Exploring Electrical Exploring Electrical TechnologyTechnology

Era of Early Electrical ScienceEra of Early Electrical Science

~1600 to 1800~1600 to 1800

Era of Early Electrical Science: Era of Early Electrical Science: OverviewOverview

Divides into 4 distinct periods as Divides into 4 distinct periods as identified by science historian J. L. identified by science historian J. L. HeilbronHeilbron 11stst Period: 17 Period: 17thth century (1600s) century (1600s)

Exploration carried out by natural Exploration carried out by natural philosophers, mostly Jesuitsphilosophers, mostly Jesuits

22ndnd Period: 1700-1740 Period: 1700-1740 Electricity emerged as an experimental scienceElectricity emerged as an experimental science Work done mostly by academy members; Work done mostly by academy members;

Jesuits withdrewJesuits withdrew

Era of Early Electrical Science: Era of Early Electrical Science: OverviewOverview

33rdrd Period: 1740-1760 Period: 1740-1760 Quantitative information (observations) and Quantitative information (observations) and

demonstrations increaseddemonstrations increased Academicians, university professors, Academicians, university professors,

physicians, and even lay people did the workphysicians, and even lay people did the work 44thth Period: 1760-90 Period: 1760-90

Instruments, accurate measurements, and Instruments, accurate measurements, and quantitative mathematical formulas emergedquantitative mathematical formulas emerged

Serious pursuit of the field now held by a few Serious pursuit of the field now held by a few professors and salaried academicians only professors and salaried academicians only

Era of Early Electrical Science: Era of Early Electrical Science: A few questions to addressA few questions to address

Who were the explorers and Who were the explorers and contributors?contributors?

What support did they receive, if What support did they receive, if any? From whom?any? From whom?

How did they share their ideas and How did they share their ideas and discoveries?discoveries?

Who were the contributors?Who were the contributors?

Jesuits (during the 1600s)Jesuits (during the 1600s) Intellectual arm of the Roman Catholic Intellectual arm of the Roman Catholic

ChurchChurch According to Leibnitz (1646-1716), all of the According to Leibnitz (1646-1716), all of the

chief scientists in Italy in 1670 were Jesuitschief scientists in Italy in 1670 were Jesuits Set up schools throughout Europe, the Set up schools throughout Europe, the

majority in Italy and Francemajority in Italy and France Excelled in math and physics as well as Excelled in math and physics as well as

many other subjects due to their well many other subjects due to their well rounded educationrounded education

Who were the contributors?Who were the contributors?

Jesuits (during the 1600s)Jesuits (during the 1600s) How did they communicate their discoveries?How did they communicate their discoveries?

Largely through letters of correspondence; often Largely through letters of correspondence; often received such from society membersreceived such from society members

Beyond teaching, most Jesuits also gave public Beyond teaching, most Jesuits also gave public lectures (also conducted mass, heard confessions, lectures (also conducted mass, heard confessions, and engaged in personal disciplines)and engaged in personal disciplines)

Also published many books: served as the starting Also published many books: served as the starting point for many investigations by society memberspoint for many investigations by society members

Influence lessened as secular societies grew Influence lessened as secular societies grew and as Jesuits rejected Cartesian philosophy and as Jesuits rejected Cartesian philosophy

Who were the contributors?Who were the contributors?

Academies / Academicians (1660-1740)Academies / Academicians (1660-1740) Over 17 academies were establishedOver 17 academies were established Became societies where membership based Became societies where membership based

on significant contributions to scienceon significant contributions to science Purpose: to advance science and technologyPurpose: to advance science and technology Awards: often given for major contributionsAwards: often given for major contributions Location: majority in France, but also England, Location: majority in France, but also England,

Germany, Italy and RussiaGermany, Italy and Russia

Who were the contributors?Who were the contributors? Academies / Academicians (1660-1740)Academies / Academicians (1660-1740)

Not all members were “scientists” from Not all members were “scientists” from universities, nor were they necessarily involved universities, nor were they necessarily involved in teachingin teaching

Had broad range of backgrounds from botany, Had broad range of backgrounds from botany, anatomy, physics, astronomy, mathematics, anatomy, physics, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy and rhetoricphilosophy and rhetoric

Most societies sought to be applied, as Most societies sought to be applied, as consultants to governments, to create consultants to governments, to create technologies, and to patent applicationstechnologies, and to patent applications

Two particularly prestigious academies:Two particularly prestigious academies: Royal Academie of Science in Paris (est. 1660)Royal Academie of Science in Paris (est. 1660) Royal Society of London (est. 1662)Royal Society of London (est. 1662)

Who were the contributors?Who were the contributors?

Academies / Academicians (1660-1740)Academies / Academicians (1660-1740) Members often gave public lectures in Members often gave public lectures in

France, especially to entertain in the King’s France, especially to entertain in the King’s courtcourt

A majority of scientific work was produced in A majority of scientific work was produced in journals of learned societies, not from journals of learned societies, not from universitiesuniversities

Time to publish: from the date of Time to publish: from the date of presentation or writing of a memoire to presentation or writing of a memoire to getting it printed and distributed took ~ 3 getting it printed and distributed took ~ 3 years on average (!)years on average (!)

Who were the contributors?Who were the contributors?

Universities / Professors (1740-1790)Universities / Professors (1740-1790) Attended by students in Europe poorly Attended by students in Europe poorly

during the 18during the 18thth century due to wars and a century due to wars and a generally bad economic situationgenerally bad economic situation

Equipment scarce and often had to be Equipment scarce and often had to be purchased or acquired by individual prof’spurchased or acquired by individual prof’s

Poor salaries (due to lack of clientelle) Poor salaries (due to lack of clientelle) meant extra jobs required by prof’s to meant extra jobs required by prof’s to make money and resulted in lack of much make money and resulted in lack of much scientific productivity from universitiesscientific productivity from universities

What support did they receive?What support did they receive?

Awards from Academies Awards from Academies (exceptional)(exceptional)

Salaries from Universities (often Salaries from Universities (often poor)poor)

Public Lectures (perhaps best source)Public Lectures (perhaps best source) Especially popularEspecially popular Provided income for those who gave Provided income for those who gave

them, whether professors or society them, whether professors or society membersmembers

Academies versus UniversitiesAcademies versus Universities

Each had its own emphasisEach had its own emphasis Academies: investigated the unknownAcademies: investigated the unknown Universities: taught the knownUniversities: taught the known

Development of science & research Development of science & research in universities came about only in in universities came about only in late 1700slate 1700s

At times, tension and competition At times, tension and competition existed between themexisted between themWhat issues continue to create competition between universities and research institutes today?

William Gilbert (1540-1603): William Gilbert (1540-1603): The Earliest True Scientist?The Earliest True Scientist?

Status: as a physician to both Status: as a physician to both Elizabeth I and James I of EnglandElizabeth I and James I of England

Motivation: to advance the “noble & Motivation: to advance the “noble & hearty” properties of the magnethearty” properties of the magnet

Credit: as the 1Credit: as the 1stst(?) to distinguish (?) to distinguish between electrostatic and magnetic between electrostatic and magnetic attraction attraction

William Gilbert (1540-1603)William Gilbert (1540-1603)

Shortcoming: according to Heilbron he took Shortcoming: according to Heilbron he took (plagiarized) the first five differences he noted (plagiarized) the first five differences he noted from Italian mathematician Cardano (pub. from Italian mathematician Cardano (pub. 1550)1550)

Published: Published: Da MagneteDa Magnete (1600) where he reports (1600) where he reports all of his claimed findingsall of his claimed findings

Summary: major concepts he contribuedSummary: major concepts he contribued Viewed Earth as a huge magnet following and Viewed Earth as a huge magnet following and

building upon the concept of Peregrinusbuilding upon the concept of Peregrinus Found electric attraction was grossly affected by Found electric attraction was grossly affected by

intervening objects, while magnetic attraction was intervening objects, while magnetic attraction was notnot

Detailed Differences Between Detailed Differences Between Amber and Magnetic Attraction as Amber and Magnetic Attraction as

Noted by Gilbert Noted by Gilbert 1.1. Amber draws many kinds of body, Amber draws many kinds of body,

the lodestone only iron.the lodestone only iron.

2.2. Amber draws without moving, Amber draws without moving, lodestone is pulled as it pulls.lodestone is pulled as it pulls.

3.3. The magnet does, and the amber The magnet does, and the amber does not, act across screens.does not, act across screens.

4.4. The magnet pulls toward its poles, The magnet pulls toward its poles, the amber everywhere.the amber everywhere.

Detailed Differences Between Detailed Differences Between Amber and Magnetic Attraction as Amber and Magnetic Attraction as

Noted by GilbertNoted by Gilbert5.5. Amber draws more effectively after Amber draws more effectively after

friction, the magnet does not.friction, the magnet does not.6.6. The magnet pulls heavier weights The magnet pulls heavier weights

than amber does.than amber does.7.7. Surface or atmospheric moisture Surface or atmospheric moisture

inhibits electric but not magnetic inhibits electric but not magnetic action.action.

8.8. Amber’s power of attraction, unlike Amber’s power of attraction, unlike that of the magnet’s, belongs to a that of the magnet’s, belongs to a wide variety of substances.wide variety of substances.

A Word from Gilbert for PosterityA Word from Gilbert for Posterity

The last observation (8) highlights The last observation (8) highlights Gilbert’s unique contribution to Gilbert’s unique contribution to electricity, eventually leading to the electricity, eventually leading to the word ELECTRON (from the Greek word ELECTRON (from the Greek word for amber). word for amber).

Gilbert also coined the word Gilbert also coined the word “ELECTRIC” for a substance that “ELECTRIC” for a substance that draws like amber.draws like amber.

Gilbert’s Theory of ElectrificationGilbert’s Theory of Electrification

Perhaps the 1Perhaps the 1stst published on the subject published on the subject Occurs as a result of the removal of a Occurs as a result of the removal of a

fluid he called “humour” leaving an fluid he called “humour” leaving an “effluvium” or an atmosphere around the “effluvium” or an atmosphere around the bodybody

Despite the personification implied, this Despite the personification implied, this theory actually comes quite close to the theory actually comes quite close to the modern scientific concept of charge modern scientific concept of charge (“humour”) an electric field (“effluvium”)(“humour”) an electric field (“effluvium”)

Conclusions on GilbertConclusions on Gilbert

Published the first treatise on any Published the first treatise on any physical science (let alone electricity) physical science (let alone electricity) based entirely on based entirely on experimentationexperimentation

Provided preliminary groundwork for Provided preliminary groundwork for exploration during Era of Early exploration during Era of Early Electrical Science carried on byElectrical Science carried on by JesuitsJesuits AcademiciansAcademicians University Professors, etc.University Professors, etc.

Jesuits Who Explored Electricity Jesuits Who Explored Electricity During the 1During the 1stst Period (1600s) Period (1600s)

Cabeo, a teacher, engineer & philosopherCabeo, a teacher, engineer & philosopher In 1629, published In 1629, published Philosophia magneticaPhilosophia magnetica

devoted to magnetismdevoted to magnetism Also extended Gilbert’s list of materials that Also extended Gilbert’s list of materials that

exhibit the electrical effectexhibit the electrical effect Repeated Gilbert’s list of experimental Repeated Gilbert’s list of experimental

observations distinguishing electric versus observations distinguishing electric versus magnetic forces to which he attempted to add magnetic forces to which he attempted to add two additional onestwo additional ones

9.9. Magnets can transmit their power to iron; amber Magnets can transmit their power to iron; amber cannot do so with chaff cannot do so with chaff

10.10. Magnets can repel one another, electrics flee nothingMagnets can repel one another, electrics flee nothing

Jesuits Who Explored Electricity Jesuits Who Explored Electricity During the 1During the 1stst Period (1600s) Period (1600s)

CabeoCabeo Concocted a theory of “impact,” from Concocted a theory of “impact,” from

these rather tenuous observations, that these rather tenuous observations, that he used to replace Gilbert’s watery he used to replace Gilbert’s watery effluviaeffluvia

If nothing else, furthered debate and If nothing else, furthered debate and continued interest on the subject by continued interest on the subject by othersothers

Among those he stimulated was another Among those he stimulated was another Jesuit, Athanasius KircherJesuit, Athanasius Kircher

Jesuits Who Explored Electricity Jesuits Who Explored Electricity During the 1During the 1stst Period (1600s) Period (1600s)

Kircher - a prof. of mathematics, Kircher - a prof. of mathematics, physics & oriental languages at the physics & oriental languages at the Collegio Romano Collegio Romano Preserved demonstrations of electricity, Preserved demonstrations of electricity,

among other phenomena he considered among other phenomena he considered natural magic, in his museum set up in natural magic, in his museum set up in 16521652

Used demonstrations to amuse & Used demonstrations to amuse & entertain his museums patronsentertain his museums patrons

Kircher’s DemonstrationsKircher’s Demonstrations

Candle smoke dances under the Candle smoke dances under the influence of electrified amber.influence of electrified amber.

Electrified diamond attracts other Electrified diamond attracts other heavy objects, if properly suspended.heavy objects, if properly suspended.

Bright flowers even curtsey to a bit of Bright flowers even curtsey to a bit of electrified black coal!electrified black coal!

Others in Kircher’s CircleOthers in Kircher’s Circle

CornelioCornelio MaignanMaignan SchottSchott LanaLana

A student of Kircher & SchottA student of Kircher & Schott His “igneo-sulphureous principle” became His “igneo-sulphureous principle” became

the standard theory on the continent for the standard theory on the continent for 50 years 50 years (less significant for its accuracy and (less significant for its accuracy and superiority than its long lasting influence)superiority than its long lasting influence)

Electrical science steps Electrical science steps backwards?backwards?

In an odd twist, Lana also associated In an odd twist, Lana also associated electric and magnetic forces with a electric and magnetic forces with a common occult practice, according to common occult practice, according to science historian J. L. Heilbronscience historian J. L. Heilbron

Such demonizing did not enjoy Such demonizing did not enjoy widespread acceptance, but helped widespread acceptance, but helped propel interest in electricity, through propel interest in electricity, through controversy, into the 18controversy, into the 18thth century century

Summary of Work During 1600sSummary of Work During 1600s

Little significant research took place Little significant research took place on electricity, but what did focused on electricity, but what did focused onon Refuting Cabeo’s claim (i.e., that Refuting Cabeo’s claim (i.e., that

electrics flee nothing)electrics flee nothing) Seeing if electricity could be transmitted Seeing if electricity could be transmitted

through a vacuumthrough a vacuum The latter, for lack of sufficient The latter, for lack of sufficient

vacuum, was largely abandonedvacuum, was largely abandoned

Electric Inventions During 1600sElectric Inventions During 1600s

Two people after Cabeo demonstrated Two people after Cabeo demonstrated the electric effect in 1672the electric effect in 1672 Otto van Guericke, who built the 1Otto van Guericke, who built the 1stst

machine to generate electric sparksmachine to generate electric sparks Christian HuygensChristian Huygens

Refined Guericke’s inventionRefined Guericke’s invention Observed repulsive forces of electric effect Observed repulsive forces of electric effect

that ran counter to Cabeo’s claim, but did not that ran counter to Cabeo’s claim, but did not publish viewspublish views

Fuller understanding of electric effect Fuller understanding of electric effect had to be rediscovered at another timehad to be rediscovered at another time

Concluding Comments: 1Concluding Comments: 1stst Period Period of Early Era of Electrical Scienceof Early Era of Electrical Science

Theory directs and interprets discoveryTheory directs and interprets discovery Cabeo, Guericke & Huygens each held slightly Cabeo, Guericke & Huygens each held slightly

different theoriesdifferent theories The theoretical beliefs of each influenced by who The theoretical beliefs of each influenced by who

they followed philosophically, for examplethey followed philosophically, for example Cabeo influenced by AristotleCabeo influenced by Aristotle Guericke followed CopernicusGuericke followed Copernicus Huygens impressed by DescartesHuygens impressed by Descartes

Each used their own theoretical orientation to Each used their own theoretical orientation to support and explain their observationssupport and explain their observations

While theory controls all science, no theory While theory controls all science, no theory on electricity was yet developed enough to on electricity was yet developed enough to provide an adequate foundation for provide an adequate foundation for advanced work advanced work