Experimental II. Memory and AttentionCourse Material

A) Research Methods

A.1) Research Report Structure

APA format Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References

A.2) Ethical Concepts

Informed Consent Deception Debriefing

A.3) Research Concepts

Hypothesis, Prediction Independent and Dependent Variables (IV-DV)

B) Memory

B.1) Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Encoding Storage Retrieval (Free recall, Cued recall, Recognition)

B.2) Levels of Processing

C) Attention

Focused and Divided Attention Attentional Resources Theory Automatic and Controlled Processes in Attention

DA Paradigm

D) Craik et al. (1996) Study

E) Theories of Memory and Aging

Reduced Attentional Resources Theory Processing Speed Theory Associate-deficit Hypothesis Environmental Support Theory

F) Applications of Memory Studies

F.1) Basic and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living

Basic Activities of Daily Living Instrumental Activities of Daily Living

F.2) Importance of Memory Studies

Psychological well-being and Quality of life Kahneman’s theory of attention and effort Improving memory in older adults

A) Research Methods

A.1) Research Report Structure

I. APA format Margins are 1 inch all around. Everything in the paper is double-spaced. Font is 12 point and is Times New Roman

II. Abstract It is a very concise summary of the whole report that is normally written

after the paper is complete. The abstract should indicate the purpose of the study and summarize the

main findings but Numerical results of statistical tests should not be in the abstract.

You should try to have something about each section (Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion) in your abstract.

This abstract should be no longer than 120 words. The abstract is not indented.

III. Introduction The introduction starts on a new page and the title of your paper should

appear at the top. Introduce the topic with a description of the problem or issue being

investigated. Develop the background by summarizing relevant previous research. You should include enough information about the previous studies (this

may include hypotheses, methodology, findings and conclusions). Provide a rationale for why you conducted this study and overview the

aims. Give a brief overview of your study and present hypotheses.

IV. Method The purpose of the method section is to:

o Tell the reader how you collected your data.o Give the reader enough information to assess the validity and

reliability of your results.o Give the reader enough information to replicate your study.

Sections of the method section are:o Participants o Materials o Procedure

The participants section should contain information about:o Who participated? (age, sex, other important demographics)o How many participated?o How were participants selected (and where)?

The materials section should contain:o A description of all materials (tests, questionnaires) in enough detail

to allow the reader to replicate the study.o The purpose of using each test or questionnaire should be stated.

The procedure section should:o Include information about the ethical approval of the study.o Include the setting of the study (What were the conditions of

variables? What instructions were given to participants? and other details about how the tests were taken)

o Describe control procedures such as randomization or counterbalancing.

o Include the place that tests were taken and the completion time.

V. Results This section summarizes the data and the appropriate statistical tests. Begin with your main findings and then describe the other relevant

results. Do not discuss the implications of your results in the results section. Examples of how to report statistics using APA format:

o Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD): M = 3.67, SD = .64o Statistical Tests: F(2, 11) = 54.88, p < .05o Note: p is the probability that you received your results by chance

alone. In most cases, if p < .05, your results are considered statistically significant.

VI. Discussion The discussion section follows immediately after the results section (on

the same page). First, summarize the results and state whether or not they support your

hypotheses.o Numerical results of statistical tests should be in the discussion.

Then relate the results to previous research, discussing whether they are similar or dissimilar to previous findings.

Discuss any limitations in the design or procedures and how this may have affected your results.

Discuss implications of the findings and any potential directions for future research.

End this discussion by commenting on the significance of your research.

VII. References The reference section starts on a new page. All citations in the text must appear in the reference section. All entries in the reference section must appear in the text. List the works in alphabetical order by the first author's last name.

Each entry uses a hanging indent, meaning that the first line of the entry is at the normal margin, but the subsequent lines are indented.

A.2) Ethical Concepts

I. Informed ConsentBefore the study participants are usually provided with some type of informed consent form that contains the information that participants need to make their decision. Most commonly, the form is printed for the participant to read and sign. The content will typically cover (1) the purpose of the research, (2) procedures that will be used including time involved (remember that you do not need to tell participants exactly what is being studied), (3) risks and benefits, (4) any compensation, (5) confidentiality, (6) assurance of voluntary participation and permission to withdraw, and (7) contact information for questions.

II. DeceptionIt may have occurred to you that providing all information about the study to participants might be unwise. Providing too much information could potentially invalidate the results of the study; for example, researchers usually will withhold information about the hypothesis of the study or the particular condition an individual is participating in. It is generally acceptable to withhold information when the information would not affect the decision to participate and when the information will later be provided, usually in a debriefing session when the study is completed. It may also have occurred to you that there are research procedures in which informed consent is not necessary or even possible. If you choose to observe the number of same-sex and mixed-sex study groups in your library, you probably don’t need to announce your presence and obtain anyone’s permission. Research indicates that providing informed consent may in fact bias participants’ responses, at least in some research areas. It is also possible that the informed consent procedure may bias the sample. Deception occurs when there is active misrepresentation of information (for example participants may be deceived about the purpose of the study).

III. DebriefingDebriefing occurs after the completion of the study. It is an opportunity for the researcher to deal with issues of withholding information, deception, and potential harmful effects of participation. If participants were deceived in any way, the researcher needs to explain why the deception was necessary. If

the research altered a participant’s physical or psychological state in some way—as in a study that produces stress—the researcher must make sure that the participant has calmed down and is comfortable about having participated. If a participant needs to receive additional information or to speak with someone else about the study, the researcher should provide access to these resources. The participants should leave the experiment without any ill feelings toward the field of psychology, and they may even leave with some new insight into their own behavior or personality.Debriefing also provides an opportunity for the researcher to explain the purpose of the study and tell participants what kinds of results are expected and perhaps discuss the practical implications of the results. In some cases, researchers may contact participants later to inform them of the actual results of the study. Thus, debriefing has both an educational and an ethical purpose.

A.3) Research Concepts

I. Hypothesis, PredictionA hypothesis is a type of idea or question; it makes a statement about something that may be true. Thus, a hypothesis is a tentative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to support or reject it. Once the hypothesis is proposed, data must be gathered and evaluated in terms of whether the evidence is consistent or inconsistent with the hypothesis.

For example “there is a gender difference in use of cell phones while driving.” is a hypothesis because we are putting forth an idea that two variables, gender and cellphone use while driving, may be related.

Sometimes we can use a prediction to test a hypothesis. At this point, the researcher would make a specific prediction concerning the outcome of this experiment. Here the prediction might be that “Women use cell phones more frequently than men while driving”. When the results of the study confirm a prediction the hypothesis is supported and otherwise the hypothesis is rejected.

II. Independent and Dependent Variables (IV-DV)Researchers use the terms independent variable and dependent variable when referring to the variables being studied. The variable that is considered to be the cause is called the independent variable, and the variable that is the effect is called the dependent variable. In an experiment, the

manipulated variable is the independent variable. After manipulating the independent variable, the researchers measure a second variable, called the dependent variable. The basic idea is that the researchers make changes in the independent variable and then see if the dependent variable changes in response.

Read the following and answer the questions below (answers are provided on the last page of the chapter).

B) Memory

B.1) Encoding, Storage, RetrievalMemory is the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that information in the present. As a process, memory refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving information about past experience. Specifically, cognitive psychologists have identified three common operations of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Each operation represents a stage in memory processing.

In encoding, you transform sensory data into a form of mental representation.

In storage, you keep encoded information in memory. In retrieval, you pull out or use information stored in memory

I. EncodingBefore information can be stored in memory, it first needs to be encoded for storage. Even if the information is held in our short-term memory, it is not always transferred to our long-term memory. So in order to remember events and facts over a long period of time, we need to encode and subsequently transfer them from short-term to long-term storage.

II. StorageMost information stored in long-term memory is primarily semantically encoded. In other words, it is encoded by the meanings of words. To move information into long-term memory, an individual must engage in elaborative rehearsal. In elaborative rehearsal, the individual somehow elaborates the items to be remembered. Such rehearsal makes the items

either more meaningfully integrated into what the person already knows or more meaningfully connected to one another and therefore more memorable. In contrast, in maintenance rehearsal, the individual simply repetitiously rehearses the items to be repeated. Such rehearsal temporarily maintains information in short-term memory without transferring the information to long-term memory. Without any kind of elaboration, the information cannot be organized and transferred.

III. Retrieval (Free recall, Cued recall, Recognition)Retrieval processes could be in the form of recall or recognition. In recall, you produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory. Fill-in-the-blank and most essay tests require that you recall items from memory. For example, suppose you want to measure people’s memory for late-night comedians. You could ask people to name a TV comedian. In recognition, you select or otherwise identify an item as being one that you have been exposed to previously. (See also Table 5.1 for examples and explanations of each type of task.) For example, you could ask people which of the following is a late-night comic. In a recognition test a mixture of previously exposed and novel items are presented to participants and they have to decide, for each item, whether it is old or new. In contrast, in a recall test participants are asked to reinstate just those items that have been previously exposed. Two forms of recall test have been discussed in the literature: (i) in a free recall test participants have (essentially) no constraints and are asked to reinstate, by whatever means possible, just those items to which they have been previously exposed; (ii) in a cued recall test certain items are provided as cues to help recollection of other to-be-remembered materials.

Paired associate learning: An experimental paradigm in which participants are presented with pairs of items during a study phase, which must be committed to memory. In some cases, during a later test phase, participants are presented with one member of each pair (i.e., the stimulus item) and are asked to produce the other member (i.e., the response item).

Stimulus item: In paired associate learning, the item in the pair that is presented during the test phase.

Response item: In paired associate learning, the item in the pair that must be reinstated during the test phase.

Recognition test: Where previously seen items are mixed with previously unseen items, and participants are required to categorize each item as either being old or new.

Free recall test: Where participants are asked to reinstate previously exposed items in any order without the aid of cues.

Cued recall test: Where participants are asked, to reinstate a previously experienced item with the aid of a cue or cues.

Mnemonic strategy: An aid to memory.

B.2) Levels of ProcessingThe levels of processing framework, which postulates that memory does not comprise three or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding. In other words, there are theoretically an infinite number of levels of processing (LOP) at which items can be encoded through elaboration—or successively deeper understanding of material to be learned. There are no distinct boundaries between one level and the next. The emphasis in this model is on processing as the key to storage. The level at which information is stored will depend, in large part, on how it is encoded. Moreover, the deeper the level of processing, the higher, in general, is the probability that an item may be retrieved. According to this model, attentional and perceptual processes at the time of learning determine what information is stored in long-term memory. There are various levels of processing, ranging from shallow or physical analysis of a stimulus (e.g., detecting specific letters in words) to deep or semantic analysis. In general, depth of processing can be defined as the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than the number of analyses performed upon it. The model has two main assumptions:

The level or depth of processing of a stimulus has a large effect on its memorability.

Deeper levels of analysis produce more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger memory traces than do shallow levels of analysis.

The main idea of LOP model is that a stimulus undergoes various sorts of coding operations such that different coding operations are undertaken at the different stages. At the early (or shallow) stages the physical characteristics of the stimulus are recovered. The later (or deeper) stages involve stimulus recognition and other forms of semantic interpretation. By this view, the durability of a trace for a given stimulus will depend critically on the depth of processing of the stimulus.

As reviewed maintenance rehearsal involves repeating analyses that have previously been carried out, whereas elaborative rehearsal involves deeper or more semantic analysis of the learning material. According to the levels of processing model, only elaborative rehearsal improves long-term memory.

Factors that influence recall:

Elaboration: Elaboration of processing (i.e., the amount of processing of a particular kind) is important.

Distinctiveness: Long-term memory is affected by distinctiveness of processing. Thus, memory traces that are distinctive or unique will be more readily retrieved than those resembling other memory traces.

Incidental learning: A situation in which participants are oriented to materials without being aware that they will have to remember them and be tested on them later.Depth of processing effect: Deeper (e.g., semantic) processing leads to better memory than does less deep processing. It is easier to remember material when semantic judgments are made (deep processing) than when judgments are made about the surface characteristics of the material (shallow processing).

C) Attention

I. Focused and Divided Attention There is a crucial distinction between focused and divided attention. Focused attention is studied by presenting people with two or more stimulus inputs at the same time, and instructing them respond to only one. Work on focused attention can tell us how effectively people select certain inputs rather than others, and it enables us to study the nature of the selection process and the fate of unattended stimuli. Divided attention is also studied by presenting at least two stimulus inputs at the same time, but with instructions that all stimulus inputs must be attended to and responded to. Studies of divided attention provide useful information about an individual’s processing limitations, and may tell us something about attentional mechanisms and their capacity.

Divided Attention example:

Have you ever been driving with a friend and the two of you were engaged in an exciting conversation? Or have made dinner while on the phone with a friend? Anytime you are engaged in two or more tasks at the same time, your attention is divided between those tasks.

II. Attentional Resources TheoryIn order to understand our ability to divide our attention, researchers have developed capacity models of attention. These models help to explain how we can perform more than one attention-demanding task at a time. They posit that people have a fixed amount of attention that they can choose to allocate according to what the task requires. In general, Attentional Resources Theory assumes attention as a uniform pool of cognitive capacity that is shared among all mental processes and might be flexibly allocated to concurrent tasks, suggesting that performance decrement occurs when the overall amount of attention required by ongoing tasks tops the attentional resources. According to this theory the amount of attention given to a task depends on the type of task (its attentional demands and difficulty level), the individual (arousal level), and the situation (attentional demands of other tasks).

III. Automatic and Controlled Processes in AttentionAutomatic processes like writing your name involve no conscious control. For the most part, they are performed without conscious awareness. Nevertheless, you may be aware that you are performing them. They demand little or no effort or even intention. Multiple automatic processes may occur at once, or at least very quickly, and in no particular sequence. Thus, they are termed parallel processes. You are able to read this text while at the same time sharpening your pencil and scratching your leg with your foot. In contrast, controlled processes are accessible to conscious control and even require it. Such processes are performed serially, for example, when you want to compute the total cost of a trip you are about to book online. In other words, controlled processes occur sequentially, one step at a time. They take a relatively long time to execute, at least as compared with automatic processes. Three attributes characterize automatic processes. First, they are concealed from consciousness. Second, they are unintentional. Third, they consume few attentional resources.

Encoding processes are mainly controlled and require more attentional resources.

Retrieval processes are mainly automatic and require less attentional resources.

IV. Divided Attention ParadigmDA paradigm is a commonly used experimental technique that applies a dual task design (two tasks are preformed at the same time) to study the effects of divided attention of recall. In technique a secondary task (mostly a continues reaction time task – CRT) to divide attention and a memory task to measure recall under full attention, divided attention at encoding, and divided attention at retrieval conditions. This design uses the full attention condition as control condition and divided attention conditions as experimental conditions .

Primary task: In DA paradigm, the primary task is the memory task that is employed to measure recall in different attention conditions.

Primary costs: Performance decline in primary task (memory task) from full attention condition to divided attention conditions.

Secondary task: In DA paradigm, the secondary task is mostly a continues reaction time task (CRT) that is employed to divide attention.

Secondary costs: Performance decline in secondary task (CRT task) from full attention condition to divided attention conditions.

Reaction time task: A task in which performance is measured according to the speed of responding to the task (In reaction time tasks performance errors are not directly measured).

D) Craik et al. (1996) StudyAim: The main goal of the study was to measure the attentional costs of encoding and retrieval by using the DA paradigm.

Procedures: A continuous reaction time task (hitting displayed alphabets on a keyboard) was used as the secondary task and recalling words from a word list (composed of 7 lists of 2 syllable common English nouns – 15 words in each list) as the primary task. The continuous RT task was performed alone and concurrently with encoding, recall, or both encoding and recall phases of

the memory task. Primary costs at encoding were calculated by comparing recall in full attention (for memory task) and divided attention at encoding. Primary costs at retrieval were calculated by comparing recall in full attention (for memory task) and divided attention at retrieval. Secondary costs at encoding were calculated by comparing performance on secondary task (CRT) in full attention (for secondary task) and divided attention at encoding. Secondary costs at retrieval were calculated by comparing performance on secondary task (CRT) in full attention (for secondary task) and divided attention at retrieval.

Findings: (i) Primary costs (memory decline) at encoding were high however secondary costs at encoding (performance decline in reaction time task) were low. (ii) Primary costs (memory decline) at retrieval were low however secondary costs at retrieval (performance decline in reaction time task) were high.

E) Theories of Memory and Aging

I. Reduced Attentional Resources TheoryAccording to this theory normal aging diminishes the available pool of attentional resources which subsequently impairs resource-demanding processes. In other words, comparing to younger adults, older adults have less available attentional resources for encoding and retrieval operations which accounts for greater memory decline. This means that older individuals are less capable of dividing their attention between two tasks, and thus tasks with higher attentional demands are more difficult to complete due to a reduction in mental energy. Tasks that are simple and more automatic, however, see fewer declines as we age.

II. Processing Speed TheorySpeed of processing is another theory that explains the memory impairments due to aging. According to this theory aging significantly decreases the speed of processing information. It is this decrease in speed of processing information that is then responsible for impairments in using memory effectively in older ages. The younger persons brain is able to obtain and process information at a quicker rate which allows for subsequent integration and manipulation needed to complete the cognitive task at hand. As this processing slows, cognitive tasks that rely on quick processing speed then become more difficult.

III. Associate-deficit HypothesisAccording to this hypothesis part of older adults' deficient memory performance stems from their difficulty in binding the information into

Aging Decrease in attentional resources

Decrease in memory performance

Aging Decrease in speed of processing information

Decrease in memory performance

complex memories. This hypothesis claimed that an important component of older adults' poorer episodic memory is their deficiency in creating and retrieving links between single units of information. This hypothesis proposes that old people's poor memory performance is attributed to their difficulty in creating and storing cohesive episodes. Complex events consist of multiple kinds of information sources that are related together. An event can include the semantic content, information about the time in which the event occurred, the place in which it took place, the acting agents, their characteristics, and so on. All of these aspects integrated with the internal cognitive state of the person are encoded as an episode. Remembering such an episode requires that at least some of the components be retained, as well as their relationships with each other. According to this hypothesis, older adults have difficulties in creating the relationships between these pieces of information which causes impairments in episodic memory.

IV. Environmental Support TheoryThis theory proposes that environmental cues, specifically cues that were present during encoding phase (e.g. the context of encoding phase) can aid and facilitate retrieval processes and result in better memory performance. The ability to recall events and facts with few aids and out of context is typically poor in older adults, whereas the ability to recognize material (when environmental cues are present) can be virtually at the level of a younger person. It thus seems that the ability to 'self-initiate' appropriate mental processes is difficult for older people (possibly because they involve frontal lobe functions) and so older adults profit greatly from the 'environmental support' provided by reinstating the context of original learning or by the test materials themselves, as with recognition tests.

AgingDiffuclty in creating

relations between pieces of related information

Decrease in memory performance

F) Applications of Memory Studies

F.1) Basic and Instrumental Activities of Daily LivingActivities of daily living (ADLs) is a term used in healthcare to refer to daily self care activities within an individual's place of residence, in outdoor environments, or both. Health professionals routinely refer to the ability or inability to perform ADLs as a measurement of the functional status of a person, particularly in regard to people with disabilities and the elderly. There are two groups of daily living activities. These are referred to as basic activities of daily life and the instrumental activities of daily living. The basic activities of daily life are routine tasks, such as bathing, dressing, eating and using the toilet, that most people are able to perform on a daily basis without assistance. The instrumental activities of daily living are more complex tasks that require a certain amount of physical dexterity, sound judgment and organizational skills. A senior’s ability (or inability) to adequately perform both groups of activities is usually reflective of that person’s ability to live safely and independently.

I. Basic Activities of Daily LivingMost senior care providers and health professionals group the activities of daily living into the following six categories:

Bathing: includes grooming activities such as shaving, and brushing teeth and hair

Enviornmental Cues

Aid retrieval processes

Less self-initialted mental processes are required

Increase in memory

performance

Dressing: choosing appropriate garments and being able to dress and undress, having no trouble with buttons, zippers or other fasteners

Eating: being able to feed oneself Transferring: being able to walk, or, if not ambulatory, being able to

transfer oneself from bed to wheelchair and back Continence: being able to control one’s bowels and bladder, or

manage one’s incontinence independently Toileting: being able to use the toile

II. Instrumental Activities of Daily LivingThe instrumental activities of daily living include the following:

Using the telephone: being able to dial numbers, look up numbers, etc.

Managing medications: taking the appropriate medications and correct dosages on time

Preparing meals: making appropriate food choices and preparing meals safely

Maintaining the home: doing or arranging for housekeeping and laundry

Managing finances: budgeting, paying mortgage/rent and bills on time, etc.

Shopping: being able to shop for groceries and other small necessities, and transport purchases from store to home

Using transportation: being able to drive or use public transportation for appointments, shopping, etc.

F.2) Importance of Memory Studies

I. Psychological well-being and Quality of lifeMemory and cognitive deficits cause impairments in Instrumental activities of daily live and such activities are closely related to psychological well-being in older adults. The ability to do personal tasks and activities like using a cell phone, shopping, .. is shown to be a significant predictor of happiness and quality of life in old people.

Memory problems can cause certain impairments in Instrumental activities of daily life

Impairments in Instrumental activities decreases psychological well-being and quality of life

II. Kahneman’s theory of attention and effortAccording to Kahneman, attention is a limited source that can be allocated to different tasks and mental activities (attentional resources theory). Attention can be focused on a one particular task or can be divided between a number of activities. When tasks are more difficult, more attention is needed. In this theory, attention is like a limited power supply. However, in Kahneman’s theory, if we put more “effort” into a task, we can do better. So the amount of attentional capacity can vary according to motivation. The amount of effort available is also related to overall arousal level; as arousal increases or decreases, so does attentional capacity.

III. Improving memory in older adultsPutting more effort into mental activities can increase the attentional capacity (Kahneman’s theory) and so aid memory performance (Reduced attentional resources theory).

Physical and recreational activities can lessen or slow down degeneration of brain cells and improve memory performance in older adults.