experimental study on evaporation of kerosene droplets at elevated ...

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON EVAPORATION OF

KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED PRESSURES

AND TEMPERATURES

HOJAT GHASSEMISEUNG WOOK BAEKQASIM SARWAR KHAN

Division of Aerospace Engineering, Department ofMechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute ofScience and Technology, Yusung-Gu, Taejon, Korea

Kerosene is a common liquid fuel in many industrial applications.

However, there is little useful data on high pressure and high tem-

perature evaporation for kerosene. In this research, the vaporization

of kerosene droplet was experimentally investigated at high tempera-

tures (between 500 and 1000�C) and high pressures (between 0.1 and

3.0 MPa) under normal gravity. High temperature environment has

provided by a furnace. Droplet with initial diameter between 1.0

and 1.2 mm was suspended at the tip of a quartz fiber. The evapor-

ation process was recorded by a high-speed CCD camera. The evap-

oration rate was extracted from the recorded movie by determining

temporal rate of changing of droplet diameter. Despite its multicom-

ponent nature, the evaporation of kerosene droplet followed the

d2-law after heating-up period. The evaporation rate of kerosene

droplet increased monotonically with an increase in gas temperature.

At low temperature, when ambient pressure increased, the evapor-

ation rate also increased. But at high temperature, evaporation rate

Received 12 November 2004; accepted 9 January 2006.

The present work was supported by the Combustion Engineering Research Center

at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science

and Technology, which is funded by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation.

The first author wishes to thank Dr. M. Golafshani for his valuable discussions about

high rate evaporation.

Address correspondence to H [email protected]

Combust. Sci. and Tech., 178: 1669–1684, 2006

Copyright Q Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 0010-2202 print/1563-521X online

DOI: 10.1080/00102200600582392

1669

shows a maximum around 2.0 MPa and then decreases. Also, the for-

mation of dense fuel vapor cloud around the droplet was observed

under conditions with higher evaporating rate.

Keywords: evaporation, kerosene, liquid droplets, single droplet

INTRODUCTION

Vaporization of liquid fuel droplet at high-pressure and high-temperature

environments is one of the basic mechanisms in spray combustion for

various applications such as industrial furnaces, gas turbines, diesel

engines, and liquid propellant rocket engines. The study of evaporation

of a single droplet is necessary for characterizing and understanding

the spray vaporization and combustion. There is a large amount of work

on study of single droplet evaporation of various kinds liquid fuels. Evap-

oration behavior of single component fuel droplet has been analytically

and experimentally studied under several environments. Some important

review papers present the state of the art in single droplet evaporation

and combustion (e.g., Ranz and Marshall, 1952; Faeth, 1977; Law,

1982; Givler and Abraham, 1996). The effects of temperature and press-

ure on vaporization of single droplet in normal and microgravity have

been investigated experimentally (e.g., Kadota and Hiroyasu, 1976; Sato,

1993; Nomura et al., 1996).

In many applications fuel droplets consist of a mixture of two or

more pure liquids. This multicomponent droplet may consist of several

species with completely different physical and chemical properties.

The degree of volatility, boiling temperature, evaporation latent

heat, and heat capacity of each component play an important role in

the interior thermo-fluid dynamics of the droplet. The evaporation char-

acteristics of multicomponent droplet have been analytically and exper-

imentally studied (e.g., Law, 1978; Randolph et al., 1986; Arias-Zugasti

and Rosner, 2003; Morin et al., 2004).

On the other hand, kerosene is a common liquid fuel used in many

applications. However, there is little useful data on the high-pressure

and high-temperature evaporation and combustion. The evaporation of

commercial fuels has been studied at 400�C and atmospheric pressure

by Elkotb et al. (1991). They examined heavy diesel fuel, light diesel fuel,

kerosene, gasoline, and their blends. In their study it was found that the

evaporation does not follow the d2-law and the rate changes with time.

1670 H. GHASSEMI ET AL.

The main purpose of this work is to experimentally observe the evap-

oration behavior of kerosene droplet in high-pressure and high-tempera-

ture environments. Experiments were performed with an individual

suspended droplet at the tip of quartz fiber. The initial diameter of dro-

plets range between 1.0 and 1.2 mm. Temporal variations of droplet

diameter were measured for several ambient pressures and temperatures.

Droplet evaporation rates are obtained by examining the measured tem-

poral variations of droplet diameter. In this study, temperature and press-

ure ranges are from 500 to 1000�C and 0.1 to 3 MPa, respectively. The

effects of temperature and pressure on evaporation are discussed and

presented in more details. In addition, the vapor film formation around

the droplet under high evaporation rate is reported.

The experimental setup is introduced in the following section. The

available properties of kerosene are presented in the next section. Data

reduction method and a discussion about sources of error are presented

in the next section. In the section of results and discussions, the general

evaporation behavior of droplet, the effects of temperature and pressure

on evaporation process, and a comprehensive discussion about the high

rate evaporation are presented.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

A schematic of the experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The

idea of this design is borrowed from Sato (1993). A droplet hanging

on a fine quartz fiber was subjected to the hot environment by an electri-

cal furnace, thereby resulting in evaporation. This unit is enclosed within

a high-pressure vessel installed with glass windows that enabled us to

observe the evaporation process. The evaporation process is observed

using a high speed camera. Due to feature of the furnace design, the

ambient gas temperature steps up from low to high stage in a short time.

Thus the heat leakage from furnace to outside is negligible. Also, since a

thin quartz fiber is used for droplet suspension, the heat transfer between

droplet and fiber is minimized.

To make an experiment at high pressure, a cylindrical pressure vessel

(1) with 800 mm height and 150 mm inner diameter is manufactured. It is

designed to withstand pressures up to 10 MPa. The cylinder contains a

movable electric furnace (4). The furnace is formed with steel plate

and some asbestos shielding on the steel plate to minimize heat transfer

to outside of furnace. Some ceramic shields are also installed on heating

EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P 1671

element to minimize the radiation effects. A temperature controller (6)

controls the temperature set inside the furnace using a K-type thermo-

couple. The uniformity of gas temperature as well as dynamical behavior

of furnace has been investigated using several thermocouples at different

locations. To reduce the radiation effects on thermocouple bead, a radi-

ative shield is built around it. The maximum attainable temperature limit

is 1000�C.

Figure 1. A sketch of the experimental apparatus: (1) pressure vessel, (2) guide bar, (3) fur-

nace entrance, (4) electric furnace, (5) Quartz glass window on furnace, (6) temperature

controller, (7) lever, (8) Nitrogen vessel, (9) Quartz glass window on pressure vessel, (10)

backlight source, (11) Quartz fiber, (12) droplet, (13) shock absorber, (14) droplet maker,

(15) plunger micro pump, (16) CCD camera.


Accuracy of environmental gas temperature is investigated by exam-

ination of radiation correction. The maximum error in reading the

furnace temperature is about �8�C at 500�C and þ50 and �35�C at

1000�C. Two quartz glass windows (5) with 50 mm� 40 mm� 10 mm

are installed on the furnace to observe the droplet. A small hole (3) with

25 mm� 25 mm is made at the bottom of the furnace through which a

droplet comes in when the furnace drops. Two guide bars (2) are set

beside the furnace along which the furnace is guided to fall down. After

one run is finished, the furnace is lifted and reset using a lever (7), which

allows two degrees of freedom, i.e., rotation and sliding along the vertical

axis of cylinder. As the lever is turned while the furnace is hanging over

it, it causes the furnace to fall down. There are contradictory require-

ments concerning the falling distance.

To shorten the time for the gas temperature to rise before falling of

furnace and to prevent the droplet from being preheated by the furnace,

the falling distance should be long. However, a long travel distance of the

furnace would induce a strong impact on the base when it falls. The fall-

ing distance is set about 400 mm in the present study to satisfy the above

requirements. Base on the furnace design, this distance provides a drop-

let entering time shorter than 30 ms. Impact shock due to collision of the

furnace with bottom wall is relived by placing a couple of shock absor-

bers (13) at the position of impact of the furnace, so that the droplet

should remain stable. A quartz fiber (11) is fixed on a stand that is

installed at the bottom of the pressure vessel. The fiber diameter is

0.125 mm and it is rounded at the tip with the bead diameter of

0.25 mm. The fiber with 0.2 mm diameter and 0.35 mm bead diameter

was also used for hanging droplets with large diameter.

In order to produce a droplet around the bead at the tip of the quartz

fiber, a droplet maker (14) is installed. It produces a droplet as small as

1 mm in diameter. It consists of a hypodermic needle, connecting tube,

and a lever. It connected to a plunger micro pump (15) and operates quite

well even in high-pressure gaseous environments. The needle is connected

to the micro pump through a fine capillary tube. The movement of needle

is provided by a lever on which needle is mounted. The lever can carry the

needle very close to the suspended fiber by vertical displacement and

then, the liquid fuel is transferred to the bead by turning the lever, thereby

generating a droplet. Four quartz windows (9) with 24 mm thickness and

50 mm effective diameter are installed on the high-pressure vessel in

order to watch the droplet formation and then evaporation phenomenon.


The vessel is purged by injecting nitrogen gas (8), which replaces air

inside the chamber in order to avoid combustion and oxidation pro-

cesses. The pressure inside the cylinder is maintained at the desired level

by a pressure regulator. As the furnace is lifted up, a droplet is produced

at the tip of quartz fiber. The initial diameter of the droplet is controlled

by observing its formation on a computer screen through the CCD

camera. The absolute size of the droplet is determined by comparing it

with the diameter of quartz fiber which had been previously measured.

After recording the initial diameter of the droplet, the furnace is allowed

to fall down, thereby evaporating of suspended droplet. The whole evap-

oration process is photographed through a CCD camera (16). The

resulting frames are recorded on data storage and then are analyzed to

calculate evaporation rate.

KEROSENE PROPERTIES

Kerosene is a blend of relatively non-volatile petroleum fractions. They

typically consist of 60% of paraffins, 32% of naphthenes, and 7.7% of

aromatics, by volume. The overall average properties of kerosene are

very roughly equivalent to dodecane, C12H26 (Goodger, 1975). The criti-

cal temperature and pressure of dodecane are 388�C and 1.81 MPa,

respectively.

Kerosene, which was used in the present study, has 180–270�C boil-

ing range and 0.80 specific gravity at 15�C and is produced by Junsei

Chemical Company from Japan. A simple analysis of the kerosene com-

position has determined the mass fraction of three essential substances;

carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen using CHN-100 elemental analyzer

according to ASTM D5291 standard. The result shown 0.8572,

0.1413, and 0.0012 for mass fraction of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen,

respectively.

DATA REDUCTION

Time histories of evaporation process are recorded on a computer.

Several recording speeds were examined. Comparison of evaporation

coefficients obtained for several cases did not show significant difference

for 25, 50, and 100 frames per second. Due to clear evaporation beha-

vior, 50 frames per second were selected for the image recording speed.

A flexible image-processing program is developed to extract the droplet


shape and size. The resolution of each image in horizontal and vertical is

1158 dpi. Using high-resolution image diminishes the error in droplet

size extraction via image processing.

Uncertainty in determination of droplet diameter comes from two

sources. One is the scale factor, which is used to convert the droplet

diameter size in terms of pixel to real unit (mm). An opaque needle with

a known diameter is used as a reference scale. At the worst case, the mea-

surements in wide range of light intensities show the error is lesser than

�0.05 mm. The next source for error in measuring of droplet diameter is

due to optical effect of hot and dense environment. At high pressure and

high temperature, fuel vapor surrounds the droplet so that a determi-

nation of droplet boundary incurs some difficulty, because a density

gradient around droplet would produce mass diffusion and make visi-

bility poor. Using a least-squares regression in the calculation of evapor-

ation rate from instantaneous diameter trajectories would minimize this

sort of error.

Figure 2 depicts a sample of droplet evaporation history. It shows

the square of droplet diameter versus time for kerosene droplet vaporiza-

tion at 0.1 MPa and 700�C. The initial diameter of droplet is 1.52 mm.

This curve is composed of two completely different sequences. The first

Figure 2. Temporal variation of the square of droplet diameter.


sequence shows a non-linear behavior while the second one shows a

linear regression in squared diameter. In the first or heat up period,

the diameter of droplet increases and after some times decreases. For

the case shown in this figure, the maximum increment of squared diameter,

(Dd2)max, is about 4% in relation to initial squared diameter, which corre-

sponds to 2% in initial diameter. This behavior of droplet is due to its

heat-up by thermal conduction from gas and subsequent thermal expan-

sion. As temperature of droplet surface increases and reaches its boiling

temperature, evaporation starts. After that, a balance between thermal

expansion and evaporation determines the diameter of droplet. When the

temperature inside of droplet reaches to a quasi-steady state, only evapor-

ation is controlling the droplet size. From this stage, the d2-law is valid.

In Figure 2, the lifetime of the droplet has been divided into two

parts; t0 indicates the non-linear behavior and the remainder is related

to d2-law evaporation lifetime. For purpose the evaporation study, t0does not have importance, because the evaporation rate is determined

by the second part of droplet lifetime. In the study of ignition and com-

bustion of droplets, however t0 is an important characteristic of a large

liquid fuel droplet. The behavior of t0 is a function of initial droplet size,

temperature of environment, and composition of droplet. Base on mass

the flux of the evaporating liquid droplet (Frohn and Roth, 2000), for a

small droplet, of which heat-up period is negligible, d2-law is expressed

as d2 ¼ d20 � Cvt, where Cv is the evaporation rate (evaporation coe-

fficient) and d0 is the initial droplet diameter. As indicated in Figure 2,

the evaporation rate can be expressed as the time derivative of droplet

squared diameter, Cv ¼ �dðd2Þ=dt. This coefficient can be extracted

from the linear part of the evaporation history curve. The slope of this

line, which is passing through the second part, is the negative of the evap-

oration rate. The slope of the best straight line can be estimated using the

least square regression.

Experimental study of a single droplet, suspended at the tip of a

quartz fiber, encounters with two additional side effects. Heat conduc-

tion from quartz fiber into droplet and radiative heat transfer from the

furnace wall introduce extra heat feedback to the droplet. The effect of

heat conduction through the supported fiber has been investigated

experimentally and theoretically (e.g., Wong and Lin, 1992; Yang and

Wong, 2002). They conclude that heat conduction through quartz fiber

enhances evaporation. The effect is strong when environment tempera-

ture is low and the fiber thickness is high. In the present study, a


thin fiber has been used in a very hot environment. The effect of

radiative heat transfer from the furnace wall into the droplet has been

studied (Kadota and Hiroyasu, 1976) using an analytical model. A

combination of radiative effect and heat conduction through the fiber

can decrease the lifetime of the droplet dramatically. In a specific case,

using n-heptane droplet in a nitrogen-filled environment at 500�C and

3.0 MPa, the lifetime of a droplet was reduced by about 15%. In the

present study, using a shielded heating elements decrease the radiative

effects on droplet.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

General Behavior

Figure 3 shows the variations of normalized squared diameter with the

normalized time for different environment temperatures at 1.0 MPa

pressure. Each evaporation history follows the same general behavior.

After a finite heat-up period, the variation of the square of droplet diam-

eter becomes approximately linear with time while keeping d2-law. The

Figure 3. Variations of normalized square diameter with the normalized time for several

environment temperatures at 1.0 MPa pressure.


small deviation at 1000�C is discussed later. This general behavior has

also been observed in evaporation at different environment pressures.

There are some fluctuations in the data. One source is related to an

optical problem in a very high temperature environment. There is a tem-

perature difference between the nitrogen background and kerosene

vapor coming from droplet. Due to this temperature gradient, a weak

density flow, i.e., natural convection forms around the droplet. Its effect

on image is much like the Schlieren effect. Therefore, the droplet bound-

ary does not seem very sharp through quartz windows, the lens, and

camera. To filter out the density flow effects, one way is to decrease

the contrast of light between the droplet and background. At this con-

dition, the droplet seems clear (see Figure 7a), but the extraction of

droplet size encounters some difficulty due to low contrast between

droplet and background light. The wrinkles in the evaporation curve of

1000�C in Figure 3 are more than those for other curves. It is due to

vapor formation around the droplet (see Figure 7b), which makes the

boundary of droplet hard to extract.

In spite of the multicomponent nature of kerosene, its evaporation

follows the d2-law. The main components of kerosene are heavy saturated

hydrocarbons (paraffins) and the lighter components have higher vola-

tility. Each component would vaporize at a different rate. Therefore, a

concentration gradient forms around and within the droplet. At low

environmental temperature, the rate of heat diffusion into droplet is com-

parable to the rate of mass diffusion. Therefore, the heat diffusion plays

significant role in vaporization of droplet. More study on evaporation of

kerosene droplet at low temperature (400�C and lower) has shown it does

not follow the d2-law.

At high environmental temperature, the heat diffusion is much fas-

ter than mass diffusion. So the temperature inside the droplet during

the whole evaporation process is fairly constant and the mass diffusion

due to concentration gradient controls the evaporation rate. That is

why for a multicomponent droplet like kerosene, the species concen-

tration within an outside the droplet does not determine the evapor-

ation rate alone so that the evaporation process seems to follows the

d2-law for moderate temperatures from 500 up to 900�C as shown in

Figure 3. But for rather high temperature of 1000�C, the gaseous mass

diffusion outside the droplet begins to control the evaporation rate,

so that the multicomponent evaporation of kerosene droplet does not

follow the d2-law.


Effects of Temperature

The effects of ambient temperature on the evaporation rate have been

investigated under six different environment temperatures. The variations

of evaporation rates in terms of environment temperature are depicted

in Figure 4. As the ambient temperature is increased, the evaporation rate

monotonically increases. A simple comparison between the evaporation

rates of n-hepatne (Sato, 1993) and kerosene at 1.0 MPa pressure is shown

in Figure 4a. As this figure shows, the evaporation rate of heptane is greater

than the rate of kerosene, but the general behavior is the same. In Figure 4b

the effects of temperature on evaporation rate are shown for different

environmental pressures. As indicated in this figure, the pressure does

not affect on the monotonic dependence of evaporation rate on the

temperature.

Effects of Pressure

Unlike the monotonic effect of temperature, the pressure shows a different

effect on the evaporation rate of kerosene. Figure 5 shows the variation

of evaporation rate versus ambient pressure for several environmental tem-

peratures. As indicated in this figure, at lower temperatures ranging from

500 to 700�C, the evaporation rate is observed to monotonically increase

with pressure, while reaching the maximum at even higher pressure that

is not shown in Figure 5. However, at higher temperatures ranging from

Figure 4. Effects of ambient temperature on the evaporation rate; (a) a simple comparison

between the evaporation rate of n-heptane and kerosene, (b) the evaporation rate at differ-

ent ambient pressures.


800 to 1000�C, when ambient pressure increases, the evaporation rate

increases and then decreases. It takes a maximum somewhere around

2.0 MPa or higher which is very close to the critical pressure of kerosene.

For pure fuels, the evaporation rate shows a maximum around criti-

cal pressure when the ambient temperature is greater than critical value.

Normally, kerosene contains light components as well as heavy compo-

nents like dodecane. The light components have higher critical pressure

than heavy components. Also, the presence of a maximum in the curves

of evaporation rate versus ambient pressure, may indicate that evapor-

ation takes place at critical state. Consequently, at the lower ambient

temperatures, even higher than the critical temperature of components,

droplet does not evaporate at critical state. So, the evaporation curves

do not show a maximum. At higher environmental tempratures, the evap-

oration of heavy components which have lower critical pressure, plays a

significant role. Under this condition, it is possible that the evaporation

rate takes a maximum at lower environmental pressure.

All data obtained in this study was put together and plotted in Figure 6.

This figure shows the dependency of the evaporation rate of kerosene to

pressure and temperature.

Figure 5. Dependency of the evaporation rate on the ambient pressure for several ambient

temperatures.


High-Rate Evaporation

In Figure 6a, four frames from the evaporation process for the tempera-

ture and pressure of 900�C, and 1.0 MPa respectively are shown. These

images are representative of the type of photographs that are taken as

Figure 6. Dependency of evaporation rate on ambient pressure and temperature.

Figure 7. Sequential images from evaporation of a droplet at the pressure of 1.0 MPa;

(a) T ¼ 900�C, (b) T ¼ 1000�C.


the evaporation proceeds in high pressure and high temperature environ-

ments. To distinguish the condense vapor around the droplet clearly, a

low intensity back light has been used. For low-temperature and low-

pressure environment, a high contrast back light provides a better result

such that the shape and boundary of the droplet, which is suspended

from a quartz fiber, are vividly clear. The bright spot near the center of

droplet is due to light reflection. In Figure 7b, four frames are again dis-

played for the temperature of 1000�C, and pressure of 1.0 MPa. As seen

from this set of figures, a foggy zone appears to form around the outside

of droplet, which must be condensed fuel vapor. Its light grayish color in

the image is distinctively different from the ordinary droplet color seen in

the previous set.

Based on different scale of gray, it is clear that the phase state of

outer shell of the droplet is not liquid. In fact, the evaporation rate

increases with ambient temperature at constant pressure. Therefore,

the evaporation rate for ambient temperature of 1000�C in Figure 7b

must be much higher than that for 900�C in Figure 7a. Since for ambient

temperature of 1000�C, the amount of fuel vapor generated at the droplet

surface is more than that transported away by the combined action of

molecular diffusion and convective mass transfer. Consequently, the

vapor at the droplet surface cannot quickly penetrate into the surround-

ing gas so that it is accumulated therein. This kind of situation has also

been observed at microgravity conditions where the natural convection

due to buoyancy is negligible (Sato, 1993).

The boiling temperature range for kerosene is between 180 and

270�C at atmospheric pressure. Thus, when the droplet is exposed to

the hot gas temperature, initially there is a large temperature difference

between the drop and its surrounding gas. In the beginning, when an

initially cold droplet is exposed to the high temperature environment,

the liquid at the surface of droplet reaches the boiling temperature due

to heat feedback and starts to evaporate. Consequently, if the fuel vapor

formed is not diffused out easily in the radial direction, it may accumu-

late therein. This condensed fuel vapor, then, inhibits the efficient evap-

oration of droplet. Thus, this fuel vapor cloud begins to influence the

evaporation process. Otherwise, the evaporation used to take place at

such a very high rate that a very small droplet would be rapidly evapo-

rated. Similar images like Figure 6b have also been observed for the

pressure higher than 1 MPa at 1000�C. However, the vapor film

does not seem as bright as before. This accounts for the reduction of


evaporation constant as the pressure increases for the temperature

higher than 700�C.

CONCLUSION

The focus of this work was on the study of the evaporation of kerosene

droplets to provide some useful data for high pressure conditions and

various ambient temperatures. The results are summarized as follows:

1) In spite of the multicomponent nature of kerosene, its evaporation

follows the d2-law after an initial heating up period.

2) The evaporation rate of kerosene droplet increases monotonically

with increase in ambient temperaure.

3) At higher ambient gas temperatures, when ambient pressure

increases, the evaporation rate increases and then decreases. It shows

a maximum around 2.0 MPa. At low ambient temperatures, the evap-

oration rate increases with environmental pressure monotonically.

4) At the highest ambient gas temperature in this study, a cloud of con-

densed fuel vapor is observed around the droplet due to high evapor-

ation rate. This would hinder the efficient evaporation of the droplet.

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