Examining the Landscape and Impact of Android App Plagiarism
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Examining the Landscape and Impact of Android App Plagiarism
Hao ChenClint GiblerRyan StevensJonathan Crussell
Hui ZangHeesook Choi
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Smartphones Abound
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Plagiarism Harms the App Ecosystem
• Developers– Lose revenue and incentive to make apps
• Markets– Polluted search results
• Users– Difficult to find useful, high-quality apps
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Investigation Goals• Characteristics of cloned apps
– Market– App category– Ad provider
• Impact on developers– Ad revenue– User base
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Definitions• Cloning
– Apps with significant code sharing• Plagiarism
– Cloned apps by different authors• Owner
– Signed and uploaded a given app
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Dataset – Android Apps• 265,000 apps from 17 markets
Apps
Play
9 English
6 Chinese
2 Russian
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Dataset – Clone Clusters• 265,000 apps from 17 markets
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Dataset – Clone Clusters• [Crussell ESORICS 2013]• >5,000 clusters of similar apps• >44,000 unique apps
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Dataset – Clone Clusters• [Crussell ESORICS 2013]• >5,000 clusters of similar apps• >44,000 unique apps
Likely clones
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Characteristics of Cloned Apps
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Cloning between Markets
playandroidonline
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How do Plagiarized Apps Impact Developers?
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Determining Impact• Naïve approach
– How many times has this app been cloned?• Our approach
– How many use plagiarized apps instead of the original?
X
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Determining Impact• Measuring users running a given app• Determining app ownership• Identifying original app from plagiarized
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(we’re not Google)
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So… what apps are you
running?
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Advertising Background
Ad request
Client ID = “bob”
Ad URL
Ad Server
Ad library
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Number of Users Running an App
“bob” Aha! Bob’s app is being run.
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Dataset – Network Traffic• Major U.S. Cellular Provider• 2.6 billion packets in 12 days• All user-identifying info removed
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Determine Ownership of Apps• Owners may have multiple dev accounts
– Within one or on multiple markets• Apps that share an owner should not be
considered plagiarized
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 1 – Market/Dev Account
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 1 – Market/Dev Account
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 2 - Signature
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 2 - Signature
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 2 - Signature
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 3 – Client IDs
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 3 – Client IDs
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 3 – Client IDs
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Determine Ownership of AppsPhase 3 – Client IDs
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Identifying Original Apps:
• Date first uploaded to the market• Popularity
– Installs
– Rating• Code size
Naïve Approaches
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Determining Original vs Clones
• Goal: give lower bound
20 impressionsAlice
Charlie 50 impressions
Bob 30 impressions
An Example Cluster
AliceBobCharlie
Impressions
50%
20%
30%
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Determining Original vs Clones
• Goal: give lower bound
Estimated Loss
AliceBobCharlie
Impressions
50%
20%
30%
AliceBobCharlie
50%
50%
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Determining Original vs Clones
• Goal: give lower bound
Estimated Loss
AliceBobCharlie
Real Loss
50%
20%
30%
AliceBobCharlie
50%
50%
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AliceBobCharlie
Determining Original vs Clones
• Goal: give lower bound
Estimated Loss Real Loss
70% 30%
AliceBobCharlie
50%
50%
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Percent Revenue/Users Lost
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Suggestions for Reducing Cloning
• Developers– Proguard, License Verification Library (LVL)
• Markets– Use tools to detect cloned apps– Adjust market registration fee
• Ad providers– Vet developers
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Conclusion• First large scale study on impact of
Android application plagiarism• Combine
– Static analysis for clone detection– Network analysis for revenue loss
measurement– Use client IDs to link both analyses
• Coming soon: sherlockdroid.com
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