EVIDENCE Definition???? Definition???? Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or...
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EVIDENCEEVIDENCE
Definition????Definition????
Support for a claim that is discovered Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or outside authority from experience or outside authority (page 112)(page 112)
A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL and UNLESS it is supported by and UNLESS it is supported by evidenceevidence
What qualifies as “evidence” (and is What qualifies as “evidence” (and is accepted as valid) varies by the accepted as valid) varies by the spheres being appealed tospheres being appealed to
Claim – Claim – statement advanced to gain the adherence of othersstatement advanced to gain the adherence of others
Grounds – Grounds – conditions, events, that provide foundation for conditions, events, that provide foundation for your claimyour claim
Warrant –Warrant – general statements to justify the grounds general statements to justify the grounds
Backing – Backing – specific EVIDENCE, values, credibility etcspecific EVIDENCE, values, credibility etc
Qualifier –Qualifier – the force of the argument (your acceptable level of the force of the argument (your acceptable level of uncertainty)uncertainty)
Rebuttal - Rebuttal - answer to anticipated questions by answer to anticipated questions by opposition/decision makersopposition/decision makers
ToulminToulmin
Types of EvidenceTypes of EvidenceAll evidence is “sphere dependent”All evidence is “sphere dependent”
ExamplesExamplesStatisticsStatisticsTestimonyTestimony
Definition: an illustration which can be Definition: an illustration which can be generalized to the claim being madegeneralized to the claim being made
Find examples relevant to the Sphere you are Find examples relevant to the Sphere you are appealing toappealing to
Examples appeal to valuesExamples appeal to values
Hypothetical Examples??? Hypothetical Examples???
ExamplesExamples
StatisticsStatistics
Quantifiable dataQuantifiable dataMean , Median, ModeMean , Median, Mode
Statistical Trends/TendenciesStatistical Trends/Tendencies Credibility of Sources Credibility of Sources (global climate (global climate
change)change)
TestimonyTestimony(someone other than the person making the argument)(someone other than the person making the argument)
Testimony of FACTTestimony of FACT
Testimony of OPINIONTestimony of OPINION (expert opinion –can be countered by (expert opinion –can be countered by
other “experts” – becomes an issue of other “experts” – becomes an issue of credibilitycredibility
Where to LookWhere to Look
Internet Search Internet Search (look for authoritative (look for authoritative sources)sources)
Government DocumentsGovernment Documents Statistical Abstract of the United Statistical Abstract of the United
StatesStates Organizational PublicationsOrganizational Publications Periodical PublicationsPeriodical Publications
• Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Wall Street Journal etc.Wall Street Journal etc.
TESTS OF EVIDENCETESTS OF EVIDENCE
Credibility – source qualificationsCredibility – source qualifications Accuracy/ReliabilityAccuracy/Reliability Originality of Observation Originality of Observation
(avoid second-hand evidence)(avoid second-hand evidence)
RecencyRecency Bias Bias (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden
agenda)agenda)
Consistency or Contradiction with Consistency or Contradiction with established info/dataestablished info/data
StatisticsStatistics
Source bias Source bias (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the DOJ?)DOJ?)
Statistical Accuracy Statistical Accuracy (statistical exercise)(statistical exercise)
Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!!Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!!
Comparable units Comparable units (US and Canada? Or Iraq and (US and Canada? Or Iraq and Iran?)Iran?)
Record/Save your EvidenceRecord/Save your Evidence
Note cardsNote cards
Data files on flash drives etc (so you Data files on flash drives etc (so you are not printing out lots of pages)are not printing out lots of pages)
Reasoning with the AudienceReasoning with the Audience
Cause and EffectCause and Effect
Generalization Generalization (Inductive Reasoning – (Inductive Reasoning – moving from a specific to the general)moving from a specific to the general)
A Parallel Case A Parallel Case (events are similar)(events are similar)
Comparative Advantage Comparative Advantage
Analogy Analogy (fundamental sameness in different (fundamental sameness in different cases one is “like” another)cases one is “like” another)
Authority Authority – credibility and expertise– credibility and expertise
Appeal based on Dichotomy - Appeal based on Dichotomy - force a force a choice between only 2 choiceschoice between only 2 choices
Fallacies in ArgumentFallacies in Argument Hasty Generalization Hasty Generalization (non representative (non representative
sample – too little info etc)sample – too little info etc)
Slippery SlopeSlippery Slope
Red HerringRed Herring
Non Sequitur Non Sequitur (Irrelevant Argument – does not follow)(Irrelevant Argument – does not follow)
Circular Reasoning Circular Reasoning
Forcing a False DichotomyForcing a False Dichotomy
Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Ignorance (ad ignoratium) no (ad ignoratium) no proof to the contrary existsproof to the contrary exists
Appeal to the People/popularity Appeal to the People/popularity (ad (ad populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or “it is commonly known”“it is commonly known”
Appeal to Emotion Appeal to Emotion (such as emotionally (such as emotionally charged language – pro-murder etc)charged language – pro-murder etc)
Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority
Appeal to TraditionAppeal to Tradition
Appeal to HumorAppeal to Humor
Argumentum Ad Hominem – Argumentum Ad Hominem – attack the attack the person not the argument (verbal aggression)person not the argument (verbal aggression)