Exploration_of_parenting_Behaviors and Attitudes Arnott and Brown

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An Exploration of ParentingBehaviours and Attitudes DuringEarly Infancy: Association withMaternal and Infant Characteristics

B. Arnotta, and A. Brownb,*aDurham University, Durham, UKbSwansea University, Swansea, UK

The importance of warm and democratic parenting styles foroptimal social, emotional and cognitive outcomes in children overthe age of ve is well established. However, there is a dearth ofliterature exploring variations in parenting styles during infancy,despite many popular parenting books aimed at this period. The

primary aim of this study was to explore parenting styles ininfancy and their association with infant and maternal characteris-tics. Five hundred and eight mothers of infants under 12 months ofage completed a 36-item questionnaire examining cognitive andbehavioural aspects of early parenting (Infancy Parenting StylesQuestionnaire). Items for the questionnaire were generated frompopular culture early parenting books, and those raised in discus-sion with mothers. The underlying factor structure of the InfancyParenting Styles Questionnaire revealed ve independent factors:discipline, routine, anxiety, nurturance and involvement, whichmapped onto existing concepts of warmth/nurturance and control

for parenting older children, with additional constructs pertainingto the challenge of caring for young infants. Early parenting stylewas associated with maternal age and education, and infant birthweight, gender and age. The ndings are discussed in relation tothe parenting styles literature for older children and the attach-ment literature. Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: parenting styles; infancy; infant development; maternalcontrol; attachment

*Correspondence to: Dr Amy Brown, College of Human and Health Sciences, SwanseaUniversity, Swansea, UK SA2 8PP. E-mail: [email protected]

Present address: Now at Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK

Infant and Child DevelopmentInf. Child Dev.22: 349361 (2013)

Published online 18 March 2013 in Wiley Online Library

(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/icd.1794

Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.


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BACKGROUND

Since the seminal work of Ainsworth and colleagues (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &Wall, 1978) and the identication of individual differences in parenting behaviours

and associated infant development of Bowlby (1969), there has been an increasinginterest in diversity in early parenting and subsequent child outcomes. Sensitiveand responsive care giving is seen as essential to later positive emotional, socialand cognitive outcomes for the infant (Biringen & Easterbrooks, 2008; Evans &Porter, 2009; Haley & Stansbury, 2003). Indeed, the importance of responsiveparenting is acknowledged by the National Service Framework for Children,Young People and Maternity Services (DoH, 2004), which states that appropriateparenting styles arefundamental to caring for children. As part of this, workingwith parents to optimise sensitive and responsive parenting approaches is anessential part of health and social care practice. Understanding both how andwhy parents come to parenttheir children in the way they do is critical to the best

child outcomes (Belsky, 1984).The parenting style theoretical literature for older children traditionally concep-

tualizes parenting behaviours as individual differences along two dimensions:warmth/nurturance and control. Combinations of these elements categorizeparenting style typologies (Baumrind, 1978). Authoritative parents are not onlycharacterized by warmth and responsiveness to child signals but also by a degreeof respectful control appropriate to the developmental level of the child. Authori-tarian parents exhibit high levels of control in conjunction with low levels ofnurturance. Finally, permissive parents combine low levels of control with highwarmth (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Authoritative parenting styles are typically

associated with more positive outcomes compared with either authoritarian orpermissive style (Baumrind, 1991) across age ranges from preschool (Blissett &Haycraft, 2008) to adolescence (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000). This is truefor a wide range of outcomes including behavioural problems (Hart, Newell, &Olsen, 2003), cognitive development (Aunola et al., 2000) and weight (Hughes,Power, Orlet Fisher, Mueller, & Nicklas, 2005). Inventories such as the ParentingStyles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart,2001) are used to categorize individuals into these typologies but are typicallyused with parents of children over the age of 5 years.

Although the importance of positive and balanced parenting styles for olderchildren is well established, there has been little examination of parenting styles

and their outcomes during infancy. Despite this dearth of empirical evidence,Western popular culture is awash with literature aimed at new parents scribed

by self-entitled experts(Acocella, 2003). Following on from Dr Benjamin SpocksCommonsense Book of Baby and Child Carein 1946, many different books sug-gesting radically different approaches to parenting emerged (Hardyment, 2007).These publications prophesize that parents should interact with their infant inspecic ways, particularly in relation to routine, interaction and attachment beha-viours (e.g. Ford, 2006; Hogg & Blau, 2001; Liedloff, 2004; Sears & Sears, 2001).Books advocating a more parent-led style may suggest strict sleep and feedingroutines, and putting the infant down regularly. Conversely, baby-led manualsmay suggest following infant sleep and feeding cues, and responding to theinfants needs immediately (Hardyment, 2007).

Popular belief amongst proponents of such literature is that early parentinfantinteractions will improve both infant development and parental experience in theshort and long term, although criticisms have also been made of both parentand infant-led approaches (Warner, 2006). Faced with a range of contradictory

350 B. Arnott and A. Brown

Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Inf. Child Dev.22: 349361 (2013)DOI: 10.1002/icd


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approaches, new parents can feel confused and unsure of which method tofollow, or conversely, strongly advocate one approach despite a lack of empiricalsupport for the method. Early approaches to parenting are therefore a popularyet under researched area of infant development, which need further exploration.

The overall aim of the current study was to understand what approaches par-ents use to care for their young infant with the aim of conducting further longer-term research to examine the potential impact of these initial approaches uponlonger-term child development. This paper presents the rst stage of an ongoinglongitudinal study exploring occurrence and variation of parenting styles duringearly infancy and their longer association with child development. It details forthe rst time the exploration of what issues and approaches are important tonew parents in caring for their infant during the rst year (e.g. use of routinesand anxiety about development) and describes the development of a questionnaireto measure these different attitudes and behaviours. This paper reports the nd-ings of this questionnaire and examines the links between these behaviours and

maternal and infant characteristics (e.g. maternal age and infant weight).

METHOD

Participants

All aspects of this study have been performed in accordance with the ethicalstandards set out in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. Ethics approval was granted

by a Department of Psychology Research Ethics Committee. All participants gaveinformed consent prior to inclusion in the study. Participants were recruited from

local mother and baby groups in Swansea and Durham and through onlineparenting forums and other internet forums based in the UK. Exclusion criteriaincluded multiple birth, low birth weight (


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parenting behaviours such as reasoning, warmth, democracy, hostility, coercionand indulgence, classifying parents into authoritarian, authoritative and permis-sive styles. The majority of items were not suitable in their direct form for usewith infants because of developmental ability reasons, for example, allows childto give input into family rules or uses threats as punishment with little or no

justication. However, underlying themes of warmth and discipline were usedincluding adaption of some items such as Responsive to childs feelings orneeds. The literature exploring maternal responsive and sensitive behavioursand pertaining to infant attachment was also used, and discussions with mothersgave rise to concepts such as routine for the infant, keeping the infant close,responding immediately to the infant needs, and perceptions of ability to spoilthe infant. Together, this gave key themes such as involvement, responsiveness,sensitivity, and discipline, which are similar to those found in literature relatingto parenting older children.

Table 1. Infancy parenting styles questionnaire

1. You can spoil a baby2. My baby needs to learn the difference between what is right and wrong3. I compare my baby to other babies the same age*

4. You can never give a baby too many cuddles*5. Babies should be encouraged to entertain themselves6. It is very important that my baby meets their developmental milestones on time7. I have a strict day to day routine for my baby8. I do lots of organized activities with my baby9. It is never too young to start disciplining a child10. Sometimes my baby cries to try and manipulate me11. I am happy to follow my babys guide to what he/she wants*12. I think I am fairly laid back about my baby*13. Babies need a routine14. I regularly ask other people advice about my babys behaviour15. I make sure I play, read or sing with my baby very regularly16. I make sure I put my baby down regularly17. Milestones are just a guide*18. My baby sometimes does things that are naughty19. I think people not using a routine are making a rod for their own back20. I worry a lot about my baby21. Cuddling babies makes them too dependent22. Sometimes babies should be left to cry*23. My baby sets their own routine24. Young babies dont need organized activities*25. I encourage my baby to develop their skills such as walking or talking26. My babys needs come rst*

27. I often check baby books to see if my baby is on target28. A baby should learn to t in with the family routine*29. I am happy to comfort my baby whenever they cry*30. I generally like to keep my baby as close as possible to me31. Everyone is happiest when the baby is in a routine32. I regularly seek advice from my health visitor or GP about my baby33. Babies under 1 year do not need discipline34. I worry that my baby is not as advanced as other babies*35. A routine makes a baby calm and secure36. Babies need lots of parental input such as play, reading and activities

*Items did not load onto nal questionnaire.




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In addition to this, two further themes were considered important: maternalanxiety and concern for her infant and maternal involvement in infant develop-ment. Maternal anxiety was based around concerns that the infant was developingappropriately and needing frequent support and advice from others. The rst-year

postpartum is considered unique in its challenges for parents, especially for thoseadapting for the rst time and in the intensity of infant needs (Fagot, 1974). Thistransition and emphasis on the importance of early infancy for later developmentmay raise maternal parenting anxiety and concern (Evans & Porter, 2009). Thiswas evident in discussion with mothers and was therefore included in the inven-tory. Secondly, the theme of maternal involvement with infant development wasraised. This constituted maternal desire to be involved with and promote herinfants development, encourage them to surpass milestones and provide themwith activities with the aim of increasing their development. Again, this conceptarose in discussion with mothers and was evident in popular parenting literature(Ford, 2006; Hogg & Blau, 2001).

Once constructed, the initial questionnaire was piloted both online and locallyon small groups of mothers (N= 30 overall) with feedback incorporated into thenal distributed version of the questionnaire.

RESULTS

The questionnaire was returned by 602 respondents. Responses were discarded formothers who did not complete all items or who completed the questionnaire for an

infant outside of the age range leavingN= 508 (13 discarded for mothers outside ofthe infant age range, 9 for low birth weight infants, 5 for mothers of twins and 67for failure to complete all questionnaire items). Respondents varied widely interms of their socio-economic status (Table 2). The mean age of the respondentswas 30.72 years (SD: 5.12; range from 17 to 44), and the mean number of years in

Table 2. Sample distribution by demographic factors

Indicator Group N %

Age (years) 19 15 3.0

20

24 55 10.52529 137 27.03034 179 35.635 119 23.4

Education No formal 29 5.7School 113 22.2College 115 22.3Higher 251 49.8

Marital Status Married 279 54.9Cohabiting 209 41.2Single 18 3.6Widowed 2 0.2

Maternal occupation Professional & managerial 112 22.0Skilled 194 38.4Unskilled 78 15.4Unemployed 21 4.1Stay at home parent 103 20.3

Infant Parenting Styles 353



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education was 14.61 (SD: 2.53; range from 12 to 20 years). The majority ofmothers were primiparous (54.1%); a further 29.4% of mothers were multiparaswith two children. No signicant difference was seen in demographic betweenmothers who participated online or through the different groups. Table 3 shows

the descriptive statistics for each questionnaire item. Questionnaire items wereto be discarded if 90% or more of mothers gave the same response; however, thisdid not occur for any item.

Factor Analysis

Principal components analysis using varimax rotation was performed on allitems examining parenting styles (Table 3). Factors with eigenvalues over 1 wereretained. A loading factor of .5 was used (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2006). Of the 36items, 25 loaded onto ve factors. No items loaded highly onto more than

one factor. The remaining 11 items did not load highly enough onto anyfactor and are indicated in Table 1. Conrmatory analyses were performed forsplit samples on the basis of maternal parity (primiparous versus multiparous),infant gender and infant age (06 months vs 712 months old). Cronbachsalpha was computed for each factor to examine internal consistency of thefactors produced. Mean unit weights were then calculated for each factor touse for the analysis.

The ve factors explained 54.92% of the variance (Table 3). The number ofitems loading, percentage of variance explained and cronbachs alpha forthese items can also be found in Table 3. The factors were labelled discipline

(belief an infant can be naughty and need to control the infants behaviour),routine (encouraging a strict sleep and feeding routine for the infant),

anxiety (anxiety concerning the infants health or development), nurturance(responding promptly and sensitively to the infant) and involvement (activelypromoting the infants development). Cronbachs alpha ranged from .653 to .884for the factors. Conrmatory factor analyses conducted on split subsets ofthe data as described previously resulted in similar factor structures. Factorswere not signicantly correlated with each other suggesting separate variantsof parenting behaviour. These ve factors were then examined in relation to bothinfant and maternal characteristics to explore associations with maternal earlyparenting style.

Associations Between Maternal Demographic Background and Infancy ParentingStyles

Signicant positive correlations were found between maternal age and anxiety(Pearsons r =.089, p = .021) and use of routine (Pearsons r = .126, p = .002),whereas a signicant negative correlation was seen between age and nurturance(Pearsonsr =.130,p = .002).

Similarly, mothers with a higher level of education were signicantly morelikely to report higher anxiety (Pearsons r = .094, p =.018) and greater use ofroutine (Pearsons r = .223, p = .000). Higher levels of education were also signi-cantly inversely associated with nurturance (Pearsonsr =.355, p = .000).

No differences in early parenting style were found on the basis of maternalparity, occupation or marital status. Maternal age and education were thereforecontrolled for throughout further analyses.




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Table 3. Factor structure ofnal questionnaire

Discipline Routine Anxiety Nurturance InvolvementMean

score (S.D

You can spoil a baby .716 3.62 (1.25)My baby needs to learn the

difference between rightand wrong

.710 2.92 (1.25)

It is never too young tostart disciplining a child

.735 4.04 (.89)

Sometimes my baby criesto try and manipulate me

.691 4.02 (1.13)

My baby sometimes doesthings that are naughty

.734 3.95 (1.12)

Babies under 1 year do notneed discipline

.660 2.54 (1.10)

I have a strict day to dayroutine for my baby

.707 3.72 (1.00)

Babies need a routine .817 2.41 (.94)People who dont use a

routine make a rod fortheir own back

.765 3.61 (1.05)

Everyone is happiest whenthe baby is in a routine

.851 2.86 (.98)

My baby sets their ownroutine

.555 2.33 (.94)

A routine makes a baby

calm and secure

.806 2.54 (.89)

I regularly ask otherpeople advice about my

babys behaviour

.717 3.40 (1.09)

I worry a lot about mybaby

.657 2.90 (1.10)

I regularly seek advicefrom my health visitor/GPabout my baby

.657 3.65 (1.13)

I often check baby books tosee if my baby is on target

.615 2.82 (1.34)

Babies should be

encouraged to entertainthemselves

781 2.48 (.90)

I make sure I put my babydown regularly

.636 2.49 (1.10)

Cuddling babies all thetime makes them toodependent

.511 3.98 (.70)

I generally like to keep mybaby as close as possibleto me

.658 2.37 (.95)

I encourage my baby todevelop skills such as

walking or talking

.788 1.93 (.79)

.853 3.17 (1.20)

(Continues)




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Associations Between Infant Characteristics and Infancy Parenting Styles

Age of infant signicantly correlated with desire for a routine (Pearsonsr = .113,p = .006) and beliefs about nurturance (Pearsons r =.097, p = .015). Mothers ofolder infants were signicantly more likely to feel the need for a routine and lesslikely to adopt a nurturing approach to the infant. Differences in early parentingstyle also emerged dependent on the gender of the infant. A multivariate analysis

of covariance showed that mothers of a female infant reported signi

cantly higherbeliefs with regard to the need for discipline (F [5, 435] = 6.575,p = .011) (mean [SD]male infant 3.34 [.64], female infant 3.60 [.60]). Similarly, mothers of a female infantwere signicantly more involved in infant development (F [5, 435] = 10.635,

p =.000) than those of a male infant (mean [SD] male infant 2.21 [.36], femaleinfant 2.54 [.33]).

Finally, birth weight was associated with early parenting style. Mothers of aninfant who was heavier at birth were signicantly more likely to report a desirefor routine (Pearsons r = .113, p = .006), discipline (Pearsons r =.096, p = .018)and held lower levels of anxiety for their infants development (Pearsonsr =.095, p = .018).

DISCUSSION

The primary aim of this paper was to explore variations in infant parenting styleduring the rst-year postpartum and to begin to explore their relationship withinfant and maternal characteristics. To undertake this, a questionnaire was designed,on the basis of current parenting styles literature and discussion with new mothersto identify different approaches to parenting in infancy. The questionnaire examinedparentsattitudes to and specic behaviours with their infant, to capture both cogni-tive and behavioural aspects of early parenting. Five independent factors emerged:discipline, routine, anxiety, nurturance and involvement. These factors accountedfor 54.92% of the variance and had Cronbachs alphas between .653 and .884. Thesample size, clear factor structure and good internal reliability of the items suggestthat the inventory developed is a good indicator of different variants of early parent-ing style within the UK today.

Table 3. (Continued)

Discipline Routine Anxiety Nurturance InvolvementMean

score (S.D

I do lots of organizedactivities with my baby

I make sure I play, reador sing with my babyvery regularly

.521 1.85 (1.10)

Babies need lots ofparental input such asreading and activities

.731 1.92 (.90)

It is very important mybaby meets developmentalmilestones

.840 3.63 (.91)

% of variance explained 25.47 9.32 8.45 7.04 4.62

Cronbachs Alpha .816 .884 .715 .653 .724




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Strong comparisons can be made between the ve identied factors and dimen-sions of established parenting styles questionnaires for parents with older children(Baumrind, 1978). Factors relating to both warmth (Nurturance) and control (Routine)emerged from the factor analysis. Mothers high in nurturance were happy to cuddle

and hold their infants frequently, rather than believing that the infant should selfsettle and mothers high in routine followed strict routines for their baby in terms ofsleep, feeding and day to day activities. The discipline factor, whereby mothers

believed that their baby was capable of controlling or naughtybehaviour, mappedonto both warmth and control dimensions. Mothers high on this factor believed thatthey needed to modify and shape their infants behaviour and also that they shouldnot be too emotionally swayed by their infant, for example believing that their infantcried to manipulate them. Considering Baumrinds concepts of the interaction

between parental use of warmth/nurturance and control in categorising parentingtypologies (Baumrind, 1978), mothers of young infants could potentially be classiedin this way. Mothers high in routine, discipline and low in nurturance could be con-

sidered authoritarian, whereas mothers high in nurturance with intermediate levelsof routine and discipline may be viewed as authoritative.

Alongside these behaviours, two further concepts of anxiety with regard toinfant development and maternal involvement were identied. Mothers high inanxiety regularly sought opinions and guidance from others and were concernedfor their infant, whereas mothers heavily involved in their infants developmentwere keen to progress their child and compare them favourably to others withthe same age. These behaviours do not map onto traditional parenting styledimensions of warmth and control but were identied as relevant for this agerange through themes in current parenting literature and discussions with parents.

It could be that these behaviours are unique to early parenting. The

rst-year post-partum is a unique challenge of parenting with the infant heavily reliant on theparent (Emmanuel, Creedy, St John, Gamble, & Brown, 2008) and much emphasisplaced on the importance of parental involvement during the early years (Shonkoff& Phillips, 2000). The emotions that arise as a consequence may heighten awarenessof parenting choices and how this may impact upon the childs development,which may fade with time and experience. Conversely, perhaps these early

behaviours merge into established dimensions of parenting as time progresses.For example, maternal involvement regarding infant development might translateinto a later authoritarian parenting style where control is high in relation to thechilds choices academically and socially.

Variations were seen in early parenting behaviours and cognitions for differentmaternal and infant characteristics, which raises awareness of the potential impactof these elements for those working with new mothers. Older, more educatedmothers were more anxious with stronger beliefs that the infant must be independ-ent. Although older mothers are often rated as more competent (Gottesman, 1992),a later start to motherhood can be associated with difculty adapting to the changein lifestyle (Hewlett, 2002). Older mothers are more likely to view their infants asdifcult (Ventura & Stevenson, 1986), nding less gratication in their maternalrole (Mercer, 2004). This may decrease desire for a nurturing style with their infant.Moreover, older mothers are more likely to view their pregnancies as somethingto plan and prepare for seeking out in depth information, perceiving caring fortheir baby as an important task to do properly (Carolan, 2005). Potentially, thisincreases maternal anxiety over parenting their infant in the rightway.

Parenting style was also related to infant characteristics. Mothers with an infantwho was heavier at birth were more likely to report a parenting style high in rou-tine, discipline and low in anxiety. Infants who are perceived to be gaining weight




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quickly are often viewed positively, with less anxiety, and as parenting successes(Sachs, Dykes, & Carter, 2006) and are more likely to be placed in a feeding routine(Brown, Raynor, & Lee, 2011). A higher birth weight infant may ignite greater con-dence to impose a routine on the infant or to allow them to cry compared with a

smaller infant. Gender and age differences were also found. Mothers of femaleinfants reported greater concern with the need to discipline, and also, more in-volvement in infant development compared with mothers of male infants, reect-ing literature showing that parents, have higher expectations of disciplined

behaviour in girls (Fagot, 1974) and are more likely to be critical with girls thanboys (Smith et al., 2007). Overall, awareness of these characteristics upon maternalearly parenting style enables mothers at riskof increased anxiety or concerns fortheir infant to be considered.

The outcome of these early variations in parenting style is worth considering.Authoritative parenting styles have been shown to have the best outcomes forchild social, emotional and educational development for older children (Aunola

et al., 2000; Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). However, althoughresearch has explored the importance of secure attachment during infancy uponlater child outcomes (Biringen & Easterbrooks, 2008; Evans & Porter, 2009; Hayet al., 2001), there has been little empirical consideration of more specic parenting

behaviours such as use of routine or discipline. It is known that allowing an infantto cry for long periods may negatively affect infant cortisol response (Engert et al.,2010) and brain development (Schore, 2001), and attempting to breastfeed to astructured routine is associated with a shorter breastfeeding duration (Brownet al., 2011). However, research has also suggested that infants who do not havelong periods of regular nighttime sleep by 6 months of age are at risk of longer-

term sleeping problems (Touchette et al., 2005). Maternal outcomes must also beconsidered. Likelihood of postnatal depression, which impacts upon mother infantattachment (Brockington et al., 2001) and infant development (Beck, 1999), increaseswith maternal sleep deprivation (Cheng & Li, 2008) and infant crying (Kurth et al.,2010). Potentially controlling parenting behaviours may reduce risk of postnatal de-pression. How this balances with infant needs warrants further investigation.

This paper presents an initial exploration of parenting styles in infancy. Clearly,further research is needed to explore the short-term and long-term outcomes forinfants on the basis of early maternal parenting style. If early parenting style isseen to affect child development, there is opportunity to develop early interven-tions to target specic parenting behaviours, potentially during pregnancy.

Greater awareness may also arise for the impact of different parenting styles formaternal outcomes, which would be a useful tool for those supporting newmothers, especially with regard to postnatal depression and maternal well-being.Indeed, a clearer overall evidence base for interactions and behaviours during thisperiod would also enable practitioners to discuss different approaches with newparents, enabling informed discussions and decisions to take place. Future re-search should investigate precursors, correlates and outcomes of maternal parent-ing styles in infancy.

Considering limitations of the study, although a wide variety of respondentsdid take part in terms of socio-demographic background, the sample would bene-t from a population-based approach. In particular, 92% of the sample was ofWhite British origin. Exploring cultural differences in parenting style, particularlyin relation to degree of acculturation within UK samples, would be of interest. Thesample was also weighted towards mothers who were older with a higher level ofeducation, which may have affected the types of behaviours or attitudes thatarose. Future research should, however, target population-based samples.




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Recruitment for the questionnaire relied heavily on use of internet samples with72% of responses completing the survey using the online link. Although criticismshave been made of internet recruitment as targeting a limited sample (Azar, 2000),internet use is now widespread and especially popular amongst pregnant and new

mothers (Russell, 2006). The method is increasing in popularity in health researchand has been used to successfully recruit a wide demographic sample (Arden, 2009;Brown & Lee, 2011b). However, no signicant differences were found in demo-graphic background or responses between participants completing online orvia paper methods sourced from local groups.

Finally, many of the correlation sizes are relatively small, for example, the asso-ciation between maternal education and anxiety. Further work should explore therobustness of these correlations in population-based samples.

Limitations aside, the questionnaire identied for the rst time a number of dif-ferent parenting behaviours and beliefs associated with caring for an infant underthe age of 12 months. Themes were similar to those found in research examining

approaches to parenting older children, focussing on two dimensions of maternalwarmth/nurturance and control, but also highlighted unique behaviours and atti-tudes specic to this early period. Links with maternal and infant characteristicswere also identied highlighting the potential for certain maternalinfant dyadsat being more likely to adopt certain approaches. Further research now needs toexplore the potential outcome of these behaviours for both infant developmentand maternal well-being.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors received no nancial support for the research and/or authorship ofthis article.

The authors declare no conicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/orpublication of this article.

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Exploration_of_parenting_Behaviors and Attitudes Arnott and Brown

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