Exam III Review Slides
Transcript of Exam III Review Slides
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How Do We
Experience Emotions?
The terms emotion and mood are often used interchangeably in
everyday language
_______________:feelings that involve subjective evaluation,
physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs.
subjective experience: feelings that accompany an emotion
physical changes: increases in heart rate, in skin temperature,
and in brain activation
cognitive appraisals: peoples beliefs and understandingsabout why they feel the way they do
____________: diffuse, long-lasting emotional states.
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Emotions Have a
Subjective Component
We experience emotions subjectively
The intensity of emotional reactions varies but people who are
_____________ or _______________ tend to have psychological
problems
________________: such as depression or panic attacks;
________________: causes people to not experience the
subjective components of emotions, e.g. Elliot
One cause of alexithymia is that the physiological messages
associated with emotions do not reach the brain centers that
interpret emotion
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Distinguishing Between
Types of Emotions
________________:emotions that are evolutionarily adaptive,shared across cultures, and associated with specific physical states.They include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possiblysurprise and contempt.
________________:blends of primary emotions. They includeremorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation
At the center of the _________________ is the intersection of twocore dimensions of affect:
______________ indicates how negative or positive emotions
are; activation indicates how arousing they are ______________ is the physiological activation (such as
increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses(such as increased heart rate)
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Negative Affect and Positive Affect
Neurochemical evidence supports the idea that positive affect and
negative affect are independent
___________ activation states appear to be associated with an
increase in dopamine
___________ activation states appear to be associated with anincrease in norepinephrine
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James-Lange Theory
In 1884, William James asserted that a persons interpretation of
the physical changes in a situation leads that person to feel an
emotion
A similar theory was independently proposed by
____________________ __________________________________: we perceive specific
patterns of bodily responses, and as a result of that perception we
feel emotion
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
According to the James-Lange theory, _____________________
trigger the experience of emotions, not the other way around
In 1963, __________________ proposed this idea as the facial
feedback hypothesis
In other words, putting on a smile can trigger a happy response
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Cannon-Bard Theory
__________________, along with Philip Bard, proposed that the
mind and body experience emotions independently
The __________ is quick to experience emotions
The ___________ is much slower The information from an emotion-producing stimulus is processed
in subcortical structures
As a result, we experience two separate things at the same time: an
emotion and a physical reaction
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The Amygdala and Prefrontal Cortices
People with damage to the amygdala show fear when confronted
with dangerous objects, but they
__________________________________________ to objects
associated with dangerous objects
The amygdala is associated with emotional learning, memory of
emotional events, and the interpretation of
________________________________
The right prefrontal cortice is associated with ______________
The left prefrontal cortice is associated with ______________
People also can be dominant in one hemisphere of their frontal
lobes, and that dominant hemisphere can bias their emotions
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Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
According to the two-factor theory of emotion, a situation evokes:
___________________, such as arousal
___________________, or an emotion label
Physical states caused by a situation can be attributed to the
________________
When people misidentify the source of their arousal, it is called
_________________________________
__________________ is a similar form of misattribution; residual
physiological arousal caused by one event is transferred to a new
stimulus
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We Regulate Our Emotional States
In our daily lives, circumstances often require us to harness our
emotional responses
_______ outlined the ways we strategically place ourselves in
certain situations in order to self-regulate
Examples?
Recent studies have found that engaging in reappraisal changes the
activity of brain regions involved in the experience of emotion
Not all strategies for regulating emotional states are equally
successful
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Humor
Humor increases positive affect and can be used to cope with a
difficult situation
Research shows that laughter stimulates ___________________,
improves the immune system, and stimulates the release of
hormones, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins
Examples?
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Thought Suppression and Rumination
Through ________________________, people attempt to not feel
or respond to the emotion at all
Thought suppression often leads to a rebound effect, in which
people think more about something after suppression than before
_______________ involves thinking about, elaborating, and
focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings
Prolongs the mood and impedes successful mood regulation
__________________ involves doing something other than the
troubling activity or thinking about something other than the
troubling thought
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How Are Emotions Adaptive?
Emotions are adaptive because they prepare and guide successfulbehaviors.
Emotions provide information about the importance of stimuli to
______________, and then they prepare people for actions aimed at
achieving those goals. ___________:a desired outcome, usually associated with some
specific object (tasty food) or some future behavioral intention
(getting into a doctoral program in psychology)
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Facial Expressions
Communicate Emotion
__________________ argued that expressive aspects of emotion
are adaptive because they communicate how we are feeling
Facial expressions provide many clues about whether our behavior
is pleasing to others or whether it is likely to make them reject,
attack, or cheat us ____________ demonstrated that the mouth better conveys
emotion than the eyes, especially for positive affect
Researchers showed identical facial expressions in different contexts
and found that the ___________ profoundly altered how peopleinterpreted the emotion
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Facial Expressions Across Cultures
Research has found general support for cross-cultural congruence in
identifying some facial expressions; support is
__________________________________________________
Research suggests that ______________responses are innate rather
than learned by observing them in others
In studies of athletes, both sighted and blind winners display similar
expressions
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Display Rules Differ across Cultures
and between the Sexes _________________: rules learned through socialization that
dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations
Differences in display rules help explain cultural stereotypes
From culture to culture, display rules tend to be different for
women and men
The emotions most closely associated with ______________are
related to care-giving, nurturance, and interpersonal relationships
The emotions associated with _______________ are related to
dominance, defensiveness, and competitiveness
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Decision Making
Emotions influence our decision making in different ways
In the face of complex, multifaceted situations, emotions serve as
heuristic guides: They provide feedback for making quick decisions
According to the _______________________, posited by Schwarzand Clore, we use our current moods to make judgments and
appraisals, even if we do not know the sources of our moods
If people are made aware of the sources of their moods (as when
the researcher suggests that a good mood might be caused by thebright sunshine), their feelings have ____________ influence over
their judgments
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Recognizing and Correcting for Belief Persistence
in Your Own Thinking and in That of Others
_____________________________: tendency to hold on to
previous ideas even when presented with evidence that the belief is
questionable or just plain wrong
People tend to believe information consistent with the side of anissue they already believe is true
You can be more open to examining all sides of an issue fairly and
altering your beliefs when the evidence supports the change
To reduce the effects of belief persistence, you should deliberatelyseek evidence that disconfirms your belief
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Somatic Markers
__________________________, most self-regulatory actions anddecisions are affected by bodily reactions called
______________________
Bodily reactions that arise from the emotional evaluation of an
actions consequences
Expectation is influenced by your history of performing either that
action or similar actions
Somatic markers may guide us to engage in adaptive behaviors by
using past outcomes to regulate future behavior
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Emotions Strengthen
Interpersonal Relations
In interacting with others, we use emotional expressions as
powerful nonverbal communications
Nonverbal displays of emotions signal
___________________________________________
Evolutionary perspective: need to belong to social groups
Survival was enhanced for those who lived in groups; those who
were expelled would have been less likely to survive and pass along
their genes The fundamental need to belong indicates that people will be
sensitive to anything that might lead them to be kicked out of the
group, and social emotions may reflect reactions to this possibility
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Guilt Strengthens Social Bonds
_____________________________ contend that guilt strengthensinterpersonal relationships in three ways:
Feelings of guilt discourage people from doing things that would
harm their relationships
Displays of guilt demonstrate that people care about theirrelationship partners, thereby affirming social bonds
Guilt is a tactic that can be used to manipulate others
Evidence indicates that socialization is more important than biology
in determining specifically how children experience guilt
As children grow, they _______________________and they
subsequently experience feelings of guilt
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Embarrassment and Blushing
A person is likely to feel embarrassed after
___________________________________________ being teased,
or experiencing a threat to his or her self-image
Like guilt, embarrassment may reaffirm close relationships after
wrongdoing _____________ occurs when people believe others view them
negatively
This nonverbal apology is an appeasement that elicits forgiveness in
others, thereby repairing and maintaining relationships
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How Does Motivation
Energize, Direct, and Sustain Behavior?
Emotions are a primary source of ______________.
Factors that energize, direct, or sustain behavior
Most of the general theories of motivation emphasize four
essential qualities of motivational states: ___________________________________________________
are directive; they guide behaviors toward satisfying specific goals orspecific needs;
help animals persist in their behavior until they achieve their goals orsatisfy their needs;
differ in strength, ______________________________________
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Multiple Factors Motivate Behavior
Needs lead to goal-directed behaviors; failure to satisfy a particularneed leads to psychosocial or physical impairment
____________:a state of biological or social deficiency
________________: basic survival needs must be met before
people can satisfy higher needs
A state of ______________________occurs when someone
achieves his or her personal dreams and aspirations
Maslows hierarchy is more useful as an indicator of what might be
true about peoples behaviors than of what actually is true aboutthem
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Drives and Incentives
_______________: a psychological state that, by creating arousal,motivates an organism to satisfy a need
________________: the tendency for bodily functions to maintain
equilibrium. The term homeostasis was coined by Walter Cannon
Any behavior that satisfies a need is reinforced and therefore ismore likely to recur; if a behavior consistently reduces a drive, it
becomes a ______________
Drive states push us to reduce arousal, but we are also pulled
toward certain things in our environments _________________: external objects or external goals, rather
than internal drives, that motivate behaviors
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Arousal and Performance
___________________:the psychological principle thatperformance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, after
which it decreases with increasing arousal
Motivation does not always lower tension and arousal; we are
individually motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal
Examples?
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Pleasure
__________________: drives people to seek pleasure and avoid
pain, Sigmund Freud From an evolutionary perspective, positive and negative motivations
are ________________
For instance, the motivations to seek out food, sex, and
companionship are typically associated with pleasure, whereas
the avoidance of dangerous animals is negatively motivated
because of the association with pain
Animals prefer to eat sweets; sweetness usually indicates that food
is safe to eat. By contrast, most poisons and toxins taste bitter, so it
is not surprising that animals avoid bitter tastes
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Some Behaviors Are Motivated
for Their Own Sake
___________________:motivation to perform an activity because
of the external goals toward which that activity is directed
___________________:motivation to perform an activity because
of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for
an apparent external goal or purpose ___________ helps us learn about the objects in an environment
and has survival value, since knowing how things work allows us to
use those objects for more serious tasks
____________ is the tendency to generate ideas or alternatives that
may be useful in solving problems, communicating, and entertaining
ourselves and others
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Self-Determination Theory
and Self-Perception Theory Consistent evidence suggests that extrinsic rewards can undermine
intrinsic motivation
_______________________: People are motivated to satisfy needs
for competence, relatedness to others, and autonomy, which is a
sense of personal control. Extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic
value because such rewards undermine peoples feeling that they
are choosing to do something for themselves. (Deci & Ryan, 1987).
_____________________: People are seldom aware of their
specific motives; they draw inferences about their motives
according to what seems to make the most sense (Bem, 1967).
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We Set Goals to Achieve
People are especially motivated to achieve ____________________
______________________________ is the process by which people
change their behavior to attain personal goals
Challenging, but not overly difficult and specific goals are best
Challenging goals encourage effort, persistence, and concentration;
goals that are too easy or too hard can undermine motivation and
therefore lead to failure
Dividing specific goals into concrete steps and focusing on___________________ goals facilitates achieving
__________________ goals
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Self Efficacy and the
Achievement Motive
________________ argued that peoples personal expectations for
success play an important role in motivation
____________________ is the expectancy that your efforts will lead
to success. Not believing your efforts will pay off may discourage you
from trying
The ________________________ is the desire to do well relative to
standards of excellence
Individuals high in achievement need challenging but attainable
personal goals, while those low in achievement need set extremelyeasy or impossibly high goals
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Social Psychology
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How Do We Form
Our Impressions of Others?
Social psychology is concerned with how
people influence other peoples thoughts,
feelings, and actions
We constantly make social judgments and
automatically classify people into social
categories
Social psychologists have shown that our long-
term evaluations of people are heavily
influenced by our first impressions
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We Make Attributions About Others
We constantly try to explain other peoples
motives, traits, and preferences
Attributions: explanations for events or actions,
including other peoples behavior
We are motivated to draw inferences in part by
a basic need for both order and predictability
Just World hypothesis: When bad things
happen to people, wemake sense of it by
blaming the victimvictims must have done
something to justify what happened to them
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Attributional Dimensions Fritz Heider distinguished between two types of
attributions:
Personal/internal or dispositional attributions: referto
things within people, such as abilities, moods, or efforts
Situational/external attributions: refer to outside events,such as luck, accidents, or the actions of other people
Bernard Weiner noted that attributions can vary on
other dimensions:
They can be stable over time (permanent) or unstable(temporary)
They can be controllable or uncontrollable
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Attributions About the Self
We tend to have a self-serving bias in making
attributions about our own behavior:
We attribute our failures to situational, unstable, or
uncontrollable factors in a way that casts us in a positive light
We attribute our successes to personal, permanent factors in
a way that gives us credit for doing well
Example: If you fail a test, you may blame your poor
performance on your not getting enough sleep or on the
professors creating a bad exam; if you do well on a test, you
may attribute that good performance to your being smart
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Attributional Bias
People tend to be systematically biased when they
process social information
Fundamental attribution error:pervasive tendency to
overemphasize the importance of personality traits
and underestimate the importance of a situation whenexplaining anothers behavior
Began as the correspondence bias: We expect others
behavior to correspond with their beliefs and personalities
Actor/observer discrepancy: When interpreting ourown behavior, we tend to focus on situations; when
interpreting other peoples behavior, we tend to focus
on dispositions
S A B d
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Stereotypes Are Based
on Automatic Characterization
Stereotypes:cognitive schemas that help us organizeinformation about people on the basis of their
membership in certain groups
Allow for easy, fast processing of social information
Occur automatically, largely outside of our awareness
Affect impression formation
Stereotypes are self-maintaining: They direct our
attention toward information that confirms them andaway from disconfirming evidence
subtyping: When we encounter someone who does not fit a
stereotype, we put that person in a special category rather
than alter the stereotype
f f ff
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Self-Fulfilling Effects
Self-fulfilling prophecy: tendency to behave in ways that
confirm our own or others expectations Teachers expectations of students success/failure can impact
those students performances (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968;
McKown & Weinstein, 2008)
Women performed more poorly on a math test when they wereinitially reminded of their sex (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999)
Effects ofstereotype threatreflect three interrelated
mechanisms:
physiological stress
thinking about ones performance is distracting
suppressing negative thoughts/emotions requires a great
deal of effort
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Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice
Stereotypes may be positive, neutral, or negative
Negative stereotypes can lead to: prejudice: negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs
associated with a stereotype;
discrimination: inappropriate and unjustified
treatment of people as a result of prejudice
Why do stereotypes lead to prejudice and discrimination?
Personality factors
People treat others as scapegoats to relieve stress
People discriminate against others to protect their own self-
esteem
We favor our own groups and stigmatize those who pose
threats to our groups
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Ingroup/ Outgroup Bias
Groups to which we belong are ingroups;those to which
we do not belong are outgroups Outgroup homogeneity effect:Once we categorize others as
ingroup or outgroup members, we tend to view outgroup
members as less varied than ingroup members
Ingroup favoritism:We are more likely to distribute resources toingroup members than to outgroup members. We are more
willing to do favors for ingroup members and to forgive their
mistakes or errors.
Evolutionarily, personal survival has depended on groupsurvival. Keeping resources within a group while denying
resources to outgroup members may have provided a
selective advantage.
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Stereotypes and Perception
Stereotypes can influence basic perceptual processes:
White participants looked at pictures of either tools or guns
and were asked to classify them as quickly as possible.
Immediately before seeing a picture, participants were
shown a picture of a white face or a black face; they were
told that the face was being shown to signal that either a gunor a tool would appear next. Being shown a black face led the
participants to identify guns more quickly and to mistake
tools for guns (Payne, 2001).
Priming people with pictures of weapons (e.g., guns andknives) leads them to pay greater attention to pictures of
black faces than to pictures of white faces (Eberhardt, Goff,
Purdie, & Davies, 2004)
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Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance: an uncomfortable mental
state due to a contradiction between two attitudes
or between an attitude and a behavior
Example: People experience cognitive dissonance whenthey smoke even though they know that smoking might kill
them
People reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes
or behaviors; they sometimes also rationalize ortrivialize the discrepancies
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Postdecisional Dissonance
Dissonance arises when a person holds positive
attitudes about different options but has to chooseone of the options
Example: A person might have trouble deciding which
college to attend; the person might narrow the choice to
two or three alternatives and then have to choose
Postdecisional dissonance: motivates the person to
focus on one schools the chosen schools
positive aspects and the other schools negativeaspects
Effect occurs automatically, with minimal cognitive
processing, and apparently without awareness
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Insufficient Justification
One way to get people to change theirattitudes is to change their behaviors first,
using as few incentives as possible
Participants performed an extremely boring task
and then reported to other participants on how
enjoyable it was
Participants who were paid more ($20) to lie
about their experience reported enjoying it lessthan thosepaid less ($1) to lie (Festinger &
Carlsmith, 1959)
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We Are Obedient to Authority
The Milgram studies in obedience
Milgrams research demonstrated that
ordinary people may do horrible things when
ordered to do so by an authority
A recent replication found that 70 percent of
the participants were obedient up to the
maximum voltage in the experiment (Burger,2009)