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8/20/2019 Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
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Examining Teacher Effectiveness
Between Preschool and Third GradeBy Rachel Herzfeldt-Kamprath and Rebecca Ullrich January 2016
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Examining TeacherEffectiveness BetweenPreschool and Third Grade
By Rachel Herzfeldt-Kamprath and Rebecca Ullrich January 2016
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1 Introduction and summary
3 Measuring teacher effectiveness and child outcomes
5 Children’s access to teachers with key factors of effective
from preschool to third grade
20 Teachers need support to be effective
22 Policy priorities
25 Conclusion
26 Methodology and description of data
27 About the authors
28 Endnotes
Contents
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1 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
Introduction and summary
eachers play a criical role in a child’s developmen. Recognizing ha he earlies
years o a child’s lie are some o he mos ormaive, children should have access
o high-qualiy eachers as early as possible. Research suggess ha when eachers
are well-equipped o provide children wih simulaing classroom environmens
and supporive relaionships, childrenespecially hose rom disadvanaged
backgroundsexperience beter academic oucomes and improved social-emo-
ional developmen.1 Providing he necessary suppor or eachers o be effecive
is a crucial sep in closing he persisen achievemen gap and seting children ona pah oward success.
Gaps in opporuniy and achievemen beween children rom varying racial and
socio-economic backgrounds begin beore children ener he K-12 educaion sys-
em and appear as early as 9 monhs old.2 While high-qualiy early educaion has
been shown o close gaps in achievemen a kindergaren enry, some sudies have
ound ha cogniive skills converge wih hose o children who did no atend pre-
school in he early elemenary years. However, he posiive long-erm oucomes
paricularly gains in social-emoional learningconinue.3 In order o ensure ha
he developmenal gains rom high-qualiy early learning are mainained and ha
children are able o build on a srong oundaion, i is criical ha children have
consisen access o effecive insrucion.4 Increasingly, researchers are recognizing
he imporance o creaing alignmen across educaional policies and insrucional
pracices rom preschool o hird grade.
Providing sudens wih coninuous access o high-qualiy eachers is a necessary
componen or creaing his alignmen. While i is challenging o define a specific
meric ha capures he overall qualiy o a eacher, evidence suggess ha cerain
acors may suppor effecive eaching and ulimaely produce beter oucomesor children. Tese measurable acors include eachers’ qualificaions, namely
heir years o experience and educaional background; he eaching environmen,
including characerisics o he school and eachers’ compensaion; as well as each-
ers’ atiudes owards heir proession, specifically job saisacion and commi-
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2 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
men o eaching. In order o ensure ha he gains rom early educaion coninue
and all children are prepared o succeed in school, policymakers should ake seps
o ensure ha eachers across he early educaion specrum have he raining,
resources, and suppor hey need o creae sae and engaging spaces or children.
Tis repor examines he consisency o children’s access o effecive eachers beween preschool and hird gradeas well as how ha access differs by a child’s
race/ehniciy and socio-economic sauswihin hree broad acors o eacher
effeciveness: qualificaions, atiudes, and environmen. Te analyses presened
uilize wo naionally represenaive daa ses: he Early Childhood Longiudinal
Sudy, Birh Cohor, or ECLS-B, and he Early Childhood Longiudinal Sudy,
Kindergaren Class o 2010-11, or ECLS-K: 2011.
Resuls suppor ha he acors ha conribue o effecive eaching are inherenly
inerconneced and ypically accessed a lower raes by Arican American and
Hispanic children, as well as children rom low-income households. Furhermore,access o effecive eachers varies beween he prekindergaren year and he kin-
dergaren hrough hird, or K-3, grades because he sandards, expecaions, and
suppors or eachers are differen or hese wo sysems.
In order o improve alignmen and ensure ha children have access o effecive
eachers every year beween preschool and hird grade, policymakers should ocus
on he ollowing prioriies:
• Expanding access o high-qualiy prekindergaren programs
• Providing collaboraive and muli-year proessional developmen and in-service
raining opporuniies o all eachers beween preschool and hird grade
• Ensuring ha school-level suppors and insrucional resources are available o
all eachers, children, and amilies
• Aligning he oversigh agencies ha develop sandards or eaching, insrucion,
and governance beween preschool and hird grade
• Increasing eacher compensaion
Supporing educaors and caregivers so ha hey are well-equipped o provide
high-qualiy learning environmens is a criical firs sep o improving academic
oucomes or he naion’s younges learners and ensuring heir long-erm success.
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3 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
Measuring teacher effectiveness
and child outcomes
An exensive body o research examining he relaionship beween classroom
qualiy in early childhood educaion and child oucomes has idenified several
acors ha are criical o children’s success, including supporive and engaging
ineracions beween children and eachers; developmenally appropriae insruc-
ion; and sae and simulaing maerials and aciviies.5 Tese eaures o classroom
qualiy mater. When childrenespecially children rom low-income house-
holdshave access o high-qualiy classrooms, hey are more likely o be prepared
or kindergaren and perorm beter hroughou heir educaional careers.6
Alhough less widely used as a measure o qualiy in K-12 educaion, supporive
eacher-child ineracionsin he conex o sae and insrucionally engaging
classroom environmenshave significan posiive effecs on children’s academic
achievemen and classroom behavior wihin and across elemenary grades. In
early elemenary school, high levels o emoional and insrucional suppor may
allow sruggling sudens o cach up o heir peers,7 as well as aciliae higher
levels o engagemen8 and social skills9 in he classroom.
eachers play a key role in creaing a high-qualiy classroom environmen, paric-
ularly since supporive and posiive eacher-child ineracions are a key eaure o
qualiy 10 and are posiively associaed wih children’s achievemen rajecories.11
Ineracions ha are warm and sensiive while sill providing explici insruc-
ion and verbal engagemen are predicive o gains in children’s lieracy, language
acquisiion, and social developmen.12 Observaion ools such as he Classroom
Assessmen Scoring Sysem, or CL ASS,13 are designed o evaluae and measure
he qualiy o eacher-child ineracions rom inancy hrough secondary school,
bu hey require a subsanial amoun o human capial o adminiser, which
can be financially and logisically burdensome. Consequenly, disrics’ accesso well-recognized global measures o eacher qualiy ha span he preschool o
hird grade ime rame is limied.
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4 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
However, paricular characerisics o eachers and heir schools may be posiively
associaed wih he qualiy o eacher-child ineracions in he classroom and sup-
por beter long-erm oucomes or children. Tis repor ocuses on hree o hese
characerisics: eachers’ qualificaions; atiudes abou eaching; and he eaching
environmen, including characerisics o schools and eachers’ compensaion.
Tese acors are inherenly inerwoven and conribue a grea deal o a eacher’seffeciveness in he classroom. For example, while policymakers ypically consider
boh eachers’ compensaion and educaion as levers o elevae eacher qualiy,
compensaion is generally dependen on educaion.14 In urn, compensaion can
influence how saisfied and commited eachers are, paricularly when hey are
working in challenging schools.15 As hey seek o elevae he eaching workorce,
policymakers mus consider a wide range o acors and suppors or educaors.
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5 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
Children’s access to teachers with
key factors of effectiveness from
preschool to third grade
Comparing access o effecive eachers rom preschool o hird grade is challenging
because here are undamenal differences in how early learning sysems and K-12
sysems are adminisered, moniored, and evaluaed. Tis resuls in drasically dis-
parae proessional sandards or educaors. Moreover, a child’s access o early edu-
caion varies by his or her socio-economic saus and racial background, 16 whereaspublic K-12 educaion is universally accessible regardless o a child’s demographics.
Despie increasing demand or early educaion opporuniies over he las wo
decades, he early childhood educaion field remains largely disjoined. Even
wihin saes, sandards or eachers vary widely depending he ype o program
and source o unding.17 For example, a 4-year-old in Alabama’s public preschool
program is guaraneed o have a eacher wih a bachelor’s degree. I ha same
4-year-old were in a child care cener, however, his eacher may no even have a
high school diploma.18 Conversely, educaion and licensing requiremens or public
school eachers are uniorm wihin saes, and across he counry, mos elemenary
school eachers are a leas expeced o have a bachelor’s degree.19 Tese differences
in requiremens or early childhood and K-12 educaors can resul in drasic gaps in
salary and opporuniies or proessional growh beween he secors.
Moreover, while enrollmen in early educaion has been on he rise in recen years,
ar ewer children atend preschool compared o kindergaren and elemenary
school. Jus less han 50 percen o 3- and 4-year-olds are enrolled in a pre-
school program, whereas 84 percen o 5-year-olds are enrolled in school.20 Even
when children have access o early educaion, heir experiences vary drasicallydepending on wha ype o program hey are enrolled in.21 Access o high-qualiy
programs also varies by children’s demographic backgrounds.22 Tese gaps in
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6 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
access o educaional opporuniies may lead o dramaic differences in access o
well-qualified eachers beween preschool and kindergaren, which in urn likely
conribue o gaps in achievemen a kindergaren enry beween sudens who
have access o high-qualiy early educaion and hose who do no.
Te disinc naure o hese wo sysems means ha here is significan variaion inchildren’s access o he acors ha suppor high-qualiy eaching as hey ransiion
rom preschool o elemenary school. Te ollowing secions ake a closer look a
key characerisics o eacher effeciveness, examining why hese specific charac-
erisics mater or children and wheher or no children rom differen economic
and racial backgrounds have consisen access o various acors ha suppor
eacher effeciveness as hey move rom preschool o hird grade.
Teacher qualif ications
When policymakers consider ways o promoe effecive eaching, hey ofen look
o aspecs o a eacher’s proessional background, specifically heir educaional
raining and years o experience. In boh early educaion and K-12 research, how
hese acors conribue o a child’s success have been well-sudied. Research indi-
caes ha access o experienced eachers wih raining specific o child develop-
men is imporan o promoe suden achievemen.23
Years of teaching experience
Research has demonsraed ha eachers improve in effeciveness over he firs
five years o heir eaching career, meaning ha new eachersspecifically hose
in he firs ew years o eachingare less effecive han eachers wih more
experience.24 Sudies have linked higher levels o eacher experience o higher es
scores, as well as beter long-erm oucomes as children progress hrough school.25
While he added benefis rom more years o experience end o level off or each-
ers, i is clear ha eachers who have a ew years o in-classroom pracice under
heir bels suppor beter oucomes or children.26
Analyses o ECLS-B and ECLS-K:2011 daa show ha access o new eachers
varies litle across grades: Less han 10 percen o children in each grade are being
augh by a new eacher. Wihin each grade, access o new eachers also does no
vary much by a child’s race/ehniciy. However, analyses revealed differences
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7 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
beween children rom high-income householdsdefined as hose making more
han $100,000 per yearand children living in povery. (see Figure 1) Noably,
children rom high-income households are less likely han children living in pov-
ery o have a new eacher in every grade beween preschool and hird grade.
Teacher education
Research examining he associaion beween a eacher’s level o educaion and
individual child oucomes has produced mixed resuls bu has generally ound
ha children receive beter qualiy educaion and experience beter oucomes
when eachers have more years o specialized educaion, specifically in child
developmen and insrucion.27 A presen, highly educaed means somehing
differen in early childhood versus elemenary educaion. In general, mos pre-
kindergaren eachers have no earned more han a bachelor’s degree.28 Research
suggess ha high-qualiy early learning classrooms are ypically led by a eacher
wih a bachelor ’s degree in child developmen, early childhood educaion, ora relaed field.29 Reflecing his, qualificaions or eachers in publically unded
programs are on he rise.30
FIGURE 1
Access to new teachers* varies by child's household income and
grade level
Proportion of children in prekindergarten to second grade with a new teacher,
by child’s household income
* For the purposes of this analysis, new teachers are those with two or less years of experience.
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: KindergartenClass of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Prekindergarten Kindergarten First grade Second grade0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
Poverty
High income
6%
4%
9%
7%
9%
5%
8%
5%
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8 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
Elemenary educaors, by conras, mus hold a bachelor’s degree in mos saes.31
Researchers have ound ha while simply having a degree does no necessarily
aciliae suden achievemen, having a degree specific o eaching or eacher
preparaion coursework specific o mahemaics and reading insrucion is associ-
aed wih a significan posiive effec on achievemen gains.32
Analyses o ECLS-B and ECLS-K:2011 daa reveal ha nearly all children exam-
ined have access o eachers wih raining in child developmen across grade levels,
regardless o race or income. Children in firs and second grade are slighly less
likely o have eachers wih his raining. Overall, children are much more likely
o have a highly educaed eacher in kindergaren, firs, and second grade han in
preschool. (see Figure 2) In his analysis, he auhors define “highly educaed” as
a bachelor’s degree or higher or prekindergaren programs and a maser’s degree
or higher or elemenary school, reflecing he highes requiremens naionally or
hese grades. Nearly 100 percen o children have a eacher wih a leas a bachelor’s
degree beween kindergaren and second grade, bu only 54 percen o childrenin cener-based early learning have a similarly qualified eacher. When comparing
access o eachers wih a maser’s degree, his rend is urher pronounced: Only
13 percen o children in cener-based preschool have access o a eacher wih a
maser’s degree compared o 52 percen o children in second grade.
FIGURE 2
Access to teachers with a college degree, by grade level
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth
Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center f or Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: KindergartenClass of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Prekindergarten Kindergarten First grade Second grade0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100% 99%
46% 50% 52%
99% 99%
B.A. or higher
M.A. or higher
13%
54%
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9 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
Analyses also show ha children rom higher-income backgrounds are slighly
more likely o have highly educaed eachers. (see Figure 3) In he prekindergar-
en year, 61 percen o children in he highes income group have a eacher wih a
leas a bachelor’s degree compared o only 52 percen o children rom he lowes
income amilies. As children progress hrough elemenary school, hey are slighly
more likely o have a highly educaed eacher. Tis is paricularly rue or childrenrom higher income amilies: 60 percen o he highes income second-graders
have a eacher wih a maser’s degree compared o only 46 percen o kindergar-
eners in he same income group.
FIGURE 3
Access to highly educated* teachers, by child's household income and
grade level
* "Highly educated" is considered to be a B.A. or higher for prekindergarten teachers and an M.A. or higher for elementary school teachers.
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Kindergarten
Class of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Prekindergarten
Kindergarten
First grade
Second grade
Less than $20,000 $20,000–$50,000 $50,000–$100,000 Greater than $100,000
52%
53%
56%
61%
46%
46%
47%
46%
49%
50%
50%
52%
50%
51%
50%
60%
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10 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
Tese analyses confirm sark differences in expecaions or eachers beween he
prekindergaren year and kindergaren and early elemenary school. While his
finding is no new, i highlighs an area o disconinuiy in eachers’ educaional
requiremens across he prekindergaren o hird grade specrum. Similarly, resuls
show ha children’s access o highly educaed eachers varies by heir socio-
economic saus, especially as hey progress ino elemenary school. Tis is a causeor concern because disadvanaged children sand o gain he mos rom effecive
eachers, paricularly during early childhood.
Attitudes towards teaching: Efficacy, satisfaction, and commitment
eachers’ belies and atiudes oward heir proession are imporan and powerul
predicors o heir effeciveness in he classroom. Specifically, eachers who believe
ha hey are capable o improving all sudens’ learning; who are happy wih heir
jobs; and who are commited o eaching are more likely o be open o innovaions,ry new insrucional echniques, and have lower raes o urnover.33 Efficacious,
saisfied, and commited eachers are more likely o engage in supporive, mean-
ingul ineracions wih children in heir classrooms,34 which can lead o posiive
effecs on academic achievemen and children’s own eelings o sel-efficacy.35
Analyses revealed ha beween prekindergaren and hird grade, sudens in
cener-based preschool are he mos likely o have eachers who indicae more
posiive atiudes owards eaching han children in kindergaren, firs, and second
grade. (see Figure 4) In general, as children progress hrough he early elemenary
grades, heir access o eachers who srongly agree ha hey are saisfied, effica-
cious, and commited decreases. Seveny-eigh percen o preschool sudens have
a eacher who srongly agrees ha hey enjoy heir curren posiion. Conversely,
only 40 percen o sudens in second grade have a eacher who indicaes equal
enjoymen. Similar rends are refleced in analyses o eachers’ eelings abou
wheher or no hey believe ha hey make a difference in heir sudens’ lives and
i hey would choose o each given he opporuniy o sar over.
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Access o eachers who repor posiive atiudes oward eaching does no vary
drasically across children’s socio-economic sauses, alhough children in higher-
income households are slighly more likely han heir lower-income peers o have
highly saisfied eachers. (see Figure 5)
FIGURE 4
Children's access to highly committed and satisfied teachers varies
by grade
Percentage of children whose teachers report strong agreement, by grade level
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth
Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study:
"I really enjoy my
present teaching job"
"I am certain I am
making a difference
in the lives of the
children I teach"
"If I could start over,
I would choose
teaching again as
my career"
Prekindergarten Kindergarten First grade Second grade
78%
52%
48%
40%
76%
56%
53%
47%
67%
53%
47%
40%
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12 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
eachers’ sense o sel-efficacy can ac as an imporan buffer agains he effecs
o sress, which is associaed wih burnou and ulimaely urnover. eachers
who repor lower sel-efficacy may be less equipped o manage sressors in heir workplacesuch as classroom managemen, paren-eacher ineracions, and
relaionships wih colleaguesand hereore more likely o experience eelings o
burnou.36 Providing eachers wih he suppors and resources ha hey need in
order o eel effecive may help increase heir job saisacion, decrease eelings o
burnou, and creae a sronger sense o commimen o eaching.
FIGURE 5
Teacher-reported job satisfaction varies further by child's
household income
Percentage of children whose teacher strongly agrees with the statement "I really
enjoy my present teaching job," by child's household income and grade level
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Kindergarten
Class of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Prekindergarten
Kindergarten
First grade
Second grade
Less than $20,000 $20,000–$50,000 $50,000–$100,000 Greater than $100,000
74%
77%
79%
80%
47%
50%
54%
56%
41%
46%
50%
54%
37%
39%
43%
42%
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Teaching environment
eachers’ working environmens affec heir overall eelings o sress and well-being,
which influence heir abiliy o advance sudens’ learning. Our analysis explores
hree acors o he eaching environmen: neighborhood saey, povery densiy,
and eacher compensaion. Te associaions beween hese eaures o schools andeacher effecivenessas well as he exen o which hey have been explored in
researchvary drasically beween he early childhood and K-12 spheres. However,
here is evidence o sugges ha eachers who are in high-sress environmens are
more likely o burnou, which has negaive effecs on suden achievemen.37
Neighborhood safety and poverty density
Public schools in high-povery, high-crime neighborhoodsparicularly urban
communiies are more likely o enroll sudens ha come rom socially andeconomically sressed households.38 eachers in hese schools ofen lack access
o imporan insrucional resources ha can help hem adequaely suppor he
academic and social-emoional needs o heir sudens.39 Tis creaes a challenging
working environmen or eachers and can resul in poor oucomes or children.40
Unlike public elemenary schools, a child’s enrollmen in cener-based early
learning programs is no necessarily deermined by where hey live; parens have
a air amoun o auonomy regarding which program heir children atend. Ye,
research suggess ha when choosing a cener, low-income amilies generally
prioriize pracical concerns, such as cos, proximiy o home or work, or opera-
ing hours, while high-income amilies are more likely o prioriize qualiy.41 Early
childhood research has generally no explored he effecs o communiy and cen-
er characerisics on insrucional qualiy. One migh expec, however, ha he
sressors ha can dilue elemenary educaors’ effeciveness may have he same
effec in early childhood ceners.
Analyses o ECLS-B and ECLS-K:2011 daa confirms ha children rom lower-
income backgrounds are less likely o atend schools in very sae neighborhoods
as idenified by school adminisraorsin boh prekindergaren and kindergaren.(see Figure 6) Arican American and Hispanic children are also less likely han heir
whie and Asian peers o atend schools in neighborhoods considered very sae by
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school adminisraors. (see Figure 7) Noably, Arican American children are more
likely o atend a preschool in a very sae neighborhood when compared o elemen-
ary school; children rom oher racial and ehnic backgrounds are equally likely o
atend preschool and elemenary school in a very sae neighborhood.
FIGURE 6
Children attending prekindergarten and kindergarten in a very safe
neighborhood, by child's household income
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Kindergarten
Class of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Less than $20,000 $20,000–$50,000 $50,000–$100,000 Greater than $100,000
Prekindergarten
Kindergarten
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
46%
42%
55% 56%
68% 71% 75%
77%
FIGURE 7
Children attending prekindergarten and kindergarten in a very safeneighborhood, by child's race and ethnicity
Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth
Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: KindergartenClass of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
White African American Hispanic Asian
Prekindergarten
Kindergarten
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
73% 72%
39%
44% 47%
63%67%
36%
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Analyses reveal similar rends in access by children’s race and socio-economic
saus when examining which children are likely o be in schools wih high con-
cenraions o povery. Access o ood assisance is no a perec proxy or povery,
bu i does provide some meric by which o undersand he socio-economic
saus o children’s peers. Te ECLS-B provides daa on wheher or no child care
ceners receive ood assisance hrough he Child and Adul Care Food Program,or CACFP, in he prekindergaren year. ECLS-K:2011 daa idenifies he adminis-
raor repored proporion o children in each school who are eligible or ree and
reduced price lunches, or FRPL, hrough he Naional School Lunch Program.
Analyses show ha Arican American and Hispanic children are much more
likely o be enrolled in preschool ceners ha receive CACFP reimbursemens
(see Figure 8) and atend kindergaren in elemenary schools where high pro-
porions o sudens are repored o be on FRPL. (see Figure 9) Children rom
lower-income households are also more likely o atend schools wih high propor-
ions o children receiving assisance. In he prekindergaren year, children romhouseholds wih incomes below $20,000 are more han five imes as likely o be in
a program ha receives CACFP unding han heir peers in households wih more
han $100,000 in household income.42
FIGURE 8
African American and Hispanic children are more likely to be enrolled in aprekindergarten or child care center that receives CACFP reimbursements
Proportion of children attending a prekindergarten center that receives food
subsidies, by child's race and ethnicity
Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth
Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).
White African American Hispanic Asian0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
28%
70%61%
25%
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In addiion o influencing eachers’ abiliy o be effecive in he classroom, a
school’s locaion and he characerisics o he suden body enrolled can suppor
or hinder is abiliy o atrac and reain well-qualified eachers across grade levels.
Across he counry, eachers working in high-povery schools are more likely o
move schools or leave eaching alogeher.43 A 2009 repor examining eacher
urnover in Chicago Public Schools ound ha elemenary schools wih chroni-
cally low raes o eacher sabiliy ended o be low-income, low-achieving, and
predominanly Arican American schools.44 Meanwhile, eacher sabiliy raes
were significanly higher a elemenary schools locaed in areas wih low crime
likely due o he ac ha schools in low-crime areas also end o have beter work-
ing condiions, such as increased paren involvemen and ewer disciplinary issues
among sudens.45 Given he characerisics o eachers mos commonly placed in
high-povery schools, many deparing eachershighly effecive or oherwise
are likely being replaced by novice eachers wih limied experience.
Teacher pay
eachers’ salaries, o some exen, are linked o paricular indicaors o effecive-ness, namely years o eaching experience, educaional background, and special-
ized raining. In many K-12 school disrics, eachers are paid more i hey have
FIGURE 9
African American and Hispanic children are more likely to attend
kindergarten in a school with a high concentration of childreneligible for nutrition assistance
Average proportion of students in school who qualify for free and reduced-price
lunches by child's race and ethnicity
Source: Author's calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study:Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
White African American Hispanic Asian0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
38%
71% 68%
38%
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a maser’s degree46 or i hey are cerified o each a high-need populaion o su-
dens, such as children wih special needs.47 Similarly, early childhood educaors
receive incremenally higher pay or higher levels o educaion, hough hey end
o earn less han heir K-12 counerpars regardless o heir educaion level.48
In he early childhood field, sudies have ound boh direc and indirec links beween eachers’ pay and he qualiy o educaion provided, wih comparaively
beter-compensaed educaors creaing a higher-qualiy classroom environmen.49
Te available daa on educaor pay reveals large differences beween compensa-
ion in prekindergaren programs and he K-12 educaion sysem. (see Figure 10)
Naional averages o eacher pay, meanwhile, show sligh increases in compensa-
ion or eachers serving older children.
Analyses comparing eachers’ educaional backgrounds confirm drasically di-
eren requiremens or early childhood and elemenary educaors, which likely
conribues o he large differences in compensaion. Ensuring ha educaional
requiremens and compensaion are consisen across he prekindergaren o hirdgrade coninuum is imporan in effors o improve alignmen.
Secondary school teachers
Middle school teachers
Elementary school teachers
Kindergarten teachers
Preschool teachers
Child care workers
FIGURE 10
Average annual teacher pay, by grade level
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Occupational Employment Statistics: May 2014 National Occupational Employment and Wage
Estimates, United States," available at http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#25-0000 (last accessed November 2015).
$59,330
$57,620
$56,830
$53,480
$32,040
$21,710
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Te ECLS-B provides more deailed inormaion on early educaion providers’
household incomes, allowing or a closer look a children’s access o eachers
who are more economically secure. Analyses shows ha children rom Arican
American and Hispanic backgrounds are more likely o have eachers whose
household income is below $50,000 when compared o heir whie and Asian
peers. (see Figure 11)
Similarly, children living in povery are more likely o have eachers in he
lowes income group han children rom high-income households. (see Figure
12) Moreover, children rom disadvanaged backgrounds may be experienc-
ing higher levels o sress a home and sand he mos o gain rom a sable and
secure classroom environmen.
Less than $20,000 $20,000–$50,000 $50,000–$100,000 Greater than $100,000
FIGURE 11
African American and Hispanic children are less likely to have a teacher
with a higher household income than their white and Asian peers
Prekindergarten teachers' household income, by child's race and ethnicity
Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).
White African American Hispanic Asian
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
7%
9%8%
4%
38% 38%
24%
32%
18%
30%
12%
4%
7%
13%
29%28%
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Te compensaion available or eachers may also affec schools’ abiliy o atrac and
reain high-qualiy eachers. Specifically, associaions beween compensaion and
eacher commimen are hough o be influenced by he school environmen and
working condiions. For insance, despie receiving higher salaries, eachers in urban
disrics in exas were more likely o repor higher levels o job dissaisacion han
heir rural and suburban counerpars.50 Early child caregivers and educaors wih
higher educaional backgrounds and raining are more likely o leave heir posiions
i hey are making low wages and i co-workers are no similarly well-rained. 51
FIGURE 12
High-income children are more likely to have a teacher with a higher
household income than their low-income peers
Proportion of children with access to teachers in each income quartile, by child's
household income
Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).
Less than $20,000 $20,000–$50,000 $50,000–$100,000 Greater than $100,000
73%
0
10
20
30
40
Poverty
High income
9%
5%
39%
27%26%
32%
6%
15%
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Teachers need support
to be effective
Myriad acors play a significan role in promoing eachers effeciveness. While
his paper does no consider every acor ha influences eacher effecive-
ness, he analyses presened reveal a number o key findings. Firs, he exising
lieraure and analyses o ECLS daases demonsrae he inerconnecedness o
he acors ha influence eacher effeciveness. Ulimaely, o aciliae sudens’
success in school, eachers need o be well-educaed and prepared; suppored
and appropriaely compensaed by heir schools; equipped wih he resources
and ongoing proessional developmen hey need o each; and eel confiden inheir abiliy o be effecive.
Analyses o ECLS daa shows ha, in general, children rom lower-income and
ehnic minoriy amilies have less access o eachers wih he suppors necessary
o be effecive. Specifically, hey are more likely o atend high-povery schools in
less-sae neighborhoods and less likely o have eachers in high-income house-
holds. Similarly, low-income children are more likely o have a new eacher in all
grades han heir high-income peers.
Daa analyses reveals sark differences in children’s access o highly educaed and
well-compensaed eachers beween prekindergaren and he early elemenary
years, likely due o he significan differences in he sandards and expecaions or
prekindergaren eachers and caregivers and heir peers in he K-12 sysem. Te
differences beween prekindergaren and kindergaren are paricularly noable,
given ha early childhood educaorsespecially hose in high-qualiy pro-
gramsand kindergaren eachers are working wih children on similar skills.
Analyses also reveal ha eacher saisacion and posiive atiudes oward each-
ing seem o decrease as children advance hrough he elemenary grades; a rendha is more pronounced or children rom low-income households. While i is
beyond he scope o his repor o ge o he roo o his rend, one migh expec
ha pressure on eachers moun as children progress hrough elemenary school
and are expeced o maser more challenging inormaion. Furher research could
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explore why atiudes owards eaching migh become less posiive in laer grades.
Increased alignmen and coninuiy in insrucional approaches beween pre-
school and hird grade is a key policy prioriy or lawmakers hoping o reduce he
achievemen gap and hereby reduce sress or eachers in laer elemenary years.
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Policy priorities
Te research and findings presened in his repor i lluminae a number o priori-
ies or policymakers seeking o broaden access o effecive eachers beween
preschool and hird grade. By ocusing on hese prioriies, policymakers can sig-
nificanly improve he suppors available o eachers beween preschool and hird
grade; ensure educaional alignmen or young children; and ulimaely improve
oucomes or our mos vulnerable children.
Increasing access to high-quality prekindergarten programs
One o he key challenges o aligning educaion sysems beween preschool and
hird grade is ha raes o access o hese wo sysems are drasically differen.
While public elemenary schools are available o all children, only abou hal o
all children have access o preschool.52 Likewise, when children do have access o
preschool, he qualiy o he educaion hey receive can vary significanly depend-
ing on he ype and locaion o he paricular program.53
Wihou universal access o prekindergaren, children ener kindergaren a di-
eren skill levels and developmenal sages. Tis presens an added challenge or
eachers in K-3 classrooms, who mus balance addressing he needs o sruggling
children while coninuing o provide more advanced children wih challenging
and simulaing aciviies. Increasing invesmens, paricularly a he ederal level,
ha expand access o high-qualiy early learning would ensure ha all children
ener kindergaren ready o learn and could have a significan effec on reducing
achievemen gaps in laer grades.
Increasing cross-sector collaboration among oversight agencies
Collaboraion beween agencies ha oversee sandards or eaching, insrucion,
and governance a ederal, sae, and local levels is necessary in order o ensure
ha children have access o cohesive high-qualiy educaional opporuniies
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beween preschool and hird grade. In many saes, decision-making around early
childhood and elemenary educaion operaes in largely separae spheres wih
litle opporuniy or inormaion sharing. Esablishing a ormal process or cross-
secor collaboraion a all levels o governmen allows agency leaders o ideniy
areas where policy and pracice in early learning and elemenary grades are ou o
sync and generae sraegies o achieve alignmen.
Increasing teacher pay
Increasing eacher compensaion is vial sep in elevaing he eaching proes-
sion and improving eacher qualiy, paricularly or eachers beween preschool
and hird grade. Improving compensaion would go a long way in atracing and
reaining high-qualiy eachers and may improve eacher atiudes abou he
proession, as well as heir efficacy on he job.54 Compensaion or eachers should
be increased o beter reflec he demands and imporance o he proession aevery level. Paricularly or prekindergaren eachers, compensaionalong wih
educaional sandards and expecaionsshould be increased and aligned wih
compensaion levels or eachers in K-3 grades.
Promoting collaborative professional development
and in-service training
In order o ensure ha vial inormaion on a child’s background and learning
experience is no los as children ransiion rom prekindergaren programs o
kindergaren and beyond, early learning programs, school disrics, and sae edu-
caion sysems should work ogeher o increase collaboraion among eachers in
each o hese years. Addiionally, policymakers should work o expand opporuni-
ies or proessional developmen and in-service raining or eachers and caregiv-
ers beween preschool and hird grade.
Providing eachers wih collaboraive muligrade proessional developmen and
raining opporuniies would allow or beter inormaion sharing across grades,
as well as beween early childhood educaion sysems and he K-12 educaion sys-em. Addiionally, muligrade-level proessional developmen and raining could
suppor consisen access o qualiy eachers beween preschool and hird grade
and ensure ha eachers are coninually improving and adaping heir approaches
o eaching. Tis ype o raining is paricularly imporan or new eachers who
would benefi grealy rom menorship and peer learning opporuniies.
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Ensure that school-level supports and instructional resources
are available
While all schools should provide broader suppor o heir eachers and sudens,
his is paricularly imporan or schools wih a high concenraion o children
who are a risk o school ailure. Tese children ofen come o school wih uniqueand inense educaional and behavioral needs, and i may be especially challeng-
ing or eachers o provide high-qualiy and enriching educaional environmens
o mee hem. Tese suppors should include boh inrasrucure supporssuch
as up-o-dae exbooks, echnology, and developmenally appropriae classroom
maerialsas well as environmenal suppors, including eacher-planning ime
during he school day; adequae eacher and school-adminisraor compensaion;
and a school communiy ha empowers eachers o be effecive. Addiionally,
eachers need supporive school leaders; access o communiy social services o
address he broader needs o children and amilies; and alernaive approaches o
classroom and school discipline.
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Conclusion
eachers play a crucial role in osering children’s success in school. Te qual-
iy o ineracions beween eachers and children in he conex o engaging,
supporive insrucion has been highlighed as an imporan deerminan o a
child’s success in school.55 A number o acors conribue o eachers’ abiliies o
effecively creae enriching classroom environmens. Namely, effecive eachers
are adequaely prepared and have coninuous access o proessional develop-
men resources; eel saisfied, commited, and efficacious o help heir sudens
succeed; and are adequaely compensaed and suppored in order o manage hesressors associaed wih eaching.
Analyses revealed some sark differences in he degree o which children rom
varying socio-economic background have access o eachers wih hese characer-
isics: Arican American children, Hispanic children, and children rom low-
income backgrounds are generally a a disadvanage in erms o access. Moreover,
resuls sugges ha eachers vary on hese characerisics across he preschool o
hird grade coninuum as well, namely in erms o heir educaional background
and sel-repored eelings o efficacy, saisacion, and commimen o eaching.
As policymakers look o beter align policy and pracice or he naion’s young-
es learners, ensuring ha educaors and caregivers are adequaely prepared and
suppored o provide high-qualiy learning environmens or all children is a key
firs sep. Tis work is paricularly imporan or children rom low-income and
minoriy communiies, who, research shows, generally have less access o he
acors ha suppor effecive eaching. As policymakers look o increase eacher
effeciveness, hey mus consider ways o elevae he enire eaching proession
while aligning expecaions and opporuniies or eachers across he early years
o a child’s educaion.
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Methodology and description
of data
Analyses or his repor were conduced using daa rom wo daases rom he
Early Childhood Longiudinal Sudy, or ECLS, program: he Birh Cohor, or
ECLS-B, and he Kindergaren Class o 2010–2011, or ECLS-K:2011.56
Daa rom he prekindergaren year were obained rom he ECLS-B, which
sudied he experiences o roughly 14,000 children across he Unied Saes. Te
sample or his repor was limied o he children who atended cener-based early
care and educaion when hey were 4 years old in he 2005-2006 school year. Daa were colleced hrough paren inerviews, child care provider quesionnaires, and
cener direcor quesionnaires.
Daa rom he ECLS-K:2011 were used o examine children’s experiences rom
kindergaren hrough second grade. Daa collecion or he ECLS-K:2011 is
ongoing, ollowing approximaely 18,000 children over he course o elemenary
school. Te analyses or his repor include he ull sample o children in he daa-
se. Daa were colleced hrough paren inerviews, eacher quesionnaires, and
school adminisraor quesionnaires rom he kindergaren year.
eachers and direcors or adminisraors responded o quesionnaires abou
hemselves and characerisics o heir cener or school. Average responses were
analyzed by grade level; some were urher broken down by a child’s race/eh-
niciy and income level.
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About the authors
Rachel Herzfeldt-Kamprath is a Policy Analys or he Early Childhood Policy
eam a he Cener or American Progress. Prior o joining he Cener, Rachel
compleed graduae-sudy inernships wih he Whie House Office o
Managemen and Budge and he Cener on Budge and Policy Prioriies, ocus-ing on analyzing economic and ederal budge daa and he impac o policy
decisions on low-income communiies. Beore graduae school, Rachel worked
on sae-level policy advocacy and communiy organizing in Minnesoa, where
her work ranged rom issues relaed o child care and early educaion unding,
abuse and neglec, and povery, o human rafficking and affordable housing.
Rachel also paricipaed in he Luheran Voluneer Corps or wo years, serving
in Caliornia and Minnesoa.
She holds a bachelor’s degree rom Pacific Luheran Universiy in acoma,
Washingon, and a masers o science in public policy and managemen rom heHeinz College o Carnegie Mellon Universiy in Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Rebecca Ullrich is a Policy Analys or he Early Childhood Policy eam a he
Cener. As a graduae suden, Ullrich’s research ocused on classroom qualiy in
early childhood educaion and eacher-child relaionships. She also compleed an
inernship wih he U.S. Deparmen o Educaion’s Adminisraive Daa Division
and was a summer research assisan on he Child Care and Developmen Fund
daabase projec a he Urban Insiue. Prior o beginning her graduae program,
Ullrich worked on evaluaions relaed o K-12 educaion, adul basic educaion,
workorce raining, and homelessness as a research assisan wih Ab Associaes
in Behesda, Maryland.
Ullrich holds a maser’s degree in applied developmenal psychology rom
George Mason Universiy, as well as a bachelor’s degree in human developmen
rom Virginia ech.
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Endnotes
1 Margaret Burchinal and others, “Threshold analysisof association between child care quality and childoutcomes for low-income children in pre-kindergartenprograms,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 25 (2010):166–176, available at http://www.learningcommu-nityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChild-hoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQuality-forCLASS_101609.pdf .
2 Tamara Halle and others, “Disparities in Early Learningand Development: Lessons from the Early ChildhoodLongitudinal Study – Birth Cohort (ECLS-B)” (Wash-ington: Child Trends, 2009), available at http://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2009-52DisparitiesELExecSumm.pdf.
3 Sneha Elango and others, “Early Childhood Education”(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 2015), available athttp://www.nber.org/papers/w21766.
4 Arthur Reynolds, Katherine Magnuson, and Suh-RuuOh, “PK-3 Education: Programs and Practices that Workin Children’s First Decade” (New York, NY: Foundationfor Child Development, 2006), available at http://fcd-us.org/resources/pk-3-education-programs-and-practices-work-childrens-first-decade?destination=resources%252Fsearch%253Fpage%253D14.
5 Linda M. Espinosa, “High-Quality Preschool: Why WeNeed it and What it Looks Like,” Preschool Policy Matters1 (2002), available at http://nieer.org/resources/policy-briefs/1.pdf.
6 Hirokazu Yoshikawa and others, “Investing in Our Fu-ture: The Evidence Base on Preschool Education” (AnnArbor, MI; New York, NY: Society for Research in ChildDevelopment; Foundation for Child Development,2013), available at http://www.srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/washington/mb_2013_10_16_invest-ing_in_children.pdf.
7 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Can Instruc-tional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Class-room Make a Difference for Children at Risk of SchoolFailure?” Child Development 76 (5) (2005): 949–967.
8 Jason T. Downer, Sara. E. Rimm-Kaufman, and Robert C.Pianta, “How Do Classroom Conditions and Children’sRisk for School Problems Contribute to Children’s Be-havioral Engagement in Learning?”School PsychologyReview 36 (3) (2007): 413–432.
9 Amy E. Luckner and Robert C. Pianta, “Teacher-StudentInteractions in Fifth Grade Classrooms: Relations withChildren’s Peer Behavior,” Journal of Applied Develop-mental Psychology 32 (2011): 257–266.
10 University of Virginia Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning, “Measuring and Improving Teacher-Student Interactions in PK-12 Settings toEnhance Students’ Learning,” available at http://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdf (last accessed January 2016).
11 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Early Teacher-Child Relationships and the Trajectory of Children’sSchool Outcomes through Eighth Grade,” Child Develop-ment (72) (2001): 625–638.
12 Jason Downer, Terri Sabol, and Bridget Hamre,“Teacher-Child Interactions in the Classroom: Toward a
Theory of Within-and Cross-Domain Links to Children’sDevelopmental Outcomes,” Early Education and Devel-opment (21) (2010): 699–723.
13 University of Virginia Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning, “Classroom Assessment ScoringSystem,” available at http://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/class (last accessed December 2015).
14 National Center for Education Statistics, “Schools andStaffing Survey: Table 2. Percentage of Public SchoolsDistricts that had Salary Schedules for Teachers andAmong those that had Salary Schedules, the AverageYearly Teacher Base Salary, by Various Levels of Degreesand Experience and State: 2011-12,” available at http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asp (last accessed December 2015).
15 Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin, “Pay, WorkingConditions, and Teacher Quality,” The Future of Children (17) (1) (2007): 69–85.
16 Milagros Nores and W. Steven Barnett, “Access to HighQuality Early Care and Education: Readiness and Op-portunity Gaps in America” (New Brunswick, NJ: Centeron Enhancing Early Learning Outcomes, 2014), avail-able at http://ceelo.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/ceelo_policy_report_access_quality_ece.pdf.
17 W. Steven Barnett and others, “The State of Preschool2014: State Preschool Yearbook” (New Brunswick, NJ:National Institute for Early Education Research, 2015),available at http://nieer.org/yearbook.
18 Ibid.
19 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Kindergarten and Elemen-tary School Teachers,” available at http://www.bls.gov/
ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htm (last accessedDecember 2015).
20 National Center for Education Statistics, “Digest ofEducation Statistics: Table 202.10 Enrollment of 3-, 4-,and 5-year-old children in preprimary programs, byage of child, level of program, control of program, andattendance status: S elected Years, 1970 through 2013,”available at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asp (last accessed November 2015).
21 Nores and Barnett, “Access to High Quality Early Care andEducation: Readiness and Opportunity Gaps in America.”
22 Ibid.
http://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdf
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29 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
23 Washington State Institute for Public Policy, “TeacherCompensation and Training Policies: Impacts onStudent Outcomes” (2012), available at http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Com-pensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdf ; Marcy Whitebook, “EarlyEducation Quality: H igher Teacher Qualifications forBetter Learning Environments – A Review of the Lit-erature” (Berkeley, CA: Institute of Industrial Relations,Center for the Study of Child Care Employment, 2003),available at http://www.irle.berkeley.edu/cscce/2003/early-education-quality-literature-review/.
24 Washington State Institute for Public Policy, “TeacherCompensation and Training Policies: Impacts on Stu-dent Outcomes” (2012).
25 John P. Papay and Matthew A. Kraft, “ProductivityReturns to Experience in the Teacher Labor Market:Methodological Challenges and New Evidence onLong-Term Career Improvement.” Brown University,2014 and Washington State Institute for Public Policy,“Teacher Compensation and Training Policies: Impactson Student Outcomes.”
26 Jennifer King Rice, “The Impact of Teacher Experience:Examining the Evidence and Policy Implications”(Washington: Urban Institute, 2010), available at http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDF.
27 Whitebook, “Early Education Quality: Higher TeacherQualifications for Better Learning Environments – AReview of the Literature.”
28 Elise Gould, “Child Care Workers Aren’t Paid Enoughto Make Ends Meet” (Washington: Economic PolicyInstitute, 2015), available at http://www.epi.org/publication/child-care-workers-arent-paid-enough-to-make-ends-meet/.
29 Robert Pianta and others, “Features of Pre-KindergartenPrograms, Classrooms, and Teachers: Do They PredictObserved Classroom Quality and Child-Teacher Interac-tions?” Applied Developmental Science 9 (3) (2005):144–159.
30 National Association for the Education of YoungChildren, “High Quality Early Childhood Educators arethe Key to Quality Programs for Children,” available at
https://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Child-hood%20Educators.pdf (last accessed January 2016).
31 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Kindergarten and Elemen-tary School Teachers.”
32 Robert G. Croninger and others, “Teacher qualifica-tions and early learning: Effects of certification, degree,and experience on first-grade student achievement,”Economics of Education Review (26) (2007): 312–324.
33 Theodore Coldarci, “Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy andCommitment to Teaching,” The Journal of ExperimentalEducation 60 (4) (1992): 323–337; Megan Tschannen-Moran and Anita Woolfolk Hoy, “Teacher Efficacy:Capturing an Elusive Construct,” Teaching and TeacherEducation 17 (2001): 783–805.
34 Amy C. Thomason and Karen M. La Paro, “Teachers’
Commitment to the Field and Teacher-Child Interac-tions in Center-Based Child Care for Toddlers and Three-Year-Olds,” Early Childhood Education Journal 41 (2013):227–234.
35 Myron H. Dembo and Sherri Gibson, “Teachers’ Sense ofEfficacy: An Important Factor in School Improvement,”The Elementary School Journal 86 (2) (1985): 173–184.
36 Ralf Schwarzer and Suhair Hallum, “Perceived TeacherSelf-Efficacy as a Predictor of Job Stress and Burnout:Meidation Analyses,” Applied Psychology: An Interna-tional Review 57 (2008): 152–171; Einer M. Skaalvikand Sidsel Skaalvik, “Teacher self-efficacy and teacherburnout: A study of relations,” Teaching and TeacherEducation 26 (2010): 1059–1069.
37 Wendy L.G. Hoglund, Kristen E. Klingle, and NaheedE. Hosan, “Classroom Risks and Resources: TeacherBurnout, Classroom Quality, and Children’s Adjustmentin High Needs Elementary Schools,” Journal of SchoolPsychology , (53) (2015): 337–357.
38 Christopher Corallo and Deborah McDonald, “WhatWorks in Low-Performing Schools: A Review ofResearch literature on Low-Performing Schools”(Charleston, WV: AEL, 2001), available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED462737.
39 U.S. Department of Education, “More Than 40% ofLow-Income Schools Don’t Get a Fair Share of Stateand Local Funds, Department of Education ResearchFinds,” Press release, November 30, 2011, available athttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-finds.
40 National Center for Education Statistics, “Urban Schools: The Challenge of Location and Poverty,” available athttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asp(last ac-cessed on December 2015).
41 Vicki Peyton and others, “Reasons for Choosing ChildCare: Associations with Family Factors, Quality, and Sat-isfaction,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 16 (2001):191–208.
42 Authors’ analysis of National Center for EducationStatistics, “Early Childhood Longitudinal Program: BirthCohort (ECLS-B), ” available at http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/birth.asp (last accessed December 2015).
43 Richard Ingersoll, “Teacher Turnover and Teacher Short-ages: An Organizational Analysis,” American EducationalResearch Journal 38 (3) (2001): 499–534.
44 Elaine Allensworth, Stephen Ponisciak, and ChristopherMazzeo, “The Schools Teachers Leave: Teacher Mobilityin Chicago Public Schools” (Chicago, IL: Consortium onChicago School Research at the University of ChicagoUrban Education Institute, 2009), available at https://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publica-tions/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdf .
45 Ibid.
46 National Center for Education Statistics, “Table 78:Average Base Salary for Full-Time Teachers in PublicElementary and Secondary Schools, by Highest DegreeEarned and Years of Full-Time Teaching: Selected years,1990-91 through 2007-08,” available at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asp (lastaccessed on December 2105).
http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asphttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asphttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdf
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30 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade
47 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational EmploymentStatistics: May 2014 National Occupational Employ-ment and Wage Estimates: United States,” available athttp://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#25-0000(last accessed November 2015).
48 Ibid.
49 W. Steven Barnett, “Low Wages=Low Quality: Solvingthe Real Preschool Teacher Crisis” (New Brunswick, NJ:National Institute for Early Education Research, 2003),available at http://nieer.org/resources/policybriefs/3.
pdf.
50 Hanushek and Rivkin, “Pay, Working Conditions, and Teacher Quality.”
51 Marcy Whitebook, “Turnover Begets Turnover: An Ex-amination of Job and Occupational Instability AmongChild Care Center Staff,” Early Childhood ResearchQuarterly 18 (2003): 273–293.
52 National Center for Education Statistics, “Digest ofEducation Statistics: Table 202.10 Enrollment of 3-, 4-,and 5-year-old children in preprimary programs, byage of child, level of program, control of program, andattendance status: Selected Years, 1970 through 2013.”
53 Nores, and Barnett, “Access to High Quality Early Careand Education: Readiness and Opportunity Gaps inAmerica.”
54 Anthony Milanowski, “Do Teacher Pay Levels Matter?”(Madison, WI: Consortium for Policy Research in Educa-tion, 2008), available at http://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdf .
55 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Student-Teach-er Relationships.” In George G. Bear and Kathleen M.Minke, eds., Children’s Needs III: Development, Prevention,
and Intervention (Washington: National Association ofSchool Psychologists, 2006).
56 National Center for Education Statistics, “Early Child-hood Longitudinal Program: Birth Cohort (ECLS-B)”; Na-tional Center for Education Statistics, “Early ChildhoodLongitudinal Program: Kindergarten Class of 2010-11(ECLS-K:2011),” available at https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/kindergarten2011.asp (last accessed December 2015).
http://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdfhttp://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdfhttp://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdfhttp://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdf
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