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    March | April 2013EXPERT TOPIC - COBIA

    The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

    International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom. All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies,the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published.Copyright 2013 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any formor by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

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    EX PERT T PIC

    Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth lookat a particular species and how its feed is managed.

    COBIAEXPERT TOPIC

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    1 ChinaThe vast majority of the worlds cobia is pro-duced in China. In fact in 2004, the countryproduced 80.6 percent of global exportsaccording to the FAO. However, despite this, there is little available information on cobiafeeds or farming strategies used by Chinesefarmers.

    2 VietnamIn 2008, Vietnam produced 1,500 tonnes ofcobia, making it the third largest producerbehind China and Taiwan.

    One of the largest cobia operations in thecountry is run by Marine Farms Vietnam, asubsidiary of Marine Farms ASA, Norway. Thecompany has a shore base facility, hatchery siteand ten sea sites, which range from 20 m to32 m in depth. The farms, which are locatednorth of Nha Trang, produce more than 1,500metric tons of cobia per year, with the capacity

    to produce more than 6,000 tons if needed.Not content with only Vie tnamese

    cobia production, Marine Farms also has acobia operation in Belize which has beengrowing cobia in offshore cages since2006.

    3 TaiwanTaiwan is one of the pioneers of cobiaaquacul ture . In i ti a lly broodstock f i shwere caught f rom the wi ld but in the1990s, the country became the first in th e wo rl d to su cc es sf ul ly sp aw n co bi a.By 1997, the technology and know-howwas in place to raise sizeable quantitiesof cobia. Today, broodstock are takenfrom grow out cages and transported to on sh or e po nd s to sp aw n. Ju ve ni lecobia (1.5-2 years) is sent to grow outp on d s, n e ar sh o re c a ge s o r o f fs h or ecages.

    According to FAO data, cobia pro-d uc er s i n Tai wa n u se b ot h f lo at in gand sinking pellets comprised of 42-45percent crude protein and 15-16 per-cen t l ipid . The FCR is approximate ly1.5:1.

    4 USAEighty-five percent of seafood in the USA is import-ed but there is burgeoning interest in increasingdomestic aquaculture production. Cobia is a promis-ing candidate for aquaculture production due to itsrapid growth rate and good flesh quality. The firstaquaculture research on the species was noted in1975 in North Carolina, USA. Cobia eggs werecollected off the coast and raised in a rearing trial.

    Like Taiwan, there have also been success-ful spawning efforts on the USA.

    While the early production cycle in Taiwanfavours outdoor ponds, juvenile cobia in the USA tend to live in fibreglass tanks. According to the

    FAO, these tanks are either operated as recircula- tion systems, flow-through or a combination of both.

    Research efforts have focused on extending thecobia spawning season with the aim of reachingyear-round egg production. To date, eggs have beensuccessfully fertilized during 10 months of the year.

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    Developingecologically efficient,economically viableand nutritionallyadequate feeds forcobia RachycentroncanadumThe University of Miami and other USinstitutions have teamed up with feedmanufacturing companies, producersand the American Soybean Associationto develop competitive practical feedsfor this emerging aquaculture species

    by Jorge A Suarez, Carlos Tudela, DrewDavis, Matthew Taynor, Lindsay Glass,

    Ron Hoenig and Daniel D Benetti

    Cobia is the only member of the

    family Ranchycentridae. It is atropical and subtropical specieswidely distributed worldwide

    (Briggs, 1960; Shaffer and Nakamura, 1989;Ditty and Shaw, 1992; Benettiet al ., 2008),except in the eastern Pacific, where it rarely

    found (Briggs, 1960; Collette, 1999; Benettiet

    al ., 2008). Cobia are recognised for their fastgrowth, excellent meat quality, and have beenintensively farmed since the 1990s (Liaoet al ., 2004; Benettiet al ., 2007).

    These characteristics, along with excellentmeat quality and good market demand andprice, raised enormous interest in commer-cial aquaculture development of this species.Indeed, while cobia was a little known candi-date species for aquaculture about a decadeago, today it has established itself as a topquality cultured marine fish tropical/subtropi-cal in Asia and the Americas.

    Technology for reliable broodstock spawn-ing and mass production of fingerlings hasbeen mastered at the University of MiamiExperimental Hatchery (UMEH) and otherprivate companies and government institu- tions around the world. However, while thefundamental technology for cobia productionfrom egg to market is in place (Liaoet al .,2004; Benetti et al ., 2008; 2010), many yearsof research and development are still needed

    to refine the culture process, allowing cobia todevelop on an industrial scale, especially at thegrow-out stage.

    Those working with the species both at the R&D and production concur that themost crucial remaining roadblocks to be

    addressed and resolved at this juncture arerelated to feeds and nutrition.

    At the present time, feeds represent themost expensive item of the production costsfor cobia, and the inability to provide asustainable, high-quality feed that meets theenergetic and nutritional requirements of these fast growing fish continues to eludeproducers. Top quality diets with high inclu-sion levels of fishmeal and fish are avail-able but costs are prohibitively high fromboth ecological and economical perspectives.Therefore, the collective goal of researchers,feed manufacturers and producers is to for-mulate, develop and manufacture ecologicallyefficient and economically viable diets thatwill meet the nutritional requirements of thisspecies. This review summarises these efforts.

    The evaluation of feed ingredients is crucial to nutritional research and feed developmentfor aquaculture species. In evaluating ingredi-ents, there are several important points thatmust be understood to enable the judicioususe of a particular ingredient in feed formula- tion (Glencross et al ., 2007). The determina-

    tion of nutrient digestibility is the first step inevaluating the potential of an ingredient foruse in the diet of an aquaculture species (Allanet al ., 2000).

    A constraint for the expansion of cobia aqua-culture is the availability of high quality formu-

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    lated diets which reduce or eliminate fishmealprotein. Suitable replacements are often of plantorigin, but the evaluation of nutrient digestibilityin new ingredients should be an initial step inevaluating its potential for fishmeal replacement.Therefore, the apparent digestibility coefficients(ADCs) of protein and amino acids of a novelvariety of non-GMO soybean meal, Navita,and an industry standard soybean meal (defattedsoybean meal/roasted solvent-extracted), wereevaluated at University of Miami for juvenilecobia, Rachycentron canadum . Results indicated that the Navita is highly bio-available to cobia,as ADCs for protein and amino acids obtainedfor this ingredient were significantly higher fornearly every analysed component of the feed than the ADCs of the conventional soybeanmeal. ADCs crude protein were 81.8% and68.5%, respectively, for Navita and conven- tional soybean meal. Similarly, ADCs of selectedamino acids ranged from 68.3-108.6% for theNavita meal, whereas the same coefficient

    ranged from 41.4-97.8% for the conventionalsoybean meal. Findings from the present experi-ment highlight the potential of Navita as asuitable FM replacement in cobia diets andshould help to maximize cobia growth whileminimising the excretion of fish metabolites(Davis et al ., 2012).

    Reviewing cobia nutritionIn their thorough review of cobia nutri-

    tion, Fraser and Davies (2009) pointed out the importance of paying special attention to

    the amino acid requirements when replacingfishmeal with alternative protein sources. Chouet al . (2004) mentions that methionine is theprimary limiting amino acid replacement instudies of fishmeal with soybean meal. Lungeret al . (2007) found that the amino acid taurinesupplementation at a level of 5g kg1 dry weight,increased weight gain and feed efficiency incobia fed diets with high levels of plant protein.

    Fraser and Davies (2009) conclude thatnutritional studies on cobia are limited becausemost have been conducted using juvenile fishwith much lower weights than harvestablesize. The cobia commercial weight is between4 and 10 kg; however nutritional require-ments have only been examined in juvenilefish weighing 50 g. Although differences in therequirements were minimal, it would still havea high important commercial impact, especial-ly considering protein and lipids are the majordietary components in fish diets. The accuracyof the nutritional requirements would notonly have a positive economic impact on theindustry, but also decrease the environmentalpollution by decreasing nutrient loading in the

    aquatic ecosystem. As reviewed by Welchet al (2010), the importance of the responsibleuse of natural resources such as fishmeal,fish oil and vegetable crops to ensure theenvironmental sustainability of aquafeeds iswell recognised.

    Although nutritional principles are similarfor all animals, the amounts of nutrientsrequired vary among species. There are about40 essential nutrients in fish diets (Akiyamaet al., 1993). According to Tacn (1989), nutri- tional requirements in the diet of all culturedaquatic species may be categorized under fivedifferent nutritional groups: proteins, lipids,carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals.

    Major nutrient requirements for juvenile cobia

    Protein: One of the most important nutri-ents in the diet of marine fish is protein. Thisis attributed to two factors, which are thehigh cost of the ingredient and the organismshigh protein nutritional requirement. Excessprotein not only increases feed costs but italso increases the excretion of nitrogen into the environment. The first article used todetermine protein requirements in cobia was that of Chouet al . (2001), who determined

    by regression analysis, a protein requirementof 44.5%. Craig, Schwarz and McLean (2006)conducted a factorial study with two levels ofcrude protein (40% and 50%) and three lipidlevels (6%, 12% and 18%). The authors founda significant difference in feed efficiency of 7.4g cobia fed with the lowest level of protein.On the contrary, when the authors usedlarger cobia (49.3 g) no significant differencesin feed efficiency were found between thedifferent levels of protein.

    Amino acids: The nutritional value of a

    protein diet is influenced by the compositionof its amino acids. For this reason, the protein to be used in practical diet formulations mustbe based on digestible amino acid profileand quantitative amino acid requirementsin the targeted species. In cobia, studies ofamino acid requirements are limited, only two of the ten amino acids have been con-sidered essential (Wilson 2002). Zhouet al .(2006) determined methionine requirementsin juvenile cobia. The authors state that formaximum growth and lower feed conversionratio, the requirement of methionine is 1.19%(dry diet) in the presence of 0.67% cysteine,corresponding to 2.64% dry weight of dietaryprotein.

    For lysine, Zhouet al . (2007) determined the requirements in juvenile cobia. The resultfor lysine requirements were 2.33% and5.30% dry weight of dietary protein. Thesevalues of methionine and lysine are in accord-ance with the requirement values of otherimportant fish species in aquaculture (Wilson2002). Recently, Renet al . (2012) determined the requirements of arginine on the basis of

    SGR and FER. The optimal dietary argininerequirements of juvenile cobia were estimated to be 2.85% of the diet and 2.82% of the diet,respectively.

    Lipids: Lipids are an important source ofhighly digestible energy, in particular, free fatty

    acids derived from triglycerides constituting the major energy source for muscle in almostall animals. They are also key components ofcellular and subcellular membranes (phos-pholipids, sterols, etc.). Performing functionsas biological transporters in the absorption offat-soluble vitamins are precursors of pros- taglandins and hormones (Fenucci and Haran2006). For juvenile cobia, the lipid require-ment was estimated at 5.76% (Chouet al .,2001). Wang et al . (2005) used three isopro- teic diets (47% protein) with three lipid levels(5%, 15% and 25% dry matter). The authorsfound no significant differences in growthbetween the cobia (7.7 g) fed diets containing5 percent and 15 percent lipids. However thecobia fed 25 percent lipid had a significantreduction in daily diet consumption, suggest-ing that lipid levels above 15 percent reducedgrowth due to decreased feed consumption.

    Carbohydrates: Because cobia commer-cial feeds contain starch and cereal products,

    related research on carbohydrate require-ments are very important. Schwarzet al .(2007) suggests that cobia are able to useup to 360g/kg-1 of dietary starch from lowmolecular weight carbohydrate such as dex- trin. Webb et al . (2009) determined thatcobia can use carbohydrates to levels of340g/kg-1 (dry diet) with an optimum energyprotein of approximately 34mg protein kJ-1

    metabolisable energy.Vitamins: Vitamins are nutrients necessary

    for growth, health, and reproduction of organ-

    isms and are required in very small amountsin fish diet. Maiet al . (2009) determined therequirements of choline in juvenile cobia. Therequirement determined by broken line forweight gain was 696 mg/kg-1 choline diet ascholine chloride. Unfortunately there is notenough information on the requirements forvitamins and minerals in Cobia.

    Future research areasFor the future we propose the following

    research in the area of cobia nutrition: Determine nutritional requirements at

    different sizes classes Further requirements of amino acids,

    vitamins and minerals Continue research replacement of fish-

    meal and fish oil to alternative sourcesof protein and lipid

    Complement existing information ondigestibility and energy balance of pro- tein ingredients of plant and animalorigin

    Monitoring the quality of commercialfeeds, used by the industry

    Implementa tion of managementpractices

    In conclusion, the collaborative effort ofresearchers, feed manufacturers and produc-ers are driving steadfast progress towardsdeveloping practical and economical diets for

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    cobia at all developmental stages. Governmentsupport as well as interest and funding gener-ated by American Soybean Association andits various affiliated groups have been ofparamount importance in advancing knowl-edge and technologies the field. The industryis much further ahead than it was about adecade ago. It is recognised that enhanced

    knowledge and better nutrition are allowingcobia aquaculture production to continue toexpand exponentially worldwide while mov-ing away from inadequate diets and trash fish.The development of an ecologically efficientand economically viable cobia aquaculture

    industry is and will continue to benefit allstakeholders, from producers to consumers.

    References

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    Transforming aquacultureproduction using

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    Towards aquafeeds withincreased food security

    Bioenergetics application in aquaculture nutrition

    Volume 16 I s sue 2 2013 - mARC H | APRI l

    I N C O R P O R AT I N Gf I s h f A R m I N G Te C h N O l O G y

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