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![Page 1: Evolutionary Psychology and the Beauty Myth? Charles Crawford Department of Psychology Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada, V 5A 1S6 E-mail: crawford@sfu.ca.](https://reader031.fdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022032701/56649c3e5503460f948e9867/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Evolutionary Psychology and the Evolutionary Psychology and the Beauty Myth?Beauty Myth?
Charles Crawford
Department of Psychology
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby, BC, Canada, V 5A 1S6
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: http://www.sfu.ca/faculty/crawford
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A Central Problem for A Central Problem for HumansHumans
How can we set up societies– that are founded on moral principles, and yet – are pliable and comfortable enough for people
so that the society will persist? Example: Collapse of the USSR Resolving “naturalistic” and “moralistic” fallacies Is there a role for evolutionary psychology?
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The Beauty MythThe Beauty MythThe Beauty MythThe Beauty Myth
Standards of human physical beauty are arbitrary.
Individual3s are very susceptible to cultural pressures to conform.
The media in western cultures impose beauty standards.
Men somehow use the “beauty myth” to control and oppress women.
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Blame for Standards of Blame for Standards of BeautyBeauty
“Oh my God, we are so sick in this society.” – “Better watch out girl. You're getting a
little broad across the beam.” “I believe in sin, therefore in a sinner; in
theft, therefore in a thief; in slavery, therefore in a slaveholder; in wrong, therefore in a wrong-doer.” William Lloyd Garrison/Naomi Wolf The Beauty Myth
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Today’s TalkToday’s TalkToday’s TalkToday’s Talk
Physical beauty: What it may tell us
– Fluctuating body asymmetry
– Waist-to-hip ratio. The thin female physique
– Reproduction suppression model of anorexic behaviour.
– empirical support for it.
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1,000,000 years
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Assessing Quality of Assessing Quality of Prospective Mate Prospective Mate
Assessing Quality of Assessing Quality of Prospective Mate Prospective Mate
Qualities: May not be directly observable
– Resources
– Fertility
– Parental care
– Parasite resistance Assessing health, fertility,...
– Body asymmetry
– Waist-to-hip ratio
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Fluctuating Body AsymmetryFluctuating Body AsymmetryFluctuating Body AsymmetryFluctuating Body Asymmetry
Genes produce the basic design of organs. Environmental conditions and genetic quality
impact on expression of the design. Many traits bilaterally symmetric in design. Asymmetry results from imprecise
expression of the design. It can indicate poor genes or high levels of
environmental stress.
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What is beingDisplayed?
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Dev Singh: Waist-to-hip RatioDev Singh: Waist-to-hip RatioDev Singh: Waist-to-hip RatioDev Singh: Waist-to-hip Ratio
Ratio of waist to hip measurements Women: WHR = 0.7 Cross cultural evidence Indicator of health Body scarification
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Adaptations: Tools for Ancestral Adaptations: Tools for Ancestral Survival and ReproductionSurvival and Reproduction
Fever fighting parasites Upright walking Assessing Waist-to-Hip Ratio in choosing a
mate Assessing Fluctuating Body Asymmetry in
choosing a mate Detecting cheaters on social contracts
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Adaptations as Information Adaptations as Information ProcessorsProcessors
a set of genetically-coded developmental processes that enabled ancestral organisms to implement cost-benefit analyses in response to specific sets of environmental contingencies, and
that organized the effector processes for dealing with those contingencies so that the allele(s) producing the decision processes were reproduced better than alternate allele(s)
examples: recognizing kin, forming social contracts, deceiving oneself, choosing mate,...
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Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology DefinedDefined
Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology DefinedDefined
Problems humans encountered in the EEA
– Finding high quality mates. Psychological adaptations that evolved to
help solve those problems
– Assessing Waist-to-hip ratio/Symmetry. The way those adaptations function now
– Women in advertisements, TV, & movies
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Anorexic BehaviourAnorexic BehaviourAnorexic BehaviourAnorexic Behaviour
Disturbance in way body weight/shape is experienced
Fear of gaining weight Amenorrhea Most common in:
– Young women
– Industrialized countries
– Upper status women
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Non Evolutionary Non Evolutionary ExplanationsExplanations
Non Evolutionary Non Evolutionary ExplanationsExplanations
Sociocultural Taking control Family pathology Political:
– Men want power over women.
– “Juvenile” women easier to control.
– Men “juvenilize” women to control them. Others...
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Unanswered QuestionsUnanswered QuestionsUnanswered QuestionsUnanswered Questions
What is it about industrialization that encourages a thin standard of beauty?
Why do some girls progress to very thin levels of emaciation?
Why do we not see “pathologies” associated with other aspects of attractiveness, i.e. eyelashes?
What environmental variables drive the passion for thinness?
What are the relations to the physiology of ovulation, menstruation, and hunger?
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Adaptive Reproductive Adaptive Reproductive SuppressionSuppression
Adaptive Reproductive Adaptive Reproductive SuppressionSuppression
Female reproduction is very costly. Individuals can improve their lifetime reproductive
success by delaying reproduction if current conditions for reproducing are poor, but are expected to improve.
Value of body fat for women:– Insulation– Storage of calories– Regulation of reproduction
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Anorexic Behaviour: Reproductive Suppression and Critical Fat
If conditions for reproduction are poor, but expected to improve delaying reproduction can contribute to lifetime reproductive success (Wassar & Barash, 1983).
Accumulation of body fat is an important factor in initiating and maintaining women’s menstruation and ovulation(Frish, 1988).
Altering body fat:A mechanism foradjusting reproduction as a function of expected current and future reproductivesuccess
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Hypothesized Stresses that Hypothesized Stresses that May Make Delay AdaptiveMay Make Delay Adaptive
Hypothesized Stresses that Hypothesized Stresses that May Make Delay AdaptiveMay Make Delay Adaptive
High levels of:
– Female-female competition
– Attention from undesirable males Exacerbating conditions:
– Fat-rich diet
– Work needed to raise body fat level
– Early puberty relative to social maturity
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Female-Female Competition: Female-Female Competition: Initial Naive PredictionsInitial Naive Predictions
Female-Female Competition: Female-Female Competition: Initial Naive PredictionsInitial Naive Predictions
1. Incidence will be positively correlated with social status– Reason: Female-female competition is more
intense in upper status groups. 2. Incidence will be increasing in societies where
the age of puberty is falling– Reason: Changes in diet, etc. producing earlier
physical maturation do not necessarily cause earlier psychological maturity.
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Female-Female Competition: Female-Female Competition: Initial Naive PredictionsInitial Naive Predictions
Female-Female Competition: Female-Female Competition: Initial Naive PredictionsInitial Naive Predictions
3. As the level of female-female competition increases women are expected to increasingly value thinness.– Reason: Since reproductive suppression mechanisms
are being activated at a low level in many women thinness will become attractive to many women.
4. As women gain political and social skills incidence will begin to decline– Reason: Avoidance of stresses
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How do we Validate How do we Validate Evolutionary Explanations?Evolutionary Explanations?
by modeling ancestral selection processes to determine if the adaptation could have evolved
cross cultural studies to determine how the adaptation functions in different environments
experimental studies to make causal statements about psychological mechanisms
locating the basis of the adaptation in nervous and endocrine systems to give biological credibility
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Modeling Ancestral Fitness Costs and Modeling Ancestral Fitness Costs and BenefitsBenefits
Modeling Ancestral Fitness Costs and Modeling Ancestral Fitness Costs and BenefitsBenefits
Explain: Contribution to ancestral fitness Predictor variables:
– Reproductive effort - Now/Later
– Reproductive success - Now/Later
– Reproductive value - Now/Later Parameters:
– c = cost of delay
– k = effect of reproducing now.
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Environmental Variability: In Environmental Variability: In Standards of BeautyStandards of Beauty
Environmental Variability: In Environmental Variability: In Standards of BeautyStandards of Beauty
Human Relations Area files 63 societies Dependent variable: Standards of beauty
– plump/fat, moderate fatness, slim. Independent variables: Predictors of standards
of beauty for several hypotheses
– latitude, protection of girls, menstrual taboos, value of women’s work,...
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Some HypothesesSome Hypotheses
Whims of fashion Food security Latitude Battle of the sexes - control of fertility Value of female work Adaptive reproductive suppression
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Food Security & ClimateFood Security & Climate
Independent variable: Food
– Results: Societies with unreliable food supply have plump standard of beauty (r = 0.28)
Independent variable: Latitude
– Results: Societies with high latitude have plump standard of beauty (r = 0.273)
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Battle of the Sexes: Fertility Battle of the Sexes: Fertility Male-female BattlegroundMale-female Battleground
Independent variables: Dominance, Machismo, value of female life, courtship choice, control of sex
Results:
– Strong emphasis on machismo have plump standard of beauty (r = 0.433).
– Husbands dominate wives (r = 0.426).
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Value of Women’s Work Value of Women’s Work
Independent variables: value of female work, menstrual taboos
Results:
– Few menstrual restrictions (r = 0.377)
– Female work (r = 0.284)
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Adaptive Reproductive Adaptive Reproductive Suppression: ProtectionSuppression: Protection
Independent variables: Risk associated with reproduction
Societies with high probability of adverse consequences of sexual maturation have slender standard of beauty
– Exposure, premarital sex, illegitimacy attitude (r = 0.234)
– Sexual expression, permission (r = 0.325)
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Adaptive Reproductive Adaptive Reproductive Suppression: Female DominanceSuppression: Female Dominance Multiple regression of beauty on dominance
measures for 62 societies Results:
– With female dominance (R2 = 0.423)
– Without female dominance (R2 = 0.209) Female power associated with slender
standard of beauty.
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Experimental Studies of Experimental Studies of Psychological MechanismsPsychological Mechanisms
Experimental Studies of Experimental Studies of Psychological MechanismsPsychological Mechanisms
Causal statements about psychological mechanisms Experimentally manipulate:
– Nature of delay: Indeterminate / Determinant– Reproductive stress: Female-female competition,
undesirable male attention– Non reproductive stress: Gardening, Hospital
visit Susceptibility measures
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Control group Experimental group
Pre test
Post test
Stressmanipulation
Yes Yes
Low High
Yes Yes
Experimental Design
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Pre and Post TestsPre and Post TestsPre and Post TestsPre and Post Tests
Pre tests: Indicators of susceptibility on:– Interoceptive awareness– Interpersonal distrust– Ineffectiveness
Post tests: Effects of the imagined stress on:– Drive for thinness– Body dissatisfaction– Maturity fears
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Female-female Competition:Female-female Competition:Female subjectsFemale subjects
0 10 20 30 40
4-Years
IndefinateHighLow
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Female-female CompetitionFemale-female Competition
0 10 20 30 40
4-Years
Indefinate
4-Years
Indefinate
High
Low
Male subjects
Femalesubjects
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Male Attention:Male Attention:Female SubjectsFemale Subjects
0 10 20 30
4-Years
Indefinate
HighLow
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Gardening and Music: Gardening and Music: Female SubjectsFemale Subjects
0 10 20 30
Music
Gardening
Hospital
HighLow
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Stress and Time: Female-Stress and Time: Female-female competitionfemale competition
0 10 20 30 40
1-Year
4-Years
Indefinate
HighLow
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Media StudyMedia Study
0
5
10
15
20
25
Low Fashion High Fashion
Low ExposureHigh Exposure
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RiskRisk
0
5
10
15
20
25
Low RiskHigh Risk
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Unanswered QuestionsUnanswered QuestionsUnanswered QuestionsUnanswered Questions
What is it about industrialization - thin standard of beauty? Stress: Duration & intensity
Why do some girls progress to very thin levels of emaciation? Vulnerability, stress
“Pathologies” associated with other aspects of attractiveness, i.e. eyelashes? Reproduction
What environmental variables drive the passion for thinness? Competition, attention, others
What are the relations to the physiology of ovulation, menstruation, and hunger????????
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Naomi Wolf in The Beauty MythNaomi Wolf in The Beauty MythAnorexia is spreading because it works. Not only does it Anorexia is spreading because it works. Not only does it
solve the dilemma of the young woman faced with the solve the dilemma of the young woman faced with the hunger cult, it also protects her from street harassment hunger cult, it also protects her from street harassment and sexual coercion; construction workers leave and sexual coercion; construction workers leave walking skeletons alone. Having no fat means having walking skeletons alone. Having no fat means having no breasts, thighs, hips, or ass, which for once means no breasts, thighs, hips, or ass, which for once means not having asked for it. not having asked for it.
Woman’s magazines tell woman they Woman’s magazines tell woman they can can control their control their bodies; but women’s experiences of sexual harassment bodies; but women’s experiences of sexual harassment make them feel they make them feel they cannotcannot control what their bodies control what their bodies are said to provokeare said to provoke..
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Members of Evolutionary Members of Evolutionary Psychology LaboratoryPsychology Laboratory
Members of Evolutionary Members of Evolutionary Psychology LaboratoryPsychology Laboratory
Charles Crawford, Judith Anderson Sally Walters, Joanne Nadeau Maria Janicki, Gerald Beroldi Martin Renaud, Windy Brown Laura Dane, Larua Ward, Erica Nance, Oonagh Zuberbier
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Naturalistic Fallacy: “What is, Naturalistic Fallacy: “What is, is what ought to be.is what ought to be.
Naturalistic Fallacy: “What is, Naturalistic Fallacy: “What is, is what ought to be.is what ought to be.
Women are more caring than men... Men are more sexually aggressive than
women... Men’s sexual jealousy... Women care for children...
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The Moralistic Fallacy: “What The Moralistic Fallacy: “What ought to be is what is.”ought to be is what is.”
The Moralistic Fallacy: “What The Moralistic Fallacy: “What ought to be is what is.”ought to be is what is.”
Women ought to be more caring than men... Abortion ought to have no negative
effects... Coercion ought not to be involved in
sexuality... Men and women ought to have the same
sexual agendas...
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Wilson on Natural Selection Wilson on Natural Selection and the Human Mindand the Human Mind
Wilson on Natural Selection Wilson on Natural Selection and the Human Mindand the Human Mind
Camus said that the only serious philosophical question is suicide. That is wrong even in the strict sense intended. The biologist, who is concerned with questions of physiology and evolutionary history, realizes that self-knowledge is constrained and shaped by the emotional control centers in the hypothalamus and limbic system of the brain. These centers flood our consciousness with all the emotions--hate, love, guilt, fear, and others--that are consulted by ethical philosophers who wish to intuit the standards of good and evil. What, we are then compelled to ask, made the hypothalamus and limbic system? They evolved by natural selection. The simple biological statement must be pursued to explain ethics and ethical philosophers, if not epistemology and epistemologists, at all depths. (Edward O. Wilson, 1975)
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Conspiracies and the Tragedy of the Commons
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