other proverbs is not possible.

59

4.3.2. Cultural loss

One of the most significant aspects of proverbs is the transmission of some particular aspects of a

particular culture. Cultural differences will therefore and inevitably result in critical cultural gaps

during translation. Classe (cited in Thalji, 2015:9) states that “There are some contextual aspects

that have features related exclusively to SL culture but which are not found in the TL” These

features are unusual lifestyle or habits of particular people in the TL. Therefore, there are several

features in Kinyarwanda proverbs which are not effectively rendered into English or French

when the translator uses Baker‟s translation strategies, namely using a proverb of similar

meaning and similar form, and using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (formal

and dynamic equivalence).

Cultural loss is mainly due to the lack of equivalents in the TL to some culturally-bound terms

and expressions of SL. For instance, the Kinyarwanda proverb Hasabwa Nyirȃnkumî

hakaroongorwa Nyiranzaratsi (proverb no4) is translated into “All are good girls, but where do

the bad wives come from?” and “Toutes sont les filles parfaites, d‟où viennent les méchantes

épouses?” The Kinyarwanda concept Nyiranzaratsi is more than “bad wives” in English and “les

méchantes épouses” in French. Nyiranzaratsi normally means a wife who uses traditional

medicine to tame her husband so that he becomes less aggressive and let her do what she wants.

So, translating Nyiranzaratsi by “bad wives” and “méchantes épouses” is under-translating.

In the same view, when the translator translates Umugorê umukamira impêenda impîindukȃ

yaazȃ ukamusaanga imbere iyo (proverb no17) into “A woman‟s mind and winter wind change

often” or “Le lièvre et la femme sont à vous tant que vous les tenez”, the culturally-bound term

impêenda is not rendered as it should be. The concept “impêenda” means many beautiful cows.

60

4.3.3. Conclusion

This chapter presented gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs with their equivalents in English and

French. First, the selected proverbs were classified thematically into six categories and

translated, applying Baker‟s (1992) strategies of translating proverbs, which resembles to some

extent Nida and Taber‟s (1969) concepts of translation, namely formal and dynamic equivalence.

The findings were then analysed and discussed into two parts; the first part dealt with the

discussion of the strategies used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French

whereby using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form is the most used with 92.5% in

English and 81.25% in French. Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form is the

second in the current study with 5% in English and 7.5% in French. These findings indicate that

while translating Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French, translators should focus more

on meaning and effect rather than on formal structure of the proverbs because these languages

are linguistically different, hence structured differently. Finally, the findings illustrated that

paraphrase helps the translator overcome issues related to non-equivalence with 2.5% in English

and 11.25% in French.

The second part focused on the translation of proverbs and cultural loss. The findings illustrated

that using a proverb of similar meaning and dissimilar form (dynamic equivalence) is the most

used in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs. However, this strategy focusing on the meaning

and effect on the reader/receptor does not render effectively into the target culture all cultural

elements contained in the original culture. Using a proverb of similar meaning and similar form

should help overcome this issue of cultural loss. Nevertheless, the findings illustrated that this

strategy is used at a lower level because it is rare to find proverbs of similar meaning and similar

61

form for languages linguistically and culturally different such as Kinyarwanda, English and

French. Briefly, Baker‟s (1992) strategies are applicable in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs

into English and French at different percentages as illustrated above.

62

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. General Conclusion

The current study‟s objectives were twofold: to provide English and French equivalents for the

selected Kinyarwanda gendered proverbs and to assess Baker‟s (1992) strategies used in

translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs. Using mainly Baker‟s strategies, the objectives have, to a

large extent, been achieved, a good deal of Kinyarwanda sexist proverbs have found their

equivalent either in English or French. They also confirm that these strategies can be employed

to facilitate communication with the receptors or readers in the TL.

However, it is worth noting that these strategies also have their shortcomings. First, the results

reveal that translating Kinyarwanda proverbs using other equivalents in the TL is, to some

extent, subjective; it always implies the translator‟s views and judgment to decide whether a

proverb is the equivalent of the original proverb or not. In addition, the meaning of the original

proverb and the one of its equivalent is always approximate because total equivalence never

exists. Therefore, this causes cultural loss whereby some important cultural elements contained

in Kinyarwanda proverbs are not rendered accurately because the English‟s and the French‟s

perceptions of the world is quite different from the Rwandans‟. What does this mean? This

means that the more you have cultural differences the more different means of cultural

expressions (such as proverbs) will tend to diverge. It is very likely that languages from same

linguistic family (Bantou languages, for instance, and Indo-European languages, for that matter)

will tend express their worldviews in pretty much the same way, simply because they are

drawing inspiration from a common -however distant- source. In other words, Baker‟s translation

63

strategies should be used in a wide theoretical framework, for instance, Newmark‟s semantic and

communicative approaches or Nida‟s formal and dynamic equivalence theory.

2. Recommendations

At the end this work, it has been proved that it is possible to get English and French equivalents

for Kinyarwanda proverbs. However, it requires a wide knowledge of the SL and TL, as well as

the mastery of the source and target culture. The translator should also be familiar with culture

and history in order to deal successfully with some cultural and historical allusions implied in

proverbs. The following recommendations are formulated as they would facilitate future

translators deal effectively with translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into English and French,

and are oriented to the following people:

2.1. Institutions in charge of culture and language planning in Rwanda

The institutions in charge of culture and language in Rwanda should:

a. Carry out a lexicographical research to facilitate interaction between Kinyarwanda and

other official languages used in Rwanda.

b. Invest in translation of Kinyarwanda proverbs into foreign languages, for Kinyarwanda

proverbs are good vehicles of Rwandan values and norms.

c. To look into proverbs so as to harmonize and update the proverbs content, as far as some

proverbs convey biases and prejudices that are out of tune with modern social and

societal trends.

2.2. Translators

Translators should do the following activities while dealing with translation of Kinyarwanda

proverbs:

64

a. Undertake further studies on translation of cultural texts so as to develop more theories

on translation and translation strategies.

b. Translate Kinyarwanda proverbs, wherever possible, by using their equivalents in the

target languages so as to produce the same effects as the original proverbs.

c. Translate Kinyarwanda proverbs by using their equivalents in the TL, in parallel with

semantic translation so as to render with accuracy the meanings and cultural elements

contained in original proverbs and hence avoid cultural loss.

d. Refer to paraphrase in case there is no equivalent proverb to render the meaning and

effect of Kinyarwanda proverb into the TL.

2.3. Teachers for translation courses

a. Teachers for translation courses should teach various translation strategies so as learners

have a variety of strategies to choose from, when in need of suitable strategies to use

while dealing with specified texts, including cultural-bound texts.

3. Avenues for Future Research

The current study only dealt with translation of gendered Kinyarwanda proverbs related to

women. Therefore, further research can focus, among other things, on men and children as well.

65

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Corpus of Kinyarwanda Gendered Proverbs Related to Woman

1. Abagorê ni inzaȃbya zoorȏshye (OS).

2. Agahȗgu k‟ȃbagorê ntikaburȃ amazîmwe (C107, B88, S21).

3. Agakoni k‟ȗmukoȏbwa ni nkora ngeendê (B104, C123 ).

4. Agashyitsî kagiiyê keêra kavuumbika umuriro (C3863, B3770, S808).

5. Agatîinze kȃzaanduruka ni inkumî n‟îkirȏonda (C176, B166).

6. Akabȗno karusha isȗka gucȃ inshȗro (C316, B315).

7. Akabȗza umukoȏbwa inzu arakageendana (C318, B291).

8. Akȏ umukoȏbwa ashaakȃ karamugarika (C449, B408).

9. Akuungo gakuzê ni kȏ karyooshyȃ imbogȃ (OS).

10. Ayȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzi si yȏ ubwiirȃ umucȗzikazi (C643, B553).

11. Hasabwa Nyirȃnkumî hakarongoorwa Nyiranzaratsi (C795, B757).

12. Ibaanga ry‟ȗmugorê ni icyȏ ataazî (OS).

13. Icyô umugorê ashaakȃ, Imȃana nayô iba igîshaaka (OS).

14. Icyȗuma gishya gîkubiswe (B925).

15. Ifûuni y‟îmborȏ iruta umujyoojyo w‟îgituba (OS)

16. Imbogȃ z‟ȗmupfȗ zuumira kuu nkooko (C1271, B1215, S243).

17. Imishîishi y‟îmishîno ntiishirȃ inȏgonora (OS).

18. Indirira kwaambara y„ȗmugorê yahêjeje umugabo i Ruumbasha (B1441).

19. Ingabo y‟ȗmugorê iragushoora ntiigukȗura ku rugaȃmba (B 1460).

20. Injȃangwê yaraayê haanzê yiitwa intȗuro (OS).

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21. Inkokȏkazi ntiibikȃ isaȃke ihȃri (C2372, B1557, S312).

22. Inkubȃ irakȗbita inkumî igakiinga ibêere (C1690, B1584).

23. Intȃazî y‟ȃgasȏre ikamira umugorê (C1773, B1695).

24. Inyȃbiizi ibyaara ingoongerezi (C1818).

25. Inyama y‟ûmugore ishya yȋihina (C1834, B1755).

26. Inzîmuzi y‟ȗmugorê ntiireengȃ umuhana (C1873, B1813, S357).

27. Iyȏ umukoȏbwa avuzȇ “oya” aba yȇemeye (OS).

28. Karabȃaye ntiyeendwȃ (C2076, B2072).

29. Magirȋrane, umugorê agirwa n‟ȗmugabo (B2120).

30. Nshiimwê nshiimwê ikobora injumȃ (C2239, B2207).

31. Ntaa gicumȃ gipfuundîkira ikiîndi (C2271, B2207).

32. Ntaa guhȏra muu ntȏboro imwê nk‟îgifuungo (OS).

33. Nta mugorê ugîra ijaambo (C2320).

34. Ntaa mukoȏbwa upfȃ bȃtagizê ngo erekera inȏ (B2275).

35. Ntaa nkumî yiigȃya n‟îyarwȃaye igisebe ica inzaratsi (B2306).

36. Nyina w‟ȗmuuntu ni umutî uvȗura myaambi (C 2668).

37. Nyiragabura imitȗra yarȗse nyiragabura amabȗno (C2672, B2535).

38. Nyirȃmugwanêeza yakȃmye imbogȏ atȃyijȋishe (C2676, B2570, S517).

39. Nyir„ûmukoȏbwa na nyîr„intuȗmbi bahuungira hamwê (B2515).

40. Ubuuntu muu nnyo buuzaana mburugu (C2824, B2715).

41. Ubwîizȃ bw‟ȗmukoȏbwa ntibwaȃmubujije kuruha (C2049).

42. Ubwîizȃ ntȋburiibwȃ (C2937).

43. Ubyȃaye ishyano araryȏonsa (B2823).

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44. Ukubôko k‟ûmugorȇ gucura uk‟ûmugabo arȋ ko kumuhaȃhira ( C3050)

45. Umugorê abyaara abȃawê ntaabȃ uwȃawê (C3364).

46. Umugorê amenya ay‟ûmukazȃana muu nkiîke ntaamenyȃ ay‟ûmukoȏbwa muu

mpiînga (C3365).

47.Umugorê arabyîna ntaasiimbȗka (C3366, B3250).

48. Umugorê bamwiita Nyirabareenzi yaajyȃ kuvooma akamena ikibiîndi (B3224).

49. Umugorê gitȏ abyaara icyoomaanzi (B2822).

50.Umugorê gitȏ agutaatira agȗseguye (C3372, B3256).

51. Umugorê gitȏ arutwa n‟ȗumwȃanzi gicȃ (B3229).

52. Umugorê gitȏ ntimuburȃ kubyȃarana (C3376, B3260).

53. Umugorê mwiizȃ atȃaba uwȃawȇ yaaba uwa mȗkuru waawe (C3380, B3262).

54. Umugorê ni umugogoro (OS).

55. Umugorê ni umutȋma w‟ȗrugȏ (OS).

56. Umugorê ni nk‟îhenê, bayizirika ahȏ amatovu arî (C3381, B3263).

57. Umugorê si amabêere n‟ îhenê igira abiri (C3385, B3237, S683).

58. Umugorê si umwîiza nk‟ȗwuȗmva (C2357).

59. Umugorê umukamira impêenda impîindukȃ yaazȃ ukamusaanga imbere iyo (C3388 ,

B3246).

60. Umugorê urî ku mutibȃ ntaaburȃ umutîma (C3386, B3269).

61. Umugorê w‟ ȋngaȃre agirwa n‟ȋingȏongo y‟ ȗmuhoro (C3395, B3280, S685).

62.Umugorê w‟înyaȃnda yiitwa Baantaanze urusyo (C3397, B3282).

63. Umugorê wiitȏonda umuhabaabwa n‟îimȃana (OS).

75

64. Umugorê w‟ûubwêenge n‟ûmugabo w‟ûbweena iyȏ uburȏ bweezê bagura ibirago

bibiri (B3254).

65.Umugorê w‟ȗmupfȗ agira ngo mukeebȃ yaagabuye (C3400).

66. Umugorȇ w‟ûmupfû imbeba imutwaara umurwi (C3405, B3289).

67. Umugorê w‟ȗmusȃaza ntaaherȇkeza urwêenyȃ (C3408).

68. Umugorê w‟ȗundî yiirabuza akanwa (C3410, B3292).

69. Umukîro w‟ȗmukoȏbwa uba imbere yê (C556, B3366).

70. Umukoȏbwa abeenga cyaane agasaanga intȃgohêka (B3339).

71. Umukoȏbwa usȋgaye muu nzu ntaȃgaseke uwashȃatse ni umuruho wa bȏose (B3340).

72. Umukoȏbwa w‟ȗbwiira asaambana yȃrasȃbwe (C3468).

73.Umupfȃakazi ni wê murozi (B3430).

74. Umutîma w‟ȋnkumî usuuzumwa n‟ȋinkȃanda (C3651, B3528, S746).

75. Umwȃana asa na nyina (C3732).

76. Urugȏ rubî rugutuma amȃazi n‟ȗmuriro (C3863, B3770, S808).

77. Urugȏ ruvuzȇ umugorê, ruvuga umuhoro (C3841, B3807, S380) .

78. Utȃkurûsha umugorê ntaakurȗsha urugȏ (C4085).

79. Utȃazî umugaambaanyi yiiriingira umugorê (C4164, B4035).

80. Utȃazi umugomȇ asigira umugorȇ urugô (C4166 B3999).

76

Appendix2: Recommendation for Field Research

77

Appendix 3: Modified Master Thesis Title

78

Appendix 4: Request for Facilitation in Data Collection in GMO

79

Appendix 5: MA Thesis Final Deposit Authorisation Form