Chung Kwan Ackie Cheung
Experiential Education and Adolescents’ Personal and Spiritual Development
A Mixed-Method Study in the Secondary School Context of Hong Kong
Foreword by Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert and Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug
RESEARCH
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Chung Kwan Ackie Cheung Hong Kong
Dissertation Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 2011
To Hon Fai Solomon
Table of contents
Foreword by Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert ..................................................................... II by Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug ..................................................... 13
Preface ................................................................................................................ 15
List of abbreviations .......................................................................................... 18
I Introduction .................................................................................................... 19 1.1 hnport of experiential education ............................................................ 20
1.1.1 Experiential education in Hong Kong ........................................... 20 1.1.2 Promotion of1he use of experiential educabonIadventure-based prnctice .. 21
1.2 Personal development as human function of coping and living ............. 23 1.3 Experiential education and personal development ............................... 26 1.4 Purpose and design of the study ............................................................. 29
1.4.1 Key concerns of investigation: Self-concept, self-efficacy, learning climate and spiritual dimension ....................................... 29
1.4.2 Research question and purpose of the study .................................. 30 1.4.3 Design of the study ........................................................................ 31
Summary ............................................................................................................. 34
2 Literature review and clarification of research question ................................ 35 2.1 Experiential education: Explication of the concept ................................ 35 2.2 Experientia1 edllCaticm and adventure-based practice: Conceptua1 framewrnk .... 39
2.2.1 Leamer-centered orientation ......................................................... .40 2.2.2 Construction ofiearning environmenticondition .......................... .41
2.3 Review on the effects of adventure-based practice ................................ 54 2.3.1 Benefits of adventure-based practice ............................................. 54 2.3.2 Empirical results from related literatures ...................................... 54 2.3.3 Research focus of adventure-based programs in this study ........... 56
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2.4 Clarification of research question ........................................................... 57 2.4.1 Peripheral layer .............................................................................. 58 2.4.2 Central layer .................................................................................. 59 2.4.3 Contextuallayer ............................................................................. 67 2.4.4 Restating the purpose of this study in brief... ................................ 68
Summary ............................................................................................................. 69
3 Methodology and methods of data collection ................................................ 70 3.1 Case study design ................................................................................... 70
3.1.1 Methodological decision ............................................................... 71 3.1.2 Limitation of using case study ....................................................... 72 3.1.3 Researcher's role .......................................................................... 73
3.2 Data collection methods ......................................................................... 74 3.2.1 Internet website analysis ................................................................ 75 3.2.2 Institute profile ............................................................................... 76 3.2.3 Interview to teachers and practitioners .......................................... 77 3.2.4 Episodic interview tu adolescent participants ............................... 80 3.2.5 Observation .................................................................................... 81 3.2.6 Quantitative survey ........................................................................ 82
Summary ............................................................................................................. 90
4 Findings: Case record in layers ...................................................................... 91 4.1 l'erijn:ral \ayIr. CiIrums1antia1 infunnalion of1be advezJture.base progmms ...... 91
4.1.1 Expectation of adventure-based programs .................................... 91 4.2 Cenlrallayer: Learning process aod product of adventure-based programs. ..... 93
4.2.1 Learning product in questionnaire ................................................. 94 4.2.2 Learning process in episodic interview ....................................... 112 4.2.3 Learning process in observation .................................................. 119
4.3 Contextual layer: Hong Kong school context ...................................... 121 4.3.1 The historical development of experiential education in Hong Kong .... 121 4.3.2 understanding of1he tenns "experieIltial education" aod "spirituality" ... 126 4.3.3 The reception of experiential/adventure-based elements in
Hong Kong secondary schools .................................................... 129 Summary ........................................................................................................... 132
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5 Discussion and conclusion ........................................................................... 133 5.1 hlttiptdalimm firKIing; of =tra1 \ay<r. Learning ina<Mntum-based progra!ll'! ••• 133
5.1.1 Perceived self-concept and perceived self-efficacy ..................... 135 5.1.2 Participants' perceived learning climate ...................................... 140 5.1.3 Participants' perceived spiritual dimension ................................. 143 5.1.4 (In)Complete adven1lJre.based program learning process as a whole ... 146
5.2 Interpretation on findings of contextual layer: Adventure-based practice in the secondary school context of Hong Kong ...................... 147 5.2.1 ~pracliceas~ 00"",';00 in Hong Kong am1i:xt. .. 147 5.2.2 Popularized adventure-based practice from elite/middle-class
students to stodents of the general public .................................... 149 5.2.3 Adventure-based practice in adapted program format with
differentiated goals in school context of Hong Kong .................. 151 5.3 Intrapersonal and interpersonal development against a global
context as functions of adventure-based practice/programs ................. 154 5.3.1 Adventure-based practice as enhancement of personal
development: Spiritual being, individual being and holistic being ............................................................................... 159
5.3.2 Prescriptive use of experieolial education embedded in school context .... 175 5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 176
5.4.1 The study in summary ................................................................. 176 5.4.2 Limitations of the current study .................................................. 177 5.4.3 Conclusion in brief ...................................................................... 178
5.5 hnplication ............................................................................................ 178 5.5.1 Recommendation for adventure-based/school practice .............. 178 5.5.2 Recommendation for theory reflection ........................................ 183 5.5.3 Recommendation for further research ......................................... 186
Closing words ................................................................................................... 189
semi-structured interview, episodic interview and observation guiding questions .......................................... 205
Appendix B: Table of construct information of quantitative survey ............ 206
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Foreword by Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert
"/ regard it as the foremost task of education to insure the survival of these qualities: an enterprising curiosity; an undefeatable spirit; tenacity in pursuit; readiness for sensible self-denial; and above all, compassion." Kurt Hahn
WhenKurtHahn made this statement in the early 1900's, he was not just suggesting this for students in the United Kingdom or Westem Europe, but, by implication, all students, everywhere. For, is it possible, that any society across the globe, will long flourish without the above qualities being instilled in its young people? And hence a fundamental question emerges for school systems and individual teachers alike, how can meaningful learning experiences be created for students that address all the pedagogical domains of the physical, emotional, intellectual, and psychological? Moreover, how can school systems move from an overemphasis on producing students who are only really successful at passing tests and instead contribute to the development of well-rounded citizens willing to show leadership and the qualities articulated by Kurt Hahn?
Like everywhere, secondary schools in Hong Kong are also faced with these very issues, namely, how to develop an educational system that teaches to the ''whole student" rather than simply focusing on the recital of facts and figores, numbers and data, all of which are important but often seem strangely divorced from the rest of their life. In a sense, passing tests and getting good grades often fall into the "necessary but insufficient" conundrum. Fink (2003) makes two points that have a connection to the issue of effective learning. First, he suggests that high quality learning is absolutely essential to high quality living, and in this case, the learning comes first, rather than the other way around. Second, effective educational programs are becoming more important in various societies because the issues that student face are necessitating new perspectives, knowledge, and skills.
And this is where the concept of "experiential education" comes into play. In her study, Dr. Cheung describes the spread of experiential education as a complement to the more traditioual curriculum structure within the Hong Kong secondary school system. In addition, she provides a more specific context of experiential
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education, namely, that of adventure-based programs, by postulating that these types of activities and experiences can add a much needed dimension to the school curriculum. The hope and, indeed, expectation, of incorporating experiential and adventure-based programs into educational learning environments lies in their ability to positively influence both the spiritual and personal development of the adolescent population. Dr. Cheung has attempted to discover if this is being accomplished in the secondary school systeru of Hong Kong and if it is even possible to integrate individual characteristics such as self-concept and spiritual growth while nested in a highly collective culture and society.
Using a case study design, Dr. Cheung uses six data collection methods to triangulate on the question of how effective experiential education is in the Hong Kong school systeru. In addition, using different contextual and conceptual layers of data provided an insightful aspect of the data analysis. Findings from this study suggest that the use of experiential and adventure-based learning activities presented a positive and beneficial enhancement to the school curriculum. Thus, whether in theory or in praxis, the use of experiential education can and does make a difference in the personal growth and development of the individual-a necessary ingredient if societies are to achieve the full potential of their population. Perhaps Kurt Hahn captured the essence of the porpose of Dr. Cheung's study, in his stateruent, "We are all better than we know; if only we can be brought to realize this, we may never be prepared to settle for anything less."
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating Significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing
college courses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert Professor and Patricia and Joel Meier Endowed Chair in Outdoor Leadership Indiana University, the U.S.
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Foreword by Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug
Experiential education is currently going through a renaissance in multiple dimensions. The idea of experiential education has been captured in numerous conceptualizations since the progressive education movement ("Reformpiidagogik") at the beginning of the twentieth centuIy, for example, the educational model of Kurt Hahn, who had probably become one of the founding and internationally best-known protagonists of experiential education (in Hahn's tenn "Erlebnistherapie"), or some developments of the Youth movement such as the boys and girls scouts or the "Friends of Natore" ("die Naturfreunde"). These first approaches of experiential education turned out to be universalized and globalized. It's universalized, as it has no longer just been understood as a counter-movement against the schools, but has multifariously found itself an entrance to the school curriculum and got further developed from some self­ organized young people groups to different forms of certified and commercial youth development programs. It's also globalized, spreading out from the central Europe to the entire globe.
Experiential educational programs, in the last ten years, have been back intensively in vogue, which probably would have never been imagined by the protagonists of the reform pedagogy about one hundred years ago. The possibilities of achieving self-awareness, personal development, group experiences, experiences of the natore and spiritnal experiences have obviously been perceived as a special attractive offer, dealing with rapid social change. Whether such offer meets the expectations, however, often remains unclear.
Therefore, Chung K wan Ackie Cheung has made a substantial contribution in giving a review of the impact of experiential education on the personal and spiritual development of students. The work marks a milestune in the experiential education debate in many ways: • The study has included the examination on the experiential educational programs of Hong Kong, one of the regions with the highest growth rates of experiential educational offers in schools, and it has been one of the earliest empirical works in the field of experiential education in the Asian region.
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• This work is one of the fewest studies worldwide that has analyzed the effects of experiential programs on personal development at two-time-points in a pre-post design, and thus, it was able to ascertain the effects. • The author has taken a thorough holistic approach in attending the concept of personal development, whereby spiritual dimension has been explicitly taken into account. This is noteworthy, since this dimension is undoubtedly underdeveloped in the public consideration of experiential educational activities overall at present.
This stody will become a core text not only for further studies on experiential education, but also for those that relate to spiritual education in Asia and all over the world.
Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug Professor for Foundations in Education /Allgemeine Piidagogik at Friedrich­ Alexander-Universitiit Erlangen-Niirnberg, Germany
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Preface
"Plus est en vow!' There are many 1hings working together to make it happen that someone may be on the way to beiog- and becomiog-<meyself. I am very grateful that many thiogs have worlred out so that I have been granted for this wooderful opportunity to taking a dissertation-writingjoumey!
This book is a revised version of my PhD dissertation accepted by the Friedrich­ Alexander-Universitiit Erlangen-Niimberg, Germany in summer 2011 under the title: The impact of experiential education on the personal and spiritual development of students in Hong Kong: A mixed method empirical study in the secondary school context It seeks to find out some "whats" and "whys" concerning experiential education/adventure-based practice in Hong Kong.
Adventure-based programs have been extensively taken into the secondary school context in Hong Kong to, apparently, enhance the personal development of the adolescents in Hong Kong since the 90s. These programs have been expected to respond to some problems of the Hong Kong adolescents, e.g. their lacking of self-caring capability, emotional intelligence and resilienee. Seeing the frequent use of the programs, thus, it is the intention of this stody to be the first empirical research to establish a current phenomenal picture of adventure-based programs in the secondary school context of Hong Kong. It has hypothesized that participants, by taking part in the programs, will acquire a stronger belief in their self-concept, self-efficacy. Also, they will have an improved view in the learning climate and participants will reflect deeper upon their life issue, which is regarded as the spiritusl dimension. Secondly, based on the phenomenal picture, the paper attempts to give some explanations for the massive use of experiential education/adventure-based practice in connection with the rapidly changing global context of Hong Kong, particularly, with regard to the spiritual dimension and concept of individuality.
Attempting to be the first phenomenal picture in this regard, it does not mean to provide a perfect complete picture of experiential education/adventure­ based practice, rather, it is expected to raise the awareness of the use and some underlying beliefs of them. It hopes to serve as a solid ground for deeper reflection
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on theory building, on better practice of adventure-based programs, and on theme discussion of further researches in both the Chinese and the non-Chinese/global contexts.
Due to space constrain, the book is a shortened version of the 41 O-page­ thesis. In particular, some data collection methods and the corresponding findings have been reluctantly omitted. Nevertheless, details of the shortened part can always be referred to in the original dissertation.
Having accomplished writing the dissertation, first and foremost, I'd like to express my sincere gratitude to Ms. Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpfiug, my priucipal supervisor, for her continuous support and guidance throughout the PhD process, and not least, also for encouraging me to take part in the ECER (Finland) and AEE (USA) conferences to give presentations of my studying topics. I wish to thank my second supervisor, Mr. Prof. Dr. Thomas Eberle, for reviewing my final work. My thanks also go to my examiner, Mr. Prof. Dr. Manfred Pimer.
I am grateful to Evangelischer EntwickJungsdienst e.V. (EED) for granting me a scholarship and the colleagues of the scholarship desk for supporting me to complete this doctoral study. Also, the cheering atmosphere at the university department, at Rieneck and in ZILL encouraged me to persist till the end. The intercultural exchange was something more than what I can learn only from reading. A sincere thank-you is credited to Rev. L. Y. Lee of Livingstone Lutheran Church (HKMLC) for his support. Moreover, I own debts of gratitude to many, but especially to Dr. K.-H. Miihlhaus, Mr. Y.P. Lee, Ms. K.M. Ng and Mr. Y.K. Lam, who generously gave me their support in cross-checking data, proof­ reading and editing my work.
Duriug this study I have been away from my homeland, working on the dissertation alone in Germany. I wish to extend my warmest appreciation to my family and friends for their ceaseless love. In particnlar, I want to thank my husband, Solomon, for all his "absent" companionship that he has given me duriug the years in which I have been working on this thesis, especially that he has become my long-distance interlocutor in front of his computer to discuss, to think-with and to talk with me about the topics of my stody.
For every blessing, great or small, my Lord, to you I give thanks for all!
Hong Kong, Easter Sunday, 2012 Chung-KwanAckie Cheung
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Tables
Tab. 4.1: Sample distribution according to sex ................................................ 95 Tab. 4.2: Sample distribution according to age ................................................ 96 Tab. 4.3: Sample distribution according to education level ............................. 96 Tab. 4.4: Sample distribution according to school banding ............................. 97 Tab. 4.5: Participants' report of perceived connection to a specific religion ... 99 Tab. 4.6: Mean pre!post values, effect size and power of perceived self-concept .. 103 Tab. 4.7: Mean preIpost values, effect size and power of perceived self-efficacy .. 1 04 Tab. 4.8: Mean pre/post values, effect size and power of participants' view
to learning climate ........................................................................... 1 05 Tab. 4.9: Mean prelpost values, effect size and power of participants' view
to spiritual dimension with regard to the aspect of spiritual dimension in loose connection to religiosity ................................... 106
Tab.4.10: Mean prelpost values, effect size and power of participants' view to spiritual dimension with regard to the aspect of spiritual dimension in close connection to religiosity ................................... 108
Tab. 4.11: The ranking of the most often carried-out reJigious/spirituai practices ... 110 Tab. 4.12: The ranking of factors that was considered to have most enhanced
spiritual development ...................................................................... 111 Tab. 4.13: Schools that used experientialladventure-based elements ............... 131 Tab. 5.1: Effect size and power of variables in areas of perceived
self-concept and perceived self-efficacy, participants' response to learning climate and to spiritual dimension in descending order of effect size ..................................................................................... 134
Figures
Figure 1: Case study presemed in cen1ral1ayer, peripheral layer and contexlual.layer ... 31 Figure 2: Facet questions in connection to the contextual layer, the peripheral
layer and the central layer .................................................................. 58 Figure 3: Method of data collection corresponding to central layer, peripheral
layer and contextual layer .................................................................. 74 Figure 4: Comparison of mean value of personal development variables ...... 102
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List of abbreviations
A-B-C of adventure Affection-Bahavior- IAA The Duke of Edinburgh's Cognition of adventure Awud International
ABP adventure-bued program! Association pnotice ill Internationa1 Baccolaureate
"ABC" nwdel Ad"""n=-based JCo!ps Juni"" Leader Co!ps counseling nwdel LPCUWCHK Li Po Chun United World
ABE The Association of College of Hong Kong Experiential Eduoation NGO(s) Non-government
AYP HOII8 Kong Awud for organization(, ) Youth People OBlOBHK Outward BouruII Outwud
BOCA Boy,' and Girls' Clubs Bound Hang Kong Association of Hong Kong P.A.T.H.S Positive Adolescent
CDC Curricu1um Development Training through Holistic Council Socia! Programmes
DSS Di=t-scl>eme ~ PI Advooturo-bascd JlI08l1mII ECER The European Conference P2 Adventun>based JlI08l1mI2
on Educational Research P3 Adveolure-based prognun 3 EI Adventure-bued program PDt Power-Distance Index
expert 1 PISA Prognunme for E2 A~program In_nat Student
expert 2 Assessment E3 Adventure-bued program OECD The Organisation for
expert 3 Economic Co-operation EDB HOII8 Kong Education and Development
Buroau RHKRV The Royal Hong Kong BE Experiential edllCation Regiment (The Volunteers) ESF English Schools S.5 Secondary 5 = F.5
Foundation (private SI21 Script 121 schooling) Script Info The ooding of script
F.I Form I - S.I information F.3 Form3 = S.3 SPSS Statistical Package for the F.4 Form4= S.4 Social Sciences F.5 Form5 - S.S SWD Socia! Welf ... Department F.7 Fonn 7=S.7 TI First Tier IlKAC HOII8 Kong Adven_ T2 Scc:oad ncr
Corp, WHO World Health Otganizatioo HKCEE Hong Kong Certificate of YWCA Hong Kong Young
Education Examination Women's Christian IIKIAC HOII8 Kong Insti1ute of Association
Adventure Counseling ZILL Zentnilinatitut fUr Lehr- IIKJC HOII8 Kong Jockey Club Lcroforschung/Ccntral HKU University of Hong Kong Institute for Teaching-ond- Holy Carpenter (S.K.H) Holy Carpenter Learning Research
Chun:h Community Ccrrtre II Institute I 12 Institute 2 13 Institute 3
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1 Introduction
Since the end of the 1990slthe beginning of the 2000s, it appears that adventure­ based programs have been increasingly connected to the secondary school context in Hong Kong. One can see that when walking around the secondary schools in Hong Kong and making little inspection, people can find rock climbing walls and highllow-beams are set on some of the external walls of the mainstream school buildings and in their sport grounds. These are usually some facilities of adventure-based tasks/activities. The other evidence is that it is easy to see that there are often banners (e.g. of size 4 m x 6 m) that surround the school buildings, on which one can see photos describing that students were backpacking and hiking, rafting, etc., and one can see the words such as "adventure-based program" ~~), "life-wide learning" (~::I:Jfl'l~~), "all­ round development" (~.A.fflG,5t). Does it seem like that adventore-based tasks! activities are in frequent use and there is a connection between adventure-based programs to learning and personal development?
By using a case study methodology, this research will establish a phenomenal picture of adventore-based program in the secondary school context of Hong Kong. Such phenomenon will include the extent of the use of experiential education in the Hong Kong secondary school context. It will also show the impact of adventore-based programs on the development of late adolescents, with regard especially to their perceived self-concept, self-efficacy, and their views in learuing climate and in spiritual dimension. Based on the descriptive phenomenon, the study finally makes an attempt to explain the widespread use of adventore-based programs in the secondary school context of Hong Kong.
This introduction chapter will introduce the focus of this research. A clear purpose and design can be found in section 1.4. Nevertheless, the intention of this chapter is not to explain immediately every concept in detail, but to elicit the relation of the research focus to the Hong Kong context (section l.l and 1.2). In fact, what has experiential education/adventure-based practice to do with the adolescents of Hong Kong at school (section 1.3)?
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C. K. A. Cheung, Experiential Education and Adolescents’ Personal and Spiritual Development, DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19120-1_1, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2013
1.1 Import of experientioi education
1.1.1 Experiential education in Hong Kong
Hong Kong is regarded to be an international city and a melting pot of different cultures (cf. Chan, 2004; Law, 2004; Luk-Fong & Brennan, 2004). This can be reflected in many aspects of Hong Kong daily issues. One aspect that people can notice is the educational school context of Hong Kong, as there are some observable changes taking place. One observable change in the secondary school context that has taken place is that since the 2000s, experiential education bas appeared to be often employed in the secondary school context of Hong Kong.
A few Hong Kong writings in the field of experiential education/adventure-based practice have traced its root back to a Jewish German educator, Kurt Hsbn (1886- 1974). As Hong Kong was once a British colony, experiential education in form of adventurous expeditions was brought from the British into Hong Kong through the Outward Bound (OBHK) 1 since 1970s. This reflects that there is a link on the matter concerning experiential education between the local and the global context.
What is experiential education? Admittedly, experiential education can hardly find its all-agreeable definition (cf. Ewert, 1989; Itin, 2003; Luckoer & Nadler, 1997, etc.) In fact, the comprehension of the term "experience" alone already creates problems. In some Western languages, for example, both German words "Erlebnis" and "Erfahrung" are usually translated into "experience" in English (Langenscheldt Handworterbuch Englisch, 2004), but the two German words actoaIly takes different meanings in the usage of the German-speaking world.
"Erlebnis" refers to an incident which is ''beeindruckend'' (Duden Deutsches Universalworterbuch, 200 I) and "aufregend" and "etwas gewoll!, aber nicht planbares" (Reiners, 1995, p.14). In other words, "Erlebnis", in the German-speaking world, is an experience, which refers to an impressive, exciting and not fully plan-ahead incident. "Erlebnis" is a subjective inward-going happening that composes of an individual physical and/or emotional involvement (cf. Ziegenspeck, 1990)'. The German word "Erlebnis" will sometimes be
See http://www.outwardbound.org.hklabout.html. last retrieved 12.06.2011.
2 "Erleben ist das subjeJrtive Innewerden von Vorgigen, die a1s bedeutsam empfunden werden. (Ziogonspock, 1990, p.81)"
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understood as an adventure (Duden Deutsches Universalworlerbuch, 200 I), and it may also be explicated to have further meaning in different contexts (see Schenz, 2007). Thus, instead of "Erlebnispiidagogik", "AbenteueIpiidagogik" is used (e.g. Senninger, 2000). An adventure is also an incident that is as exciting and impressive as "Erlebnis". Moreover, an adventurous incident is often an extraordinary, unpredictable and risky happening (Duden Deutsches Universalworlerbuch, 200 I), which implies possible occurrence of danger that may/can result in serious physical and emotional injury (cf. Ziegenspeck 1990, p.81). In the German-speaking room, "gewonnene Kenntnis bei praktischer Arbeit oder durch Wiederholen einer Sache" is the explanation of "Erfahrung" (Duden Deutsches Universalworterbuch, 2001), which has similar meaning in the English-speaking world. Experience, the German translation of"Erfahrung", refers to ''the knowledge or skill that you have gained through doing something for a period of time." (Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary, 2000). Experience can be considered as the sum of knowledge and skills gained from ordinary incidents as well as knowledge and skills gained from one piece of extraordinary "Erlebnis" .
The Chinese understanding of "~lii&" and "mlii&" can be translated into the English word "experience", which is actually more similar to the German word "Erfahrung" than "Erlebnis". The Chinese understanding of experience denotes first-hand knowledge and skills that have been acquired in practical settings after a long period of learning.
Even the word "experience", with which experiential education is talking about can be (slightly) differently understood in different languages/cultural backgrounds (see chapter 2 for a lucid account for the understanding of experiential education and its framework), it takes time to differientiate these concepts. Then, why does it seem like experiential education, especially adventure-based practice, is finding its way to adolescents in the school context of Hong Kong?
1.1.2 Promotion ofthe use of experiential education/adventure-hased practice
Starting from 2000s, noticeably the Education Bureau of Hong Kong (EOB) has begun to adopt using adventure-based programs in the secondary school context. The Reform Proposal of the EDB states that the enhancement of an all-round development of adolescent in the mainstream school education is important (Reform Proposal, EOB, 2000; Progress Report, Education Commission (EOB), 2006). It looks possible that adventure-based programs have been taken as one of
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the preventive and/or remedial measures for promoting the personal development of students, particularly the development of their non-academic aspects, such as promoting their self-concept, enhancing their self-caring-ability, promoting their emotional stability, and strengthening their sense of resilience, etc. (cf. JiliIj)§!i1J!, 2010; JliI!;jjJiff, 2010). Particularly, when the general public has been complaining about the poorly developed personal quality of Hong Kong adolescents except that they orient strongly to economic striving (Chan, 2004; Law, 2004a; Law, 2004b; JjSI!I:E!E, 2011).' What is certain is that Hong Kong students have been well-known to be examination-oriented and grade-achieving (cf. PISA 2006 results;' Progress Report, Education Commission (EDB), 2006, p.39), but their non-academic development, for example, their ability of understanding themselves and seeking personal goals, making way out of some confusing values and ambivalent views with regard to crime, sex,' and even the meaning of life' are in great worry (Cheung, 2006; Koo, Kam & Choi, 2003; Youth Research Centre, 20IOa). They have been described as generation of the materially rich but heartfully empty. Many teenagers have outwardly mature appearance but are inwardly naive (jilj)§!i1J!, 2010; JliI!;jjJiff, 20\0). Teenagers in Hong Kong are containers of different kinds of knowledge, but many of them have emotional and spiritual problems, some have inadequate sense of social/global right and duty, some lack discerning ability to drug, sex/relational and other delinquent issues as well as lack the identification with a persoual reason for an individual life orientation (Sun & Shek, 2010; Dimmock, 1998; il'1i~q~, 2005; §;k.!i1J!,2007a; JliI!;jjJiff, 20 I 0).
What is more, there are studies, reporting that some teenagers are often feeling confused, self-doubt and even feeling suicidal predominantly because of study pressure at schools. 7 In fact, it is observed that the age group from IS to 24 has the highest rate of attempted suicide in Hong Kong. Also, people in this late adolescence group, who have the idea of attempting suicide, usually
3 See http://www.takungpao.comJbis1ory/carW0n!2011'{)S-281823867.hJml, last retrieved 12.06.20 I\.
4 See ht1p:/Iwww.oocd.org!documcnt210,3343,cn_32252351_32236191_39718850_1_1_1_I,OO. hlml, OECD PISA 2006 results,last retrieved 15.06.2011.
5 See lO..!I; BfIi! . 28.04.2009· (lGt:jjlGj!f&~i!lUD) • [Over 70% Adolescents speak foullangnage]. The newspaper Sing Tao Daily reported the study conducted by the Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups (1!i'i!<j!f~1!(b~)(Mar to Apr, 2009).
6 See xll!ifli!' 20.04.2009· (~'I'1!t"l'~E:iJ*fIi!lI'In"il!"lB r1l"UJ ~) o [Over 50010 F5 students take "eam-money" courses]. The newspaper Wen Wei Po reported the
study conducted by Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups (Feb to Apr, 2009).
7 See http://www.am730.comhk/textlarticle.php?article=55817.1astretrieved 12.06.2011.
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display a negative life orientation.8 This age group has a higher probability than other age groups to show multiple personal problems, including financial, mental health, relationship, study problem and family issues (Lee, Wong, Chow, & McBride-Chang, 2006; Yip & Law, 2008).' In essence, adolescents are generally found unable to acquire an autunomous, independent and self-assured self­ understanding, just like a gigantic liner is traveling without a rudder.
Whether or not these problems of some nowadays' teenagers of Hong Kong are to be dealt with through the use of experiential education/adventure-based practice is already a question; least tu say whether these programs have a real impact on its participants and observably, this has not been investigated in Hong Kong. If, the use of experiential education/adventure-based practice would be connected tu the promotion of the personal development of the Hong Kong adolescents, what function has it fulfilled in the school context of Hong Kong?
1.2 Personal development as human function of copIng and livIng
Theoretically speaking, human beings are development agents. Developmental signs are particularly obvious to be noticed from infants to adolescents. BiologicaV Physical changes are dominant at the early stages of human development. Quantitative changes, e.g. height and weight, reach its stability at its peak of adolescent growth spurt. Parallel with this growth bloom, there emerge the emotional development and social development. Adolescents evolve from identit'ying with peer group at the junior adolescent stage to searching for self identification at the late adolescent stage (Smetana, Campione-Barr, & Metzger, 2006; Steinberg & Morris, 200 I). In a systematic way human beings have the potential to engage in successive changes across time and events (Bomstein & Lamb, 2005).
8 There were two cases of Hong Kong teenage students committing suicide which happened in January 2009 (04.01.2009 & 06.01.09). The second one took place less than 48 hours after the first one had taken place, both were due to stress of study and examination. These two suicide cases were striking to Hong Kong (cf. 1JIl¥ll • 09.01.2009· (-mtf;.=':.=':I1!I!I!!E r !3cffl*1lll $:I!..l:M J i'.&:i<llMltt:3 B lW*) • [Two Students committed suicide within 3 days] in Ming Pao Daily News. Another report of a research conducted in Oct, 2008 by Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers (fiIl1t) showed that 46.5% of 617 primary and secondary school teacher interviewees had problems of sleeplessness because of teaching stress; and ca. 4% had thought about committing suicide (sooxlll!l¥ll • 08.01.2009· (f.I1fl1iE:iJ:k 4%ltilii 96~) 0 [Suicidica1 teachers under great pressure] in Wen Wei Po.
9 See hlqJ11hk.nows.yshoo.c0m/25~441i111-~~223000239.h1ml, IastIOtriovod 12.062011
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In earlier times, there were debates that adolescent development could have been predominately determined either by the nature, for example, in terms of genetic determination and heredity, or the nurture, for instance, education and socialization. The Chinese sayings, "~:7C" (author's translation: The nurture can win over what the nature has given) and "::='jJ!i5i::J\ +" (author's translation: what constitutes the three-year-old has determined the eighty-year­ old) also display the nature-nurture controversy. The contemporary developmental scientists, however, agree to the mutually influential relation between the natural and nurturing conditions which interact to foster the systematic formation of human beings across the life span (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 1998; Elder, 1998; Lemer & Steinberg, 2009). In order to respond flexibly to environmental stimulation, people should better be empowered to flexible mobility/self-movement and self-regulation for the sake of maintenance, survival and reproduction of life, human beings develop co-evolutionarily with their context across the life span (Lemer & Steinberg, 2009).
A human being is, on the one hand, a product, and an active producer of his or her ontogeny, on the other. Dynamic collabomtions between the action of a human being and the feedback of the context, which allow a continual coping mechanism, are believed to make life possible. According to Brandstaedter (2006), the reciprocal process of "action-feedback-self-organization-further-action" brings forth human development (Brandtstiidter, 2006). A personal development, in other words, is an outcome of the process in which a self reflects on one's interaction to understand the present status and hislher behavior towards the context in which (s )he is in, and wholhow (s )he would like to be in the coming time for the sake of a good coping with the circumstances. Sometimes, the striving for development can be intentional. But sometimes, self development, "as the result of person-environment transaction," can be a functional mther than an intentional one (Brandtstiidter, 2006, 826). A personal development does not take place only once and then cease, Elder (1998) further stated a human development takes place continuously in network of shared relation with changing times and places. An individual, embedded and shaped by historical times, constructs continuously also his or her own development through making choices and taking actions within the constraints and opportunities of history and social circumstances (Elder, 1998). Development is necessary and functional for human beings. Many educators have always paid attention in exploring factors/conditions, which may enhance, or otherwise hinder, the development of individuals.
Looking back historically, one of the founders of the modem experiential education schools and institutions, Kurt Hahn (1886-1974) has used experiential
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education to inspire his students to realize their full potential, because he believed in the Greek poet Pindar's saying: ''There is more in you than you think" (Cheung, 2007, p.3)! Hahn believed that the younger generation does not become indolent according to fate. Young people actually ''have the joy of movement [and] an enterprising curiosity. They are ready for sensible self-denial. They dream ahead. They have a faithful memory, and, above all, great compassion".10 Hahn believed that it is a matter of whether adults can bring them into a fitting environment or refreshing experience, in which young people may discover that ''they are more than they can think of' - ''plus est en vous" (Cheung, 2007, p.14) ." Hahn perceives that there is an intrinsic need for the young people to develop their full potential. According to the teenager's potential, Hahn arranged special learning environment for them (Beard & Wilson, 2006; Eberle, 2010b; Kolb & Kolb, 2009; *tfI~ & ¥)Jj(_, 2002, etc.).
This may be understood from the psychological perspective, whereby individuals have the need to earn their self-esteem and eventually attaining self-fulfillment (Maslow, 1987). To explain in terms of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, one can see that young people, given that they have their lower needs gradually fulfilled, begin to strive for higher needs, needs for self-esteem and self-worth, needs of understanding and knowing, and even the need to grow towards self-actualization (Maslow, 1999), the desire to become everything that one is capable of being! becoming. Self-actualization is characterized by acceptance of self and others, openness, relatively deep but democratic relationships with others, creativity, and independence (Maslow, 1987). Having the need to search for self, adolescents, in comparison to children, are more motivated and more self-directed to explore new experience and new learning. Also, they orient themselves not only to pure knowledge, but also to life situations like dating or more freedom to make independent choices on moral issues. Eventually, adolescents are likely to desire to create meaning out of experiences and to realize one's personal potential in life, striving for persoual growth. Such personal growth, suggested Maslow, concems a holistic integration of an individual, including cognitive perception of self-worth, behavior, and relationship to others and to the environment (Maslow, 1987).
For Hahn, education that incorporates experience into it is meant to give opportunity for young people to grow. For instance, according to his experience,
10 Hahn's words in the "Address given at Maidstone in 1962", quoted by McLachlan, see 1970, p.7. 11 ''Grow to be who you are" or ''Wcrde, der du bist!" is a saying from Pindar. See Hahn, 1934, 224.
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he began to employ the nature, especially the sea as the new "classroom" to help youngsters gain individual insights in how they relate to themselves, to others, and to the external context, thus developing character (Hahn, 1947). Hahn discovered that adventurous expeditions can "build up the [watchmen's] virtues, vigilance, endurance, victorious patience, coolness in danger, resourcefulness and decision" (Hahn, 1947). For Hahn, the sea as an adventure-inherent element does not only imply a learning environment of danger and challenge, but it is ''where ever­ present potential threat required ever mobilized resources of [rescuing service]" (Brereton, 1970, p.57), which impell people to live in a just and a commpassionate way. In Hahn's conceptual framework, the restoration of spiritual awareness and spiritual strength to committing to justice and compassion is of all importance (Hahn, 1965b).
What experiential education in its initial emergence has (been intended to) fulfill(ed) might look different than what it has/can fulfill(ed) in the Hong Kong context. In this research, one postulate is that experiential educationladventure­ based practice connects to the enhancement of personal development of the Hong Kong adolescents.
1.3 Experiential education and personal development
In the Hong Kong context, late adolescence is a detennining phase. For instance, late adolescents usually become leaders of the junior youth in the school context. Their leadership and social capabilities will be put into tests because they are seemingly the more mature students in comparing to the junior stodents at schools. If they don't take this challenge and try exercising their talents at schools, building up their sense of efficacy, they might end up getting frustrated about their own strength and weakness. Also, they are about to give serious thoughts to their further study subjects and career path. There is a need for them to get aware of and be able to tell their own selves where they want to go and what they, occupationally, want to become. Such determination has to be, at the same time, cautiously made and tenderly suited to their personality, interest and (life) mission. If they don't take this decision-making personally and carefully, but just get into any path that is expected from them, without their full and true commitment to it, there might be a danger that they gradually get doubtful about their life purpose and meaning and get dissatisfied with what they wonld be working on, even when it wonld become a success.
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Personal development, for these late adolescents, would mean the nourishment of oneself for the sake and benefit of oneself. The nourishing process can be seen as the bridge of the gap between the present state, in wbich individuals are, and the becoming state, in wbich they look forward to be in. If individuals cannot get aware of such present and becoming states, they hardly find ways to bridge the gap, getting themselves nourished and getting their full potential out to respond to the external challenges. Self-understanding is therefore essential for this gap bridging (cf. Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 2006).
In Hong Kong, teenagers will likely be confronted most severely with identifying themselves and making decisions. This is not easy for them because of all the seemingly contradictiog voices from their parents, the global cultural influences and their own wishes (Dimmock, 1998; Luk-Fong & Brennan, 2004; Zhang, 2005). After 150 years of British colonial govemance, the global, especially the English-speaking, cultore has grafted onto the living of people in Hong Kong. The educational system, namely, the school context, can reflect the crossbreeding cultore of both the distant and the predominant local Chinese values and beliefs. As many educational policies are imported from the British and American perspectives, there exists clashing between many seemingly integrated hut actually competing notions of the various cultures. As a result, in dealing with the inconsistent cultural valueslbeliefs and practices, adolescents have a lot of confusion in understanding themselves (see more on 5.3).
Among all the confusions, it is obvious to see the difficulty for teenagers to position themselves as ouly a fragment of or as an intergrated part to the whole in bighly-efficient-<ifflnanding society. Ideally, the sense ofwortbiness is believed to come from the essence of the whole being, but when young people observe that more values are actusl\y given to a particular fragmented area, like academic performance, it is likely that they will get confused about the bighly-clairned value given to a success coming, not from only a fragment, but from the whole. In fact, each piece of fragmented area cannot stand on its own when it belongs to a system, for each piece is interacted with one another. One may understand this with a complete jigsaw picture that is actusl\y composed of many small pieces. The picture will not be completed if even one small jigsaw piece is lost. It would be important for late adolescents to see the value of development as a whole in a balanced way" (cf. Reform Proposal, EDB, 2000; for discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.3).
12 See "Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide (Booklet 1)", http://cdl.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/cnsI sscL web/hbnllenglishlindex.html, last retrieved 15.06.2011.
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Moreover, it is imaginable that teenagers would have to leam to identify themselves not only as interdependent individuals; they also need to identify themselves as independent individuals. Living in a city like Hong Kong, whereby the lifestyle may be modernized, following many global trends. However, the underlying mentality is still very Chinese - collective. It is common to see people, particularly young people, get frustrated by often being expected to be submissive to authorities, on the one hand, and being expected to be independently decisive, on the other. In fact, there are times, when people need to think and act interdependently, and there are also times, when people need to think and act independently. The interdependent and the independent self do not necessarily contradict with each other. However, it would be a learning process for adolescents to find out when and how they would consider a decision, an action and a responsibility collectively andlor independently (for discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.2).
Last but not lease, it would be foreseeable to see adolescents who will have to leam to orient themselves and their life according to their values and belief. In Hong Kong, a rich materialistic life has been heavily emphasized, just like other cosmopolitsn cities. People generally have to face the confrontation with their own value and belief system, conceming the questions like "what is worth for one's life" and "what a person is seeking". Late adolescents will not be spared from this struggle, particularly when they are at the developmental phase of searching for life orientation, life meaning and life purpose. If they would only equate what belongs to ''this worldly" to what may goes beyond, then they may hardly come to realize there is the possibility that things can be mysteriously linked together and an individual can be at the same time, self to - self, other and transcendence - relevant. One central aspect of spirituality is the experience of humility, in which an individual may be able to recognize the presence of other beings (things/human beings). These, the whole, all together, can generate something more than only one individual can bring forth. Therefore, life may be taken in a very different way, when adolescents may be able to aware of not only being materialistic, but also being spiritual (for further explication of the concept "spirituality", see section 2.4.2.4; discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.1).
In the Hong Kong context, where there is no official religion, it is common that Hong Kong Chinese practices rituals and observes a variety of Chinese traditioua1 values and beliefs. These may find their traces back to the main Chinese religions, but the religiosity of these Chinese religions do not exhibit itself as most of the other monotheist andlor polytheist religions do. This non-religiosity may be understood as something that is spiritual and transcendental. The spiritual is
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found to relate to life issues, to values and beliefs that will lay their influences on life matters and to ritual practices that also construct life patterns to certain extent (fur further explication of the concept "spiritoality", see section 2.4.2.4; discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.1). In this regard, as it is believed that it is the intention of adventure-based practice/programs to provide opportunities for participants to explore and develop their values and beliefs that immediately connect to their life issues, the implicit characteristics of the spiritual dimension of the program participants is supposed to come up to the surface.
It is the postulate that experiential education, especially adventure-based programs, have been taken into the secondary school context to respond to the need of enhancing adolescents' self-understanding, particularly their perceived self­ concept, self-efficacy, and also their spiritual dimension, thus enhancing personal development. Still, before this can be interpreted as the function of experiential education!adventure-based practice, the extent of its use, the understanding and the impact of it, which are included in the phenomenal picture of experiential education in the secondary school context of Hong Kong, are on a scientific quest.
1.4 Purpose and design of the study
1.4.1 Key concerns of Investigation: Self-concept, self-efficacy, learning climate and spiritual dimension
The increasing use of experiential education, especially adventure-based programs, in the global context has opened up new researching opportunities. In the field of experiential education, there are increasing evidences, from the distant context, such as in the English- and German-speaking contexts, showing that some experiential education! adventure-based programs claimed a significant positive impact on adolescents' social, behavioral and intellectual perspective change (Eberle, 2010a; Ewert, 1987; Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997; Kiimmel, Hampel & Meier, 2008, etc.).
More specifically, Griffin and LeDuc (2009) found out that adventure programs showed its catalytic effect to adolescents' spiritual growth. These stodies highlighted different aims, which experiential education strove toward, which, in general, entailed enhancing of self-confidence, social relationship, youngsters' sense of responsibility and sense of compassion. This resembled the original proposed goals of one of the key founders of those programs, Kurt Halm (Hahn,
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1965a; Hahn 1965b). Many researchers show that adventure-based programs generally lay influence on participants' self-development (Shek and Sun, 20 I 0).
Seeing the frequent use of adventure-based program in Hong Kong but seeing that there is not yet a scientific and an extensive study on the phenomenon of this trend, there is a need to comprehend what is really going on for the adolescents in schools. As shown by some researches, the investigation supposes that the adventure-based programs would also have certain impact on the participants' perception to their self-concept and self-efficacy. Moreover, such programs are often used to establish successful team work/spirit. Then, the participants' view to learning climate may be changed. This is also one consideration in the investigation.
While there are a wide range of research, giving focus to self-understanding, particularly self-concept, self-efficacy in the field of experiential education, particularly adventure-based practice, the spiritual dimension/the self­ transcendence dimension of personal development is still gaining insufficient attention or seldom investigated in experiential education and/or adventure­ based practice, as suggested by some researchers (Beard & Wilson, 2006; Poll & Smith, 2003). If experiential education, especially adventure-based program, claims to be able to enhance personal development, then the development in the positive change that comes along with spiritoal dimension should also be taken into consideration, or else, it is not yet a full check-out of the influence of adventure-based programs on participants (Griffin & LeDuc, 2009; Heintzman, 2003; Heintzman, 2010).
Moreover, increasing amount of research suggests that outdoor adventure experiences should be promising in nurturing the spiritoal dimension of individnals (AshIey, 2007; Benson, Roehlkepartain, Hong, Henderson, & Bialeschki, 2008; Griffin & LeDuc, 2009; Heintzman, 2010, etc.). In particular, the solo experience (Daniel, 2007; Griffin and LeDuc, 2009, etc.) and the nature experience (Ashley, 2007; Heintzman, 2010; Loeflier, 2005, etc.), etc. are thought to be responsive to the desperate seeking of something that is spiritual. This study, therefore, will take the spiritual dimension into account.
1.4.2 Research question and pnrpose of the stndy
In view of the situation in Hong Kong, the study set out to achieve two aims. First, it is the intention of the study to be the first empirical research to establish a
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current phenomenal picture of adventure-based programs in the secondary school context of Hong Kong. It has hypothesized that participants, by taking part in the programs, will acquire a stronger belief in their self-concept, self-efficacy (cf. Hattie, Marsh, Neil and Richards, 1997; etc.), will have an improved view in the learning climate and participants will reflect deeper upon their life issue, which is regarded to be concerned with the spiritual dimension (Griffin & LeDuc, 2009; etc.). Secondly, based on the phenomenal picture, the study attempts to interpret what functions the adventure-based programs have fulfilled in connection with the Hong Kong context, with regard to, particularly, the spiritual dimension and concept of individuality (section 2.3 will further clarify more clearly with the research question).
1.4.3 Design ofthe study
By means of a case study methodology, it will try to answer the research questions.
Figure 1: Case study presented in central layer, peripheral layer and contextual layer (source: by author)
Contextual layer: Descriptive findings on phenomenon of adventure-based programs in the genm! secondary school context in Hong Kong
Peripheral layer: Descriptive findings 00 specific schooVchurch oootext of the adventure-based progrm
Central layer: Descriptive findings on adolescent participants' learning in the adventure·based program
The case study will be presented with a central layer, a peripheral layer and a contextual layer (cf. Figure 1). The central layer is the center of the case. It focuses closely on adventure-based programs, particularly the perceptual understanding and learning of the student participants in the programs. At the peripheral layer, the case describes the program circumstantial information. Particularly, the
31
peripheral involves the specific school/church context, in which these programs have been initiated. At the contextual layer, the case will present the general phenomenon of adventure-based programs in the secondary school context of Hong Kong.
Experiential education has been used for building positive self-concept and self­ efficacy, building teamwork in other countries such as Britain and America, in which the characteristics of individuality prevail. In the background of an once­ British-colonized and still Chinese-mindset-dominating city like Hong Kong, this study suspects that adventure-based program, as an example in the framework of experiential education, would be able to facilitate the learning arena in contributing positive influence to personal development and particularly the spiritual development of adolescent participants.
Based on the findings, this study will make an attempt to explain how and why adventure-based programs have been widely spread in the secondary school context. In this relatively collective-oriented culture, the research argues that these programs may serve as a place for an experience of sense of individuality among being with others. In Hong Kong, where pragmatism, utilitarianism and fragmentation take lead of people's mentality, it may remind adolescents of the impottance of a holistic concern and allow them to experience it. Moreover, the programs may become a secularized platform, serving as a vehicle for participants to connect themselves to and express their spiritual search.
This introduction chapter has already put forward the framework of the investigated topic of this research. Adventure-based program as one dominant form of experiential education has been used in Hong Kong. It is expected to enhance participants' persoual development. The background information that is presented in this chapter should serve for better contextual understanding of Hong Kong, which will be referred back in the discussion patt for exploring some functions of adventure-based program and experiential education.
Chapter 2, chapter 3 and chapter 4 can be viewed as a strongly intettwined entity to the case study on adventure-based program. The conceptual framework in chapter 2 still concerns experiential education. But, when the study begins to focus on the benefits or learning that adolescent patticipants can gain from experiential education, it concentrates ouly on the learning of adventure-based programs. Thus, the methodology of chapter 3 and the findings of chapter 4 relate merely to the investigated adventure-based programs in this case study.
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Chapter 2 presents the recent review of concepts on experiential education and adventure-based program. It will provide the necessary background information for understanding about the themes of the investigation. Also, it will give some empirical findings mainly from some English-speaking researches with regard to adventure-based programs.
The methodology part, chapter 3, will give a detailed illustration of how the case study has been carried out. Adventure-program was investigated using the case study design (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003). The setting of altogether three adventure-based programs will be described (see section 3.1). Quantitative survey was used to measure the perceived self-understanding of participants prior to and after their participation in the program (see section 3.2.6). Qualitative measures such as interviews and observation were used to trace the understanding of participants to experiential education and concept of spiritual dimension as well as their inunediate response at different part of participating in the program. Expert interviews gave an account on the historical development and the use of experiential education in Hong Kong (see section 3.2.1 to section 3.2.5).
The descriptive findings will be presented in chapter 4 with regard to the central layer, the peripheral layer and the contextual layer. The peripheral layer originally included the findings of the program administrative information, including the specific schooVchurch background and expectations of the adventure-based programs. In this book, it will display only the expectation given to the programs (see section 4.1). The largest part of the findings will be devoted to the central layer, which reveals the learning of the student participants during and after the programs, taken from quantitative questionnaire, episodic interviews with students and field observation by the researcher. The quantitative findings will be fully presented in this book, but the qualitative part will only be listed out (see section 4.2). Then, findings of the contextual layer concerning the historical development of experiential education and website analysis on adventure-based programs in the secondary school context will be presented (see section 4.3).
The quest concerning the possible explanations to the widespread of adventure­ based program and experiential education will be generated by interpreting the descriptive findings in chapter 5. Firstly, the findings of the central layer will be interpreted mainly with regard to program level (see section 5.1) and the findings of the contextual layer will be interpreted with regard to the Hong Kong school context. Then, it will particn1arly emphasize on some functions of, first, the adventure-based programs descriptively, and secondly, experiential education prescriptively that specifically relates to the Hong Kong Chinese context (see section 5.3). At last, the conclusion will recapitulate the main points of the whole
33
study (see section 5.4). Recommendations for practice, conceptual reflection and further research will he brought forth in the implication part (see section 5.5).
Summary
The seemingly widespread of adventure-based programs has not been pulled out of thin air. The introduction has attempted to track down the interconnections between adventure-based programs/practice and the contextual situation of Hong Kong. This is supposed to serve as background understanding for the discussion on findings with regard, again, to the context of Hong Kong in chapter 5.
Meanwhile, chapter 2 is going to present the literature review and conceptual framework of adventure-based programs, as being perceived in the field of experiential education, in detail.
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2 Literature review and clarification of research question
Differentiating itself from chapter I, this chapter will primarily give a very succinct explication and conceptual framework on different conceptions by reviewing related literatures of experiential education and adventure-based practice, chiefly from the perspective of experiential educators/adventure-based educators. To the knowledge of the researcher of this study, extensive conceptual and empirical knowledge on this theme has mainly come from English-speaking literatures. Possible cultural differences with regard to the studied matter have not been greatly taken intu consideration in this chapter, but will be attended in chapter 5. It will, first, present the explicated understanding of experiential education for this study (section 2.1). It will then give attention to the conceptual framework concerning leamer-centered orientation and the construction of learning environment from the psychological perspective, cognitive perspective and social learning perspective (section 2.2). The third part discloses the review on the effects of adventure-based practice and the focus of this research (section 2.3). The investigated benefits are in concection with adventure-based programs, regarding self-concept, self-efficacy, learning climate and spiritual dimension. Finally, the research question will be clarified (section 2.4). Facet questions, corresponding to the peripheral layer, the centra1layer and the contextual layer, will be introduced. They gnide the direction of the case study.
2.1 Experiential education: Explication of the concept
The "amoeba" impression of experiential education/adventure-based practice may appear in a wide range offields and contexts such as group learning projects, service learning, outdoor adventure, etc. Admittedly, there is no consensus on what is experiential education or not (cf. Alvarez and Rogers, 2006; Cantor, 1995; Fenwick, 2000; Gosen & Washbush, 2004; Kolb, 1984, etc.).
The worldwide popular concept "experiential education" has been defined with high degree of elasticity. To some scholars, it may have a broader understanding.
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C. K. A. Cheung, Experiential Education and Adolescents’ Personal and Spiritual Development, DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19120-1_2, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2013
Fenwick (2000) argued that learning can always take place, as experience is either consciously or unconsciously gained through formal and informal education. Thus, instead of distinguishing learning as experiential or not, one can "identify different degrees of experiential learning across a spectrum" (Domask, 2007, p.55). What is implied here can he best understood by Cantor's (1995) definition that experiential education can simply mean some "learning activities that engage the learner directly in the phenomena being studied" (Cantor, 1995, p.I).
Experiential education can then refer to any movement, activity, group, or whatsoever, whereby a learner is partaking in a course of learning process, and transforming experience into knowledge (cf. Kolb, 1984, p. 38-41). This more inclusive understanding of experiential education may induce confusion that "everything or anything" can be put into the framework of experiential education. Also, experiential education as the stretchy understanding of "learning by doing" may be a too elementary comprehension tu the essence of experiential education (cf. Gurthrie, 2003, p. 760-763). However, broader understandings may allow people to have more freedom to see learning as experiential, to certain extent.
There are more specific understandings given to experiential education in different language worlds. One probably most commonly used understanding of experiential education in the English-speaking room of the field of experiential education is that:
"Experiential education is the process of actively engaging students in an authentic experience that will have benefits and consequences. Students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of others. Students also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways ofthinking" (Kraft & Sakofs, 1988 quouted in Prouty, Collinson & Panicucci, 2007. p.12).
Because this definition has been employed by the Association of Experiential Education (AEE),13 it has ahnost become a standard understanding of experiential education among experiential education scholars and practitioners.
13 The Association ofExpericntial Education (AEE), founded in 1971, whose founding educators aligned closely with Kurt Hahn's (1886-1974) educational concepts and institutions, has been a connecting organization of many experiential education practitioners, both for individuals as well as institutions. For further reference see http://www.ace.arg!, last retrieved on 15.04.09.
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"unmittelbares Lemen mit Herz, Hand und Verstand in Ernstsituationen und mit kreativen Problem1osungsansitzen und sozialem Aufferderungscharakter bilden den Anspruchsrahmen erzieherisch de:finierter, verantwortbarer und auf eine praktiscbe Umsetzung ausgericbteter Uberlegungen, die auf individuelle und gruppenbezogene Veriinderungen von Haltungen und WertmaBstaOen ausgerichtet sind und durch sie veranlasst und begriindet werden" (Ziegenspeck, 1990. p.84).14
The impression given by the first explication is more general and the second is more precise. Moreover, the general understanding, given by Kraft and Sakofs, seems to be more readily applicable for various types of experiential education, while the German understanding of it has brought the sense of "seriousness! intensiveness". The later description orients itself more to the English-speaking concept of "adventure-based practice" than the concept of "experiential education". As indicated already in section 1.1.1, one can see that the sense given by the German word "Erlebnis" can be quite different from the sense given by the English word "experience". Although these two explications raise the focus to the active involvement of studentsJIearners in the learning process, the first one may imply that students actively discover and reflect on their own learning as they are engaging in the learning process in a general sense. Ziegenspeck further elaborated in what way learning should take place (cf. author's translation in footuote). For instance, learning should occur in connection with heart, hand and coguition; learning should take place in an intensive problem-thinking and social­ interaction impelling setting; and the attention given tu the consideration of this learning framework is thought to connect to individual and group changes.
14 The author has attempted to re-arrange the German sentences in this way: "Das unmittelbare Lemen mit Hen, Hand und Verstand in Emstsituationen und mit kreativen ProblemlOsungsansitzcn und sozialem Aufforderungscharak.ter bildet den Rahmen :fUr die 'Oberlegungen, die als crzieherisch gelten bezeichnet werden, vcrantwortbar sind und auf cine praktische Umsetzung zielen. Diese Oberlegungen veranlassen und begriinden individuelle und gruppcnbezogene Veriinderungen von Haltungen und WcrtmaBstiben." Author's translation: "Experiential education can be understood as the framework that is to be nccdcd/demanded. Such framework is built up by the immediate/direct learning with heart, hand and mind in an intensive situation, and learning that involves creative problem-solving strategies and impelling social interactions, whereby it pays attention to the character that it is educational, that it considers itself to be responsible, and that it takes practical implementation into consideration. Such attention will be the ground and the cause for individual and group changes in their attitudes and values".
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These two definitions may have reflected how experiential education has been understood in the English- and German-speaking worlds in the field of experiential education(f'Erlebnispiidagogik'').lS One may see here, they pointed out that experiential education is specifically meant to consider a person's multi­ dimensions. They also emphasized intensively the learning process, whereby a person participates in an activity/a task actively, namely, involving this person's cognitive, emotional and behavioral dimensions. These explications seem to have emphasized the one-way learning, i.e. individuals' learning takes place due to the cautious arrangement of the learning environment. Moreover, they have little stress on the educating process as well as an education with specific products! consequences. They also did not clarify to which levels, a conceptoal or practical level, these definitions belong to.
The researcher of this study finds the "exchanging interactive" character and the stress on "the multi-dimensions" oflearning important. Itin, (1997), based on the work of Dewey (1938, 2001[1916]), Hahn (in James, 1995) and the Association for Experiential Education (1994), consolidated an understanding for experiential education. In his opinion,
"experiential education is a holistic philosophy, where carefully chosen experiences supported by reflection, critical analysis, and synthesis, are structured to require the leamer to take initiative, make decisions, and be accountable for the results, through actively posing questions, investigating, experimenting, being curiolls, solving problems, assuming responsibility, being creative, constructing meaning, and integrating previously developed knowledge. Learners are engaged intellectually, cm.otionally, socially, politically, spiritually, and physically in an uncertain environment where the learner may expcnence success, failUI~, adventure, and risk. taking. The leaming usually involves interaction between learners, learner and educator, and learner and environment It challenges the leamer to explore issues of values, relationship, diversity, inclusion, and community. The educator's primary roles include selecting suitable experiences, posing problems, setting boundaries, supporting learners, insuring physical and emotional safety, facilitating the learning process, guiding reflection, and providing the necessary information. The results of tho learning form the basis of futuro experience and learning" (Itin, 1997, p.6 quoted in Itin, 2003, p.1l2-113).
15 The term "experiential education" was not first defined and then practiced. Educators such as Lietz, Hahn did not first define a term for the kind of education they were doing and put their concepts into practice. On the contrary, Hahn kept modified his way of educating students and developed his understanding of"Erlebnistherapie", experiential therapy, which later evolved to become "experiential education."
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Here, ltin gave a philosophical framework of how experiential education is believed to function as such. It has stated the selection of experience. It has extended the learning dimensions also to social, political and spiritoal concerns. It has stressed that learning is not only one-way, but it takes place in an exchanging interactive way. The definition clearly refers itself to a theoretical framework of experiential education.
In the line of ltin's understanding, the researcher of this study, conceptually understands experiential education with three domains.
Conceptually, experiential education is a learner-oriented, conscious construction of a learning environment/condition in order to attain educational goals. In this regard, experiential education can be characterized by the combination of a learner-centered orientation, a conscious construction oflearning environment/condition and fulfilment of educational purposes. When education is meant to be experiential, it means that it is structored in a cautious manner that is oriented to the featores and needs of a (group of) target learner(s) that allows a learner to play an active role to explore a subject matter in a way to form a direct relationship with the subject matter - rather than solely encountering it indirectly, and at the end it allows a learner to achieve goals of causes of getting in connection with a subject matter and other factors of the learning environment (cf. Luckner & Nadler, 1997). The construction of a learning environment involves a complex arousal of a person, thus (s)he will immediately be ''turned­ on" (intrinsically motivated), in making free choices to meet the challenge of uncertainty and novelty (cf. Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1997).
Experiential education involves a consciously constructed learning environment for a personla learner, whereby (s)he is supposed to be able to experience hislher psychological, mental and social happenings attained through physical activities (cf. Ewert, 1989). Adventore-based practice is an example of experiential education, thus it abides generally to the conceptual framework of experiential education, but it toms to using some specific elements in constructing the learning environment for its learners (cf. section 2.2.2).
2.2 Experiential education andadven!ure-based practice: Conceptuolframework
Experiential education, theoretically, is believed to perceive learner(s) to be the attention focus of education. The learning environment is constructed in accordance with the developmental potential of the learners' natore (cf. Luckner
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& Nadler, 1997, etc.). It perceives a learner as an individual, whose being and becoming is the ultimate concern (in comparing to perceiving a person as human resources in economic activities). The teaching and learning process orients itself to adjust to a learner's characteristics as well as to fulfill his/her learning modes! needs (priest & Gass, 2005; Silberman, 2007).
2.2.1 Learner-centered orientation
Theoretically, learner-centered orientation denotes the idea that human beings as learners are, in themselves, autonomous and self-originating. Instead of making the children to follow the education agenda, education should follow the natural physical, mental and spiritoal development of children, because they are, in themselves, autopoetic agents (cf. Oeiker, 1995; Oeiker, 200Ia).16 The focus is given to these agents, who are able to and who will construct understanding meaning for themselves, as they come across incidences.
Concerning the target sample of this study, adolescents, particularly late adolescents, are characterized by their intruspectiveness, as they are confronted with many tomsitions that can lay enonnous influence in their life. They become more eager to understand themselves. Instead of constructing a cognitive representation of oneself ouly intema1ly, the contemporary perspective of self suggests a multiple constructive self-representations across different relatioual contexts. In other words, self-understanding is socially-constructed representation of a self (Harter, 2006).
The Erikson's psychosocial theory postulates that teenagers (ca. 10 to 20 years old) are used to explore and clarify roles, to search for a clear direction in their life path so as to avoid identity confusion. The conventional view is widely used but found often to be lacking of empirical basis (Ausubel, 2002; Santruck, 2010).
Contemporarily, the formation of a self perception is associated to a person's cognitive representation and the environmental context. Stodies found that social contexts such as family, peers and school contexts have contributed to the formation of their own self perception (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Harter, 2006).
16 This study will not capture this concept with regard to the development of this concept in the historica1line, people who are interested in the concept of leamer/childlstudent-centeredness in the works of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, etc. Critical reviews to this concept may be found by the writings of e.g. Oelker,1995, 20018, 200lb.
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For late adolescents, identity formation is a process, whereby they activate, transfer, test and evaluate the existing mental representations of themselves, e.g. their perceived self-concept and self-efficacy in relation to specific domain (Chen, Boucher & Tapias, 2006). In building the self during late adolescence, it is common to see that late adolescents begin to create an individual self by distancing themselves from beliefs and expectations imposed by significant others. Also, they are likely to create an independent self, thus exhibiting more often autonomy-seeking behaviors. In pursuing for a sense of self-sufficiency and authenticity, late adolescents are constructing "a sense of having taken hold of one's destiny in an effort to reach goals that are personally meaningful" (Newman & Newman, 2008, p.370).
Sometimes, such sense of meaning construction may also relate to existential concern, as they appear naturally and frequently in the realm of spirituality and/or religiosity (Baude, 2008, p.15; Tanyi, 2002). The inquiry to these questions is one of the central themes of adolescence with regard to their psychological and social development (cf. Hay, 2007; Hull, 2002; King & Roeser, 2009). The question of seeking something that is spiritoal involves a search for meaning to existential questions, namely, what is everlasting, transcendent, or ultimate (Baude, 2008; Tanyi, 2002). The ''ultimate concern", from an existential point view, is the object of concern that is transcendent, numinous and sacred (Tillich, 1957, p.5- 9). This is in congruence to educators, Wright's (2000) and Hay and Nyes' (2006) understanding that children and adolescents are growing to be spiritoal beings, who have the relationship with oneself, with others (community), with that, expressed in tenns of cultore and tradition, which is/is perceived to be of ultimate concern, ultimate value, and ultimate truth (Hay & Nye, 2006; Wright, 2000).
This self-understanding process that includes also the search of existential concern continues in a fluctuating and even contradicting tension, until the discrepancy between the perceived ideal self and the perceived real self can be resolved, such that individuals can have a more coherent/integrated self-understanding (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Chen, Boucher & Tapias, 2006). The learning environment of experiential educationladventore-based practice is supposed to be constructed in a way that speaks for the characteristics of late adolescents.
2.2.2 Construction of learning environment/condition
The next domain of experiential education is the learning environment/condition construction. From the perspective of experiential educators, experiential
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education practitioners are expected to arrange a learning environment for learners, whereby a process oflearning that matches the learners may take place (Beard & Wilson, 2006; Thiesen, 2006).
The generally agreed experiential learning model is believed to be proposed by Kolb (Kolb, 1984; also Beard & Wilson, 2006; Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2005, etc.). Akin to Dewey (1938, 1997[1910]), Kolb, having adapted Lewin's notion of experiential learning, proposed a four-phase "circle oflearning" process. The process runs in this path: (I) concrete experience, (2) observation and reflection, (3) abstract conceptoalization and (4) active experimentation of new knowledge/skills in new sitoations (Heyrup & Elkjae