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+ What factors determine whether a language eventually becomes a dialect or a totally new language? Page 16 (Sixth Edition) Page 19 (Fifth Edition)
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+
What factors determine whether a language eventually becomes a dialect or a totally new language?
Page 16 (Sixth Edition)Page 19 (Fifth Edition)
+The slight separation of one segment of a community from other segments of that same community can result in _____________, while a *long-term separation of one segment of a community from another can result in________________.
1. a new language, a dialect
2. a dialect, a new language
+Question for Discussion
What causes segments of a community to separate from the main community?
1. Social mandates: segregation (Jim Crow), one-child policy
2. Natural disaster: drought, fire, earthquakes
3. Social strife: war, persecution
4. Economic conditions: seeking better jobs, better education, cheaper housing
+Question for Discussion
In terms of language, what importance is there in understanding the reason(s) that one segment of a community separates from the main community?
The reason(s) for the separation often explains why a language developed a certain way lexically, stylistically, structurally, phonetically, and semantically. Language does not develop randomly.
Example: Slavery—the need to hide escape plans from the master resulted in the metaphorical style of AAVE
+Question: Linguistic Connections
Even if one segment of a community separates itself from the main community and forms a new language, this new language will/will not retain characteristics of the old, parent language?
1. will
2. will not
page 15 (sixth edition)pages 19-20 (fifth edition)
+
Because a new language retains characteristics of the old, parent language, this means that it is possible to study English and identify its parent language, the ancient language from which it derives.
Parent Language
+
A parent language is a language from which other languages have derived.
Parent Language
+Which of these ancient languages below is considered to be the ancient parent language of English?
1. Balto-Slavic
2. Hellenic
3. Indo-European
4. Italic
+Indo-European
Indo-European is the parent language that linguists have identified as spoken by ancient people who spread into areas known today as Asia and Europe.
+
Indo-European
From the Indo-European language, 11 major language groups emerged.
(page 18, sixth edition)
(page 23, fifth edition)
+
Indo-European Language Chart
+
Besides Indo-European, other ancient parent languages include Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and Niger-Congo
+ Other ancient parent languages
Arabic and ancient Hebrew come from the Afro-Asiatic
Chinese comes from the Sino-Tibetan parent language.
Swahili comes from the Niger-Congo parent language.
+The most widely-spoken languages deriving from the Indo-European parent language are English, Spanish, and Portuguese.
Spanish, French, and Portuguese are Romance languages.
+ The Indo-European chart indicates that English derived from what language-people group?
1. Celtic2. Balto-Slavic3. Germanic4. Hellenic
+Based on the Indo-European chart, when the Germanic people split, did the Germanic language become a dialect first or a new language?
1. Dialect
2. New Language
+
From what Germanic-language-people group did English derive?
West Germanic
+What is Grimm’s law, and what connection does Grimm's law have to the Indo-European parent language?
+
Grimm's law explains how languages deriving from the Indo-European parent language are related
+
Grimm's law explains how English evolved from ancient times until now.
+
Grimm's law outlines the historical events that led to the eventual development of English.
+Grimm's Law
Grimm's law is a theory developed by linguists that explains how very diverse languages actually came from the same ancient parent--Indo-European.
+
Grimm's law works by identifying patterns in diverse languages and using those patterns to establish historical connections.
+One pattern that John Grimm found which connects English with its "cousins" in the Indo-European family involves the replacement of the p and the f sound.
+
The p in the word of a language, such as Latin, that derives from the Indo-European family will be replaced with a f in the equivalent word of its Germanic relative like English.
+In Latin, the word Pisces means fish.
Later, in Germanic languages such as English, the same word is spelled with an f
+
Another pattern that John Grimm found which connects English with its "cousins" in the Indo-European family involves t and th.
+ While some words in Latin will use t, equivalent words in English will use th.
Latin=tres
English=three
+Which group below represents the most widely spoken languages deriving from the Indo-European parent language?
1. English, French, and Spanish
2. English, Portuguese, Spanish
3. English, Italian, Spanish
4. English, German, Spanish
+
Esperanza Spalding
(Milton Mascimento)
Ponte De Areia
+Learning Languages
In considering ancient parent languages, what factors go into the ease with which individuals learn a language?
+It is usually easier for individuals to learn languages that derive from the same ancient parent language that to learn languages from different parent languages.
It is also usually easier “code-switching.”
Italian and English
+
Relatives of the Germanic Language-People
Romance Languages
+French
+What is the definition of a dialect?
1. a new language created from a standard language
2. a variation of a standard language
+
Smaller communities within a country create variations or dialects of a country’s standard language.
+
Standard languages usually develop over time as “best practices” from various dialects and languages are identified.
+The development of a standard language in France was a little different.
+
The dialect of what area/community within France eventually became the country’s standard language? (page 28, fifth edition)page 23-24, sixth edition)
+
The dialect of northern France, particularly the dialect spoken in Paris, resulted in this dialect, rather than the dialect of southern France, becoming the country’s standard language.
+What contributes to a dialect becoming a country’s standard language?
+Dialects that are spoken in areas of heavy governmental activity have a greater chance of becoming a country’s standard language.
+
When a country lacks a standard language, like France did during part of the Middle Ages, what does this say about the country?
+
The more stable a country is, having a stable, working government, the more likely it is to have a standard language.
+
When a country is in the beginning stages of development or redevelopment, lack of language standardization will exist.
+Italian
+Indo-European Chart
+What makes Italian unique when compared with other Romance languages?
(page 25, sixth edition)(page 29, fifth edition)
+Romance languages such as French, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved as a result of migration from the home city of Rome.
+
Italian evolved as a result of immigration to the home city of Rome.
As a result, Italian, unlike the other Romance languages, is closest to _______?
+Quote: “[Italian] is particularly important as the language of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio and as the vernacular language in which the cultural achievements [of the Renaissance first found expression.”(Page 25, sixth edition)
(Page 29, fifth edition)
How does this quote explain the prestige associated with Italian and other Romance Languages?
+
Language achieving its reputation by its association
What is the reputation of English?
+
Old and Modern English:
A Comparison
+
What West-Germanic tribes invaded England?
What made it possible, to a certain extent, for these tribes to invade England?
+ Language Timeline
Old English: 450 to 1150
Middle English: 1150 to 1500
Modern English: 1500 to today
+In terms of Grammar . . .
Old English, Latin, and the Romance languages are described as synthetic languages.
+In terms of Grammar . . .
Modern English is described as an analytic language.
Page 52, sixth edition
Page 56, fifth edition
+Synthetic languages are . . .
said to be highly inflectional. In other words, inflectional elements are added onto words, usually the ends of words, to indicate tense, degree, gender, and *person.
+Analytic languages have . . .
few inflections. Instead of meaning being created through the addition of inflectional elements, meaning comes from word order, prepositions, and auxiliary (helping) verbs.
+ Grammar: Person
Quick Review: Synthetic languages usually add inflectional elements onto words whereas analytical languages add words such as prepositions to indicate tense, degree, gender, and *person.
+In grammar, when we talk about the issue of "person," we are referring to
1. Gender Concerns
2. The Speaker/Writer' Position
3. Verb Tense
+
Pronouns: I, you, he/she/it
I (first person)
You (second person)
He/she/it (third person)
PersonThe position of the writer/speaker
+ PersonThe position of the writer/speaker
I (first person)= the writer/speaker is writing about herself/himself
You (second person)= the writer/speaker is writing directly to someone
He/she/it (third person)= the writer/speaker is writing about someone/something
+If you are writing an autobiography, in what person are writing?1. Second Person
2. Third Person
3. First Person
+If you work for a company and you write a letter to the CEO of another company, you will probably write that letter in
1. first person
2. second person
3. third person
+Review
Synthetic languages usually add inflectional elements onto words whereas analytical languages add words such as prepositions to indicate tense, degree, gender, and *person.
+Inflections
Inflections are elements that are added to words, usually to the end of words, in order to add meaning.
+Review
Old English, Latin, and the Romance languages are described as synthetic languages.
Modern English is described as an analytic language.
+In modern English, we .. .
use few inflectional elements to indicate that we are moving from one person to another. In the present tense, we use an inflection only for third person.
+For example, . . .
I live
You live
He/She/It lives
We live
You live
They live
+
Because the Romance Language Spanish is synthetic, different inflectional elements are added as there is movement from one grammatical person to the other.
+Spanish
Yo vivo (I live)
Tu vives (You live)
El vive (He lives)
+Latin is even more inflectional than the Romance languages.
For example,
Ducam= I will lead.
Du= lead
Cam= I will
+Synthetic languages use fewer words to express meaning than analytic languages?
1. True
2. False
+
What does this mean in terms of dictionaries for English compared with dictionaries for French, for Spanish?
+
English has becomes less inflectional throughout time.
Old English was much more inflectional than modern
English.
+
As an analytic language, modern English usually creates meaning, not with inflectional elements, but by word order, prepositions, and auxiliary (helping) verbs.
+
For example, the meaning of a noun in an analytic language is revealed by its placement or order in a sentence.
+The stone house is impervious to hurricane-force winds.In the sentence above, the noun "stone" is acting as
1. an indirect object
2. an adjective
3. a direct object
4. a possessive
+The geologist showed the stone to the visiting students.
In the sentence above, the noun "stone" is acting as
1. an indirect object
2. a predicate noun
3. a direct object
4. a possessive
+ The direct object of a sentence explains what or whom the subject and action verb of a sentence are acting upon.
The geologist showed the stone to the visiting students.
(After the action verb, ask "what" or "who")
+He placed a flower on the stone.
In the sentence above, the noun "stone," is acting as
1. a predicate noun
2. a possessive
3. a direct object
4. an indirect object
+An indirect object explains who or what receives or is impacted by the direct object
He placed a flower on the stone.
(After the direct object "flower," ask "what," "where," or "to whom")
+In modern English, the noun "stone" is spelled the same regardless of whether it is serving as an adjective, direct object, indirect object, or some other part of speech.
In other words, the placement of the noun in the sentence, not the spelling of the noun, determines its grammatical role.
+In Old English, the noun "stone" has a different spelling depending on how it is being used.
Direct object (Accusative Case): "stan"
Indirect Object (Dative Case): "stan-e”
Page 53, sixth edition
page 57, fifth edition
+Verbs
In the movement from Old English to modern English, not only have nouns become less inflectional, so too have verbs.
+Quick Review:What does it mean for a language to be highly inflectional?
1. Meaning is created by word order, auxiliary words, and prepositions
2. Meaning is created by adding elements to a word, usually the end of words
+ In grammar, verbs are described as being either
1. strong (irregular)
2. weak (regular)
+In modern English, most verbs are weak (regular)
+ Weak verbs (regular) have the same "-ed" ending in the past tense and the past participle.
Verb: to play
Present Tense: I play
Past Tense:I played
Past Participle: I have played
+Unlike weak verbs(regular), strong verbs (irregular) change form as they move from past tense to past participle.
Verb: to drive
Present Tense: I drive
Past Tense: I drove
Past Participle: I have driven
+Is the verb "to help" a strong verb or a weak verb?
1. Strong
2. Weak
+Most verbs that were strong in Old English have become weak in modern English.
Verb: to Help (Helpan)
Present Tense: I help (healp)
Past Tense: I helped (hulpon)
Past Participle: I have helped (holpen)
+Some strong verbs in old English remain strong in modern English.
Verb: to Drive (Drifan)
Present Tense: I drive (draf)
Past Tense: I drove (drifon)
Past Participle: I have driven ( drifen)
+
Is the verb "to awake" a strong verb or a weak verb?
1. Weak
2. Strong
+Some strong verbs in modern English are transitioning.
Verb: to awake
Present Tense: I awake
Past Tense: I awoke (awaked)
Past Participle: I have awaken (have awaked)
Transitioning: to move from a strong form to a weak form of the verb
+Another transitioning strong verb
Verb: to dive
Present Tense: I dive
Past Tense: I dove (dived)
Past Participle: I have dived
The past participle is weak already, but the past tense is transitioning.
+
Verb: to dream
Present Tense: I dream
Past Tense: I dreamt (dreamed)
Past Participle: I have dreamt (have dreamed)
One last example of a transitioning strong verb.
+
Old English Literature, and Culture
+
English in all of its forms—Old, Middle, and Modern—comes from the dialects of the Germanic tribes that invaded England.
Pages 46-47, sixth editionPages 50-52, fifth edition
+
However, in 1066, a Scandinavian group known as Normans invaded England
The Normans spoke French; thus, French and English co-existed initially and eventually were combined.
+
How language (Old English) is studied
+ Question
What is the difference between studying language by examining historical or political records versus analyzing language via literature?
+Unlike historical or political records, . . .
literature provides an even better view of a language's power because literature uses figurative language, which requires the most skillful use of lexicon.
+Figurative Language?
+
Figurative language is the use of metaphors and similes that make direct or indirect comparisons that are meant to be taken imaginatively, not literally.
Figurative language must be distinguished from literal language.
+Which of these is a figurative expression?
1. He ran down the street fast.
2. He ran like a hare down the street.
+
In studying Old English,
linguists often prefer to examine literature--writing that uses figurative language--even more than historical or political documents because literature represents the use of language at its highest skill language.
+Not only does literature highlight the skillful use of a language's lexicon, . . .
it reveals also the cultural, philosophical, and religious concerns of a community; it can highlight environmental uniqueness of a time or place.
+Old English Literature
What is the most famous piece of Old English literature?
+ Beowulf is an . . .
epic poem of 3,000 lines. In the poem, the hero Beowulf dies, but not before defeating his enemies.
The epic was written somewhere between the 8th and 11th centuries (700 and 1000).
+Modern English translation of Beowulf
What does the modern translation of Beowulf reveal about the cultural, philosophical, and religious concerns of Old English life?
Origins of world?Roots of success?Nature of Evil?Basic/Central Battle?
+
Old English vs. Middle and Modern English
+
Middle English, the Renaissance, Modern English
The Printing Press, Popular Education, Orthography, and Dictionaries
+As English has modernized, moving from old English to middle English, its changes have dictated by the operation of analogy.(Read Chapter 7 as well)
Page 154, sixth editionPage 159, fifth edition
+The Operation of Analogy
The process by which words and phrases are created or reformed according to existing patterns in language.
+ Verbs
The operation of analogy explains why many verbs have moved from strong to weak.
The pattern is to add -ed to the past tense and the past participle; therefore, many verbs are reformed according to this pattern.
+Another pattern involves creating verbs from nouns by adding the suffix"ize."
For example
Winter--Winterize
Recognition--Recognize
Authority--Authorize
