Introduction

Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio in 1992,

sustainable development remained elusive for many African countries with poverty,

deforestation, desertification and climate change its main threats hence the paper seeks to inspect

the perception that climate change is an obstacle to the achievement of Sustainable Development

Goals in Africa. Climate change has become a global phenomenon which has attracted attention

from all over the world. All human activities hinges upon climate and a slight change in one of

its element can impose a significant change to life on earth. Several conventions, treaties and

bilateral have been negotiated and ratified (The Earth Summit (1992); Kyoto Protocol (1997);

Article 3) in a bid to protect the atmosphere and eliminate or reduce the scale of activities which

affect the atmosphere saving the earth.

Definition of key terms

Climate change - is a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change

apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels

of the atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels. Climate change also has a

change or shift in the earth’s overall climate and this change could be in weather patterns and

average temperatures.

Sustainable Development -The 1987 Brundtland Commission‘s report “Our Common Future”

defines sustainable development as “the development that meets the needs of the present with

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Climate Change vulnerability in Africa

From the last definition it can be noted that development can begin when there is proper

utilisation and conservation of natural resources and be enjoyed by future generations. So

because of poor utilisation and conservation of natural resources sustainable development cannot

be attained as a result of climate change effects. Africa has become the victim of the problems of

climate change caused by the poor management of resources, heavy industrial activities from the

North. Climate change has devastating challenges in Africa on such as agriculture, loss of

biodiversity, health, animals and plants. According to Hulme (1996), “climate change

compounds the challenges of rapid urbanisation in the Sub-Saharan Africa by making the urban

population more vulnerable. Rising sea levels due to climate change could threaten coastal

settlements with floods and storm surges.” Most of the big cities in Sub-Saharan Africa are also

at a higher risk of floods because of the way they are located along the coasts.

Diseases in Africa

Climate change has devastating and critical health challenges in African societies. Changes in

rainfall patterns has affected the presence and absence of vector and water –borne pathogens. For

example Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change IPCC (2001) noted that it can be expected

that small changes in the temperature and precipitation will boost the population of diseases,

carrying mosquitoes and result in increased malaria epidemic. Lindsay (1998) notes that,

“increased flooding and facilitates the breeding of these malaria carries in formerly arid areas.”

Climate change has a negative effect on the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals in

Africa particularly goals number (3) three. The goal calls for the ensuring of healthy lives and

promote wellbeing for all at all ages. This goal cannot be achieved because there is a persistent

change of temperatures and the high outbreak of diseases which is compromising the health

delivery system in Africa. Warsome et al (1995) adds that these problems will be worsened by

the inability of many African communities to cope with increased diseases. Climate change

continues to pose a serious threat to the development and achievement of sustainable

development goals in Malawi for example. Mutunga (2012) notes that Malawi has a total land

area of 94.080 square kilometres of which 20.7% is arable land. So climate change challenges

facing Malawi include the rise of waterborne diseases such as bilharzia due to the persistent

flooding, malaria due to the persistent change of temperatures.

Human health including the social, physical and psychological wellbeing depends on the

adequate supply of the potable water and safe environment. Because of climatic changes, people

are exposed directly through weather patterns and indirectly through changes in water, air, food

qualities and the quantities of the ecosystem. Ozor (2009) notes that climate change induces

health problems as a result of hunger and starvation, water stresses, pests and diseases, conflicts

and injuries. Water related aspects of health include increased cases of cataracts (eye diseases) in

semi-arid region of Africa due to low cloud cover and greater intensity of solar radiation.

Increased cases of malaria and typhoid diseases due to high levels of rainfall patterns and

temperatures while also there are rising outbreak of waterborne diseases such as cholera and

dysentery due to urban flooding and improper disposal of wastes. Bates (2009) added that due to

very large number of people that may be affected, malnutrition and water scarcity may be the

most important health consequences of climate change.

Sustainable Development Goal number (6) six which calls for the ensuring of the availability and

sustainable management of water and sanitation for all is also being undermined as this is

evidenced by Nicholls et al (1998), he noted that in many African countries, urban settlement,

population expansion had outpaced the capacity of municipal authorities to provide civic works

for sanitation and other health delivery. Hence the goal is undermined by the ambivalence of the

climate change in Africa.

Impact of Climate Change on African food security and Agriculture.

Africa heavily relies on rain fed agriculture as a source of food security. World Resource Institute

(1996) notes that roughly 70% of the African population lives by farming, and 40% of all exports

are agricultural products and an estimation of one third of the income in Africa is generated by

agriculture . Crop production and livestock husbandry account for half of the household. So it

can be viewed that as a result agriculture in Africa is vulnerable to changes in temperature

variability, seasonal shifts and rainfall patterns. An assessment was done to look at the expected

impacts of the climate change on agriculture and food security in Africa.

IPCC (2007) reports provide an extensive assessment on the expected effects of climate change

on agriculture in African regions. The agricultural sector is also likely to experience periods of

prolonged droughts and floods during the El Nino events. Agriculture losses between 2-7% of

the Gross Domestic Product is expected by 2100 in parts of the Sub Saharan Africa, 2-4% and

0.4-1.3% in West, North, Central and Southern Africa respectively FAO (2009). According to

NRC (2010), productivity in Africa will be further undermined by a reduction in fertile

agricultural land available and expansion in the average of the low potential land. So from one’s

point of view, the climate change is undermining the achievement of sustainable development

goal number 2 in particular as it entails the end of hunger, achieve food security and improved

nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Because of the challenge of climate change that

will likely to reduce the soil fertility, and ultimately leads to low yields, the chances of ending

hunger are very low.

Since the sustainable development goals have been gazetted to be achieved by 2030, there are

signs and symptoms being noted on the negative impacts of climate change on African

agriculture again. UNASLYVIA (2007), forecasts show that the Sub Saharan Africa will surpass

Asia as the most food insecure region inhabiting 40-50% of the undernourished people globally

in 2080, compared with 24% today. Furthermore it has been noted that the levels of viable arable

land areas for production are predicted to decline by 2080. In response to changes in

temperatures and sporadic rainfall patterns, Africa is predicted to receive an increase in crop

pests and diseases in addition to soil infertility. Also the declining incomes and rising

unemployment are expected to hit agriculture zones in combination to worsening health. Hence

the road to 2030 to achieve the goal number two of sustainable development in Africa is already

blocked by the occurrence of the rising climatic changes.

Impact on animals and plants in Africa

Siegfried (1989) notes that Africa occupies about one fifth of the global land surface and

contains about one fifth of the species of plants , mammals and birds in the world as well as one

sixth of the amphibians and reptiles. These species are vital in the African ecosystem as they

promote the existence of the biodiversity, boosting the tourism industries in Africa. The

conservation of these natural resources have been listed in the sustainable development goals and

should be achieved by 2030. Climate change had already affected the marine animals of Africa in

the sense that after absorbing a large proportion of the carbon dioxide released by human

activities, the oceans are becoming acidic. If it were not for the oceans, the level of carbon

dioxide in the atmosphere would be much higher.

The effect could be that fish, squid, and other gilled marine animals may find it harder to breathe,

as the dissolved oxygen essential for their life becomes difficult to extract as water becomes

more acidic. And shellfish, crabs, lobsters, and corals may find it more difficult to build their

calcium carbonate shells. Spalding (2001) notes that coral reefs in the Indian Ocean experienced

massive bleaching in the 1998 with over 50% mortality in some of the regions. Damage to coral

reefs system has far reaching implications for fisheries, food security and tourism and overall

marine diversity. The sustainable development goal number (14) fourteen which calls for the

conservation and sustainable use of marine resources by 2030 is being compromised by these

unusual climatic changes in Africa.

Water and Climate Change in Africa

Climate change and variability have potential to impose additional pressure on water availability,

accessibility and water demands in Africa.Gueye eta al (2005), notes that Egypt is one of the

African countries that could be vulnerable to water stress under climate change. The water used

in 2000 was estimated at about 70 cubic kilometres which is already far in excess of the available

resource. Climate change is posing serious threat in Egypt as the temperatures rise will likely

reduce the productivity of major crop and increase their water requirements thereby directly

decreasing crop water use efficiency. Pittock (2005) notes that many people in Africa live under

water stress defined as those using more than 20% of their renewable water resources. For

example Gleick (2000) reports that water withdraw in Nigeria during 1990s was 28cubic meters

per person per year. This means that water is seriously threatened by the variability of climate in

Africa. UNEP (2003) notes that about 1.100 million people do not have access to clean drinking

water and contaminated water is the cause 5million of death every year with the majority of these

in Sub-Saharan Africa. So from the researcher’s point of view, climate change has derailed the

progress in achieving the sustainable development goals in Africa as there are water challenges,

water is a precious natural resources that has multiple usage so the unavailability and

inaccessibility of water in Africa affects education, health, marine and terrestrial life and may

result in conflicts among tribes and nations.

Impact of climate change on education in Africa.

Reports from Save the Children (2008) and UNICEF (2008) reveal the impact will likely be seen

most immediately in disruptions to education provision. This is already the case in the region:

Periods of excessive heat already prevent students from attending school, as do increasingly

more common sandstorms, like those seen in the Sub Saharan Africa. In certain areas, where

drought-parched grounds are unable to absorb rains, flash floods can make roads impassable,

preventing students from reaching schools. The floods cause the disruptions to electricity, a

potential side effect, can force schools to suspend activity, while in extreme cases, severe

weather can actually damage infrastructure. While the cumulative effect of these disturbances on

students' education performance is not well known, it is certain that interruptions in attendance

can only have detrimental consequences for learning outcomes. Over the longer term, it is

forecast that climate change, along with other confounding factors such as the high poverty rate

in the region, will combine to create environmental degradation, a subsequent deterioration in

livelihoods, and put pressure on populations to migrate. Research suggests that in all instances

such effects are likely to disproportionately affect children, their well-being and care, and their

ability to participate in good quality, equitable education.

Climate change will also impact education in other indirect ways. A warmer climate alters the

geographic range of disease vectors, such as mosquitoes, thus exposing new human populations

to diseases, such as malaria and dengue, for which they are unprepared. Outbreaks of three

different diseases, aseptic meningitis in Djibouti in West Africa have all been attributed to either

unseasonably warm winter temperatures generated by new and exceptional El Niňo weather

patterns or by heat waves. Disruptions to existing agricultural practices, another secondary effect

of climate change, will lead to more widespread malnutrition because of higher food prices.

Together, these have a combined impact on children that is particularly troublesome from an

educational point of view, there is strong evidence to suggest that school-aged children who

suffer from protein-energy malnutrition, hunger, or who lack certain micronutrients in their diet

(particularly iron, iodine, or vitamin A) or who carry a burden of diseases such as malaria,

diarrhea or worms do not have the same potential for learning as healthy and well-nourished

children and that they are more likely to repeat grades, drop out early and fail to learn adequately

due to poor attention, low motivation and poor cognitive function. (CREATE, 2008).

Biodiversity Loss in Africa

Biodiversity sustains, and is usefully dependent on ecosystem. Human beings heavily depend on

bio diverse ecosystem that support food, fuel and fibre production. So in the case of the damage

by climate change, FAO (1999) notes that long term declines in rainfall patterns have increased

the spread of the deserts in Southern and Western Africa resulting in shifting sands dunes and

the loss of flora and fauna. Hence the sustainable development goals in Africa is being

undermined because the absence of biodiversity in the human and animal lives leads to declining

of economic, social and technological development in Africa.

Responses to the challenges of Climate Change in Africa.

Conversely not all assessment of the impacts of climate change in Africa are negative, there are

likely so some positive aspects due to the changes in the seasons and production cycles.

Desanker (2011) notes that Ethiopia and Southern Africa are expected to have extended growing

seasons due to climate changes, a consequence of increased temperatures and rainfall variability.

In addition the livestock sector could be boosted by the temperature rises thus according to

IPCC’s model an increase in the 50C could mean a rise in farmer income by up to 58%.

According to Olatunde (2013) “the global efforts on climate change provide an opportunity for

economic and hopefully for sustainable development arising from the mechanisms provided in

the Kyoto Protocol.” So for example the provision of the Clean Development Mechanism when

applied to Nigeria and the rest of the affected African states, it has to give the opportunities to

developed countries to invest in climate change victim African countries though other continents

will benefit more.

The Kyoto Protocol also has an article 3 which is the Emissions Trading and Reduction which

allows developed or industrialised countries to set up an emission reduction project such as the

nuclear power generator to replace a fossil fuel generator in other territories. So the researcher’s

point of view this is a brilliant idea because it is way of reducing the emissions effects in the

African countries since they are the most victims of the consequences of the gas emissions from

the North.

Conclusion

In nutshell, climate change which comprises of the change in rainfall patterns, temperature rises,

has posed and will continue to cause more danger to African environments and ultimately lead to

poor achievements of the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Health, water, education,

ecosystem and biodiversity, African population will be heavily affected by the change of the

temperature and sporadic rainfall patterns. However , not all the effects of climate will damage

the African development but some have the positive effects as it is noted that the high

temperatures are favourable to livestock farming thus boosting the sustainable development goal

Africa and the early rainfall patterns will lead to high yields especially in Southern Africa. Kyoto

Protocol have also been important in mitigating the effects of climate change on sustainable

development goals by bringing in articles which should be followed by member states and non-

member states in solving the challenges of climate change in Africa .

References

Bates, B.C., (2008) Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change. IPCC Secretariat, Geneva: 210pp.

Desanker, P.V. et al 2001 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. IPCC Working Group II,

Third Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press.

FAO 2009 Food Security and Agricultural Mitigation in Developing Countries: Options for

capturing synergies

Gueye, L., M., 2005: Water and sustainable development in the countries of Northern Africa:

coping with challenges and scarcity .Assessing sustainable development in Africa, Africa’s

Sustainable Development Bulletin, Economic CommissionforAfrica,AddisAbaba,24-28.

IPCC. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. IPCC Working Group

II, Third Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press.

Lindsay, S.W. 1998. Malaria in the African highlands: past, present and future. Bulletin of the

World Health Organization, 76:33-45.

Mutunga, C 2012 Population, Dynamics, Climate Change and Sustainable Development in

Africa. Population Action International (PAI), Washington D.C., USA

Nicholls, R.J.1999. Increasing flood risk and wetland losses due to global sea-level rise: regional

and global analyses. Global Environmental Change, 9:S69-S87

NRC (2010). Advancing the Science of Climate Changes. National Research Council. The

National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA.

Olatunde S. 2013 Climate Change: The Impact and Potential Benefits for Developing Nations:

International Journal of Agricultural Research and Review Vol 1pp002-012

Ozor .N, 2009 –IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES IN AFRICA:

The Role of adaptation Africa Technology Policy Studies Networks.

Pittock, A. B. (2005) Climate Change: Turning up the Heat. Australia, EARTHSCAN: 316pp.

Siegfried W.R, 1989 Preservation of Species in Southern Africa natural resources: Biodiversity

in Southern Africa: Concepts and Conservation, Oxford University Press.

Spalding M.D, 2001 World Atlas of Coral reefs. University of California Press. U.S.A

Save the Children (2008) 'Legacy of Disasters’

United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP (ed.) (2003) GEO-Global Environmental

Outlook. UNEP website: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3/English/index.htm

Unasylva 2007 An international journal of forestry and forest industries Vol. 66 2015/1–2