INTERMEDIATE TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT GROUP

BUILDING MATERIALS AND SHELTER PROGRAMME

EVALUATION OF RESEARCH PROJECT

TRAINING AND POLICY GUIDELINES FOR ARTISANAL QUARRYING

KENYA, MAY 1999

By Asher Shadmon Assisted by Sam Gakunga

:ONTENTS

AND REC( iNDATIONS ............................................................................................................... 2

LOGICAL FRAM ...................................... 2 ACHIEVEMENTS ......................... ................................................. 2

Socio-economic .....................

SHORTCOMINGS ........................................................................................................................................................ 3

LESSONS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 3

IMPROVEMENTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 3

BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................................. 4

STONE QUARRYING IN KENYA ...................................................................................................................................... 4

METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................... 8

LOGICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................................................................................... 8

STRENGTHENED QUARRY WORKERS INSTITUTIONS ................................................................................... 8 UPGRADING OF TECHNOLOGY/ ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ....................................................................... 9 MARKETING APPROACH ........................................................................................................................................ 9 POLICY ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9 ACHIEVEMENTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 10 SHORTCOMINGS .................................................................................................................................................... 11 LESSON ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11

IMPROVEMENTS ...................................................................................................................................................... 13

TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................................................................................................... 13

VISITS AND INTERVIEWS ...................................................................................................................................... 15

CONTACTS WITH QUARRY OPERATORS AT SEVERAL Qu ........................... 15 MEETING WITH HARRY NDUNG'U - DEPAR ........................... 16 VISIT TO 2 MECHANISED QUARRIES IN JUJA INTER VIEW WITH JOHNSU?+'illJARIA - CONSULTANT HELD ON 6TH MAY 1999 ......................

........................... 17

INTERVIEW WITH QUARRY OWNERS ASSOCIATION - OLOOLUA .............................................

INSTITUTIONALISATION ....................................................................................................................................... 22

PROMOTIONS .................................................................................................. .................................................. 23

FUTURE ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25

MARKETING ............................................................................................................................................................ 25 EXPORT POTENTIAL ............................................................................................................................................. 25

SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER ... ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS APPENDIX 1 .. .DRAFT KENYA STANDARD FOR GRANITE TILES AND SLABS APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX 3

DRAFT KENYA STANDARD FOR MARBLE TILES AND SLABS KENYA SUBSIDIARY LEGISLATION, AMENDMENT TO MINING ACT

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’ LOGICAL FRAMEWORK

In general project inputs have been channeled through activities to produce significant and relevant outputs. In this regard, the project is on target towards attaining improved incomes and employment in stone quarrying. This is being achieved through strengthened Quarry Workers Institutions, upgraded technology, environmental awareness, improved marketing and policy lobbying.

The challenges lies in converting outputs as defined in the logical framework into operational outcomes and ultimately sustainable impact.

ACHIEVEMENTS

Socio-economic There is awareness of the project by all the participants and unequivocal agreement that the project is an eye opener.

Realisation that involvement can be rationalised and interacting groups formed: S maturity achieved opens the way to technical operational outputs.

participants training groups in management and book-keeping recognition of brokers as a reliable marketing avenue formation of a broker association compilation of field studies and reports

S organisation of training courses

strength en ing of marketing S guidelines on quarry acquisition

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project monitoring

Technical Environmental

rn soil replacement in designated place

establishment of community seedling nursery development of manual on environmental sensitivity.

rn land re-afforestation S

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rn Establishment of consistent dialogue with government environmental

authorities.

Extraction Related S identification of quarries

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quarrying tools improvement - manual training on quarry practice improvement introduction of benching for rehabilitation progress reached is now beyond the concept stage and tool improvement to be translated into stone working systems.

Shortcomings There has been delay in practical hands-on demonstration at the quarry sites. There is also a lack of agreed terminology and standards for tuffs.

Lessons The project has achieved awareness non-existent before 1991. Measurable indicators are expressed as documents. Architects require specifications, standardisation and consistency. The project is leading to the establishment of a Stone Centre.

Improvements More erriphasis should be laid on systems than on individual tools' replacement. Safety requires more attention. The possibility of silicosis should be attended to.

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Stone Quarrying in Kenya

Stone Quarrying in Kenya is a significant jua kali (informal sector) employer, involving land owners, quarry owners, concession holders (who lease the land and extract stone for sale) and quarry workers (both skilled and unskilled). This latter group is usually totally dependent on proceeds from quarrying for their livelihood. In the Nairobi area alone, this sector directly employs an estimated 10,000 workers. Nationally, the estimated number of employees in the quarrying sector is 40,000.

Stone as a building material is in great and growing demand because of the booming construction industry. This is particularly so in the mechanised quarries in Juja and elsewhere and until recently in the project area which serves Nairobi (the Ngong division of Kajiado district, approximately 13 kilometres south-west of Nairobi) where geological surveys have revealed that local stone reserves are sufficient for at least the next 50 years. However, demand far exceeds supply and many housing developers use concrete blocks as an expensive but more accessible and standardised alternative.

The main processes in quarrying include the clearance of the overburden of soil, drilling, blasting, splitting and dressing of stone. Most of the tools used to execute these processes are crude and poorly maintained. They are made from mild steel (relatively soft because of a low carbon content) and require regular sharpening. This lowers production rates and hence income rates. Much stone is wasted because of poor tools and poor extraction methods. While innovative use of stone is evident on building sites, there is hardly any innovation in the extraction and shaphg of stones at the quarries. The quarries produce stones of poor quality in terms of dimension and structural strength, which need to be redressed by builders before use. Prices reflect these shortcomings.

There is no institutionalised training in this sector for those who would like to improve their skills. Most quarry workers have learned the job on site and skills learned are often inadequate. Quarries frequently become waterlogged or inaccessible due to poor access roads and drainage. Rehabilitation of the land after mining is often inadequate. Unsafe blasting practices have deafened, injured or killed many workers. For these and other reasons, quarries have frequently been closed by environmentalists and government agents and quarry workers have found themselves without income. For workers who find themselves in this situation there are neither formal institutional structures through which

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they can address their concerns nor legally binding agreements to offer them security or

The marketing function in this region is largely in the hands of stone transporters. Preliminary market research indicates that transporters rather than quarry workers currently receive the largest share of returns from quarrying, particularly if they own their own vehicle. Prices appear to have quadrupled for transport since 1990 and there is evidence that drivers are operating a price cartel. Price is also related to the quality of the stone (shape of blocks/quality of cutting), the quantities demanded (regular and bulk buyers get a better deal) and the time of purchase (sellers often drop prices e.g. on Saturday night).

Current constraints to efficient quarrying include poor quarrying practices, inappropriate tools, inefficient management of personnel and resources, poor working conditions, high mobility among quarry workers and lack of marketing strategies. These constraints result in wastage of resources, reduced productivity, poor health and safety conditions for workers, exploitation of workers by land/quarry owners (who own the stone) and by transporters (who take the stone to the market), unstable incomes and environmental damage.

The KISWOP objectives were identified in a mutual way by quarry co-operative representatives and relevant government officials from the project area. This is the Ngong Division of Kajiado District, south west of Nairobi.

KISWOP aims are to be achieved in 10 quarries initially, by: 8 strengthening quarry worker institutions; 8 improving quarrying tools and equipment;

developing environmentally efficient quarrying practices; 8

e improving marketing strategies; e Influencing policy makers;

The project is supported by the research findings of an ongoing Training and Policy Guidelines (TPG) programme, managed by IT-Kenya. This is essentially a research programme which aims to meet the needs of an international audience. However, the TPG programme offers considerable support to KISWOP by confirming the validity of grassroots initiatives, by providing relevant research information (which will contribute to activity planning) and through the provision of relevant training materials. Jointly,

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KISWOP and the TPG project demonstrate the value of operating a grassroots approach and a research approach simultaneously and collaboratively.

KISWOP's direct beneficiaries include not only the quarry workers and owners but also blacksmiths and food sellers as part of the wider quarry community. Indirectly, the project also assists transporters, builders and end users of stone.

IT-Kenya's role is one of facilitation rather than management. Through KISWOP, partners will gain the capacity and experience to initiate, organise and manage the process of change that must continue beyond the involvement of IT-Kenya.

Intermediate Technology Kenya: the Wider Programme

In 1990, IT'S office in Kenya commissioned a study on the dimension stone and aggregate quarrying industry , following research on the building materials industry. This was the first significant study of stone resources since one commissioned by the Ministry of Mines in the 1960's.

In summary the main findings of the 1990 report were: Stone quarrying and processing are carried out by a large number of small scale concession holders. There are no effective well organised formally structured bodies covering stone quarrying and trading activities. Quarrying and processing is mainly operated as informal sector work. Traditional labour-intensive stone quarrying methods 'are showing no signs of modernisation or improvement. There is no institutionalised training available. A lot of stone is wasted due to poor methods of quarrying and processing. Productivity and production appear to be falling over time, yet the demand for stone is increasing. Costs vary substantially between quarries, partly due to the quality of labour input. Market prices are not controlled. Most laws governing quarrying are not enforced. There is great potential for reducing environmental damage caused by the industry.

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Attempts in 1990 to initiate a pilot project to further investigate opportunities to introduce change failed due to lack of donor interest and pressure from the local District Environment Committee which was intent at that time on closing down rather than modernising quarrying. However, by 1994 interest had been rekindled by heightened awareness of adverse environmental problems and recognition of the need to improve the supply of high quality building stone to ever-growing urban markets.

IT-Kenya had maintained an open dialogue with central government officials since 1990 and was now encouraged to pursue the issues surrounding quarrying by government and others involved in the industry. Consequently, in May 1994, IT-Kenya organised a workshop in Nairobi on "Maximising the Production and Use of Dimension Stone". Participants were drawn from all key sectors in the stone industry, including members of Government, NGOs, quarry workers' co-operatives working in the Ngong region, private consultants and small-scale building contractors. The workshop's main aim was to identify the technical, institutional and management issues affecting the stone industry and to design and develop improved approaches that would minimise these constraints.

Key concerns and possible solutions were identified during the workshop. These remain the crucial issues as has been reinforced at numerous subsequent workshops.

1. Quarry waste - about 45% of stone extracted ends up as quarry chippings due to poor quarrying and processing methods. Waste could be reduced if explosives were less frequently used and if profitable uses for chippings could be identified e.g. for road construction or use in the cement industry.

2. Environmental degradation - including deforestation and flooding of land, requires that different extraction methods are used (such as benching) and reclamation of land becomes mandatory (by replacing soil and by tree planting).

3. Safety - which is largely ignored, could be improved if explosives were less frequently used and if protective clothing was worn.

4. Identification of stone reserves - no professional survey work is done, consequently quarries are rarely worked out before they are abandoned.

5. Lack of working and start-up capital - financial institutions should offer loans to quarry workers unions; co-operatives should organise credit and savings schemes. Harassment by land owners - clear and legally binding agreements are needed to stipulate each party's role particularly with regard to cost-sharing. Marketing - quarry workers are too dependent on transporters for access to the market; often quarries are inaccessible by road for part of the year.

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Tools and technology - could be enhanced to improve productivity in terms of quality and quantity. Policy - with no institutional reference points, policy implementation and advocacy for change are ineffective.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology employed consists mainly of a review of the existing literature at IT Kenya and from the Library of the Department of Mines and Geology. Background socio- economic statistics were also obtained from the library of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) as well as unstructured interviews with people identified as key informants by IT. The interviewees included the project team at IT Kenya, quarry operators in Ngong and Juja as well as staff of the Department of Mines and Geology in the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. The initial findings were presented to a workshop attended by a wide variety of stakeholders at IT'S Nairobi offices on 11 May, 1999.

LOGICAL FRAMEWORK

STRENGTHENED QUARRY WORKERS INSTITUTIONS The efforts of IT at organising the various stakeholders at the quarries have clearly had impact. The associations of quarry operators at Oloolua is evidently very well organised and focussed. The Chairman indicated that what seemed like difficult issues before (citing indicators with the Forestry Department) has been much easier by acting jointly. It is clear that this is a group of entrepreneurs who are not risk averse operating, as they do, in a hostile environment fraught with insecurity including having to renew their tenure annually. In this regard, ITDG - KENYA has taken the right approach and sought to facilitate and not manage the process. There is evidence that the quarry owners, with support in terms of information and contacts, are driving the agenda of this project.

A brokers' association has been established. This group built and opened an office in Bulbul set strategically near the "entrance" to the quarries. It would appear that the plot on which this was set up has been repossessed by the local administration. It was observed that the Association has set the Brokers up to discussing the situation which is by its very nature tenacious. They are commission agents and their role diminishes over time as buyers, sellers and transporters constantly tend towards "cutting out the middle man". Maybe because brokers are not essentially risk taking entrepreneurs, their

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empowerment and self-generation is not as much in evidence as that of the quarry operators. However, IT has succeeded in setting of crucial and practical thinking among them about the way ahead.

The Association of Quarry Workers was in the process of being registered . While quarry workers have attended a series if workshop on better quarrying practices, actual work on strengthening their Association is scheduled for the financial year starting April 1999. Potentially useful lessons exists and have been collated by IT from the situation of migrant quarry and mine workers in India which should inform this process.

UPGRADING OF TECHNOLOGY/ ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT A detailed assessment of the status of output towards achieving this objectives has been provided in great detail in ensuing sections of this reports.

MARKETING APPROACH The entire project can trace back its reason for existence to the issue of marketing. The Oloolua Quarry that partner IT in this project are facing increasingly stiff competition from the mechanised quarries in Juja and elsewhere. They have also suffered also of adverse publicity in which they are accused of unsound environmental practices which has resulted in a legal suit instituted by an association of residents neighbouring the quarries as well as making the renewal of annual quarrying licenses extremely difficult.

The entire process of upgrading the technology - described and assessed in great detail elsewhere in this report - is aimed at making the product more competitive as well as addressing crucial environmental issues. IT has produced a training manual on marketing which is due for pre-testing. However, Mary Gachau, the confident assistant secretary of the operators' association feels that once they get the technology right all else will fall into place. She stated that their location is strategic and their tuff preferred by contractors.

POLICY This project has successfully brought all those holding a stake in the business of quarry in Ngong together which is in itself unprecedented. IT has also convened various for a to discuss issues concerning this sector.

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IT staff on this project have forged contacts in government that help monitor the changing policy environment closely. There is evidence of good contact with the Department of Mines and Geology as well as the Environmental Department both at central and local levels. For instance, IT have closely monitored the processes in amending the Mining Act which will bring stone quarrying under regulatory control.

Additionally, working relations have been established with the African Centre for Technological Services (ACTS) whose core competence is policy advocacy on environmental issues.

Clearly the first step in influencing any policy - that of creating broad awareness - has been attained. However, it remains difficult to see the clear result of some of the issues raised at the workshops that have been convened by IT. This maybe due to the lack of clear, consistent and institutionalised avenues of sustained action which must now form part of the way ahead. This issue is revisited and corresponding recommendations made under "Institutionalisation".

In general, project inputs have been channelled through a set of activities facilitated by IT to attain significant and relevant outputs. The project is generally on target towards attaining improved incomes and employment within the stone quarrying sector in Ngong. As discussed with IT and other stake holders, the challenge now lies in moving a notch up and seeking ways of converting project outputs - in themselves measures of efforts - into outcomes that indicate effectiveness and ultimately into sustained impact indicating change. The discussion on "Institutionalisation" focused on ways in which sustained impact maybe assured.

ACHIEVEMENTS The importance of the project achievements can be further emphasised by that although the geological fieldwork on the Nairobi area including the building stones was finished in 1967, it was only published and made public in 1991, after 24 years. The description of the economic deposits of importance by the Mines and Geology Department of the Ministry of Environment is of great service to artisanal quarrying and deserves to be elaborated.

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SHORTCOMINGS I f there have been any shortcomings, these became apparent during the discussions with the Oloolua Quarry Operators Association who felt that there was a lack of practical hands-on demonstrations of alternative extraction and stone working methods. Again such demonstrations could only have taken place after the "awareness" reached the certain maturity, which is only now apparent. This maturity enables the formulation of the practical steps required, and leads into the next phase to translate the organisational achievements into operational outcomes and to realise integration. The project has now progressed beyond the concept stage and as far as extraction is concerned, systems take priority over tools improvement outputs, which have dynamics of their own.

Another shortcoming, is the lack of an agreed terminology for the building stone and requires attention. Tuff is the general term for the stone in artisanal quarrying. However, there is a plethora of tuffs available in the Nairobi area which is presently the main market in addition to other localities. It seems that the "standard" tuff to which the other varieties of tuffs and the related trachytes (e.g. Limuru Trachyfe) have been compared, is the Nairobi Stone from the middle sections of the Kerichwa Valley Tuff deposits.

A comparative table of properties of the tuff and locations together with a location map will assist the compilation of an authoritative nomenclature and terminology to help any kind of planning (environmental, qualitative, quantitative) essential to the organisation of artisanal quarrying.

LESSON The lesson learnt is essentially positive. There is agreement among all those concerned that the project has provided mutual confidence and rationalism to groups of persons with widely divergent backgrounds ranging from migrating, rootless, unskilled workers to experienced entrepreneurs. A decisive common denominator between those involved is that they have to deal with a material, subject to the vagaries of nature in all its implications.

Considering the complexity of the various components constituting the project with its socio-economic, technological, safety and legislative aspects, the project has achieved awareness, which was totally non-existent before 1991.

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It is this awareness which has to be nurtured and translated into more formal, institutional framework. The measurable indicators in the project reports are expressed as

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SHORTCOMINGS If there have been any shortcomings, these became apparent during the discussions with the Oloolua Quarry Operators Association who felt that there was a lack of practical hands-on demonstrations of alternative extraction and stone working methods. Again such demonstrations could only have taken place after the "awareness" reached the certain maturity, which is only now apparent. This maturity enables the formulation of the practical steps required, and leads into the next phase to translate the organisational achievements into operational outcomes and to realise integration. The project has now progressed beyond the concept stage and as far as extraction is concerned, systems take priority over tools improvement outputs, which have dynamics of their own.

Another shortcoming, is the lack of an agreed terminology for the building stone and requires attention. Tuff is the general term for the stone in artisanal quarrying. However, there is a plethora of tuffs available in the Nairobi area which is presently the main market in addition to other localities. It seems that the "standard" tuff to which the other varieties of tuffs and the related trachytes (e.g. Limuru Trachyfe) have been compared, is the Nairobi Stone from the middle sections of the Kerichwa Valley Tuff deposits.

A comparative table of properties of the tuff and locations together with a location map will assist the compilation of an authoritative nomenclature and terminology to help any kind of planning (environmental, qualitative, quantitative) essential to the organisation of artisanal quarrying.

LESSON The lesson learnt is essentially positive. There is agreement among all those concerned that the project has provided mutual confidence and rationalism to groups of persons with widely divergent backgrounds ranging from migrating, rootless, unskilled workers to experienced entrepreneurs. A decisive common denominator between those involved is that they have to deal with a material, subject to the vagaries of nature in all its implications .

Considering the complexity of the various components constituting the project with its socio-economic, technological, safety and legislative aspects, the project has achieved awareness, which was totally non-existent before 1991.

It is this awareness which has to be nurtured and translated into more formal, institutional framework. The measurable indicators in the project reports are expressed as

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7 TECHNOLOGIES Extraction The present manual extraction process should be gradually abolished. That the changes should be made in stages is specially emphasised since the manual quarriers are under the impression that all which is requires is to have a mechanised machine to improve the product able to compete with the machine cut stones from Juja and other localities. This observation is correct except that changes cannot be made overnight. Without going into details, to upgrade the extraction by mechanisation a start has to be made on fairly flat surface which can then be extended. This is difficult to achieve in the present quarries in the Ngong Hills which form a distinct and dominant topographic unit.

To initiate such a platform will take time. It is therefore suggested to open a small pilot quarry in the present Ngong quarry area and try out various alternatives in manual extraction and dressing, possibly aided by hand-held tools. Such methods would reduce if not eliminate, blasting and minimise wastes. The technologies would enable the establishment of a system to produce modular units of stone which in turn can then be handled on a "production line". There are several variations on manual extraction systems as used in the Philippines where waste is kept to a minimum and the excavation rehabilitated into rice paddies almost instantly after extraction is completed.

Another system is based on a series of guillotines of various sizes where the largest cut elongated rectangles of tuff and subdivide them with smaller cutters or specially adapted plugs, with or without feathers. All these can be used with small power hand-tools for grooving and thus directing the breaking. Their application needs minimal trial for stones with properties which may differ at the various deposits.

To try out these manual methods flat narrow benches or steps, rather than a larger platform, are required as in the case of the mechanical cutters, and in a comparatively short time (weeks) assessment will prove effectiveness.

Safety at least the visible part, is completely being ignored and in none of the visits to the quarries were dust absorbing precautions observed especially in the mechanised quarries where a high silicate dust is present. Goggles, helmets, safety shoes or dust fitters were nowhere in sight.

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However, it is expected when quarries are planned properly, safety will become part of good housekeeping as these go together. While on safety, the problem of silica presence should be noted in the design of mechanical quarry equipment be fitted with simple dust sucking devices to prevent silicosis.

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VISITS AND INTERVIEWS The interviews quarry operators, brokers, forestry officers, geologists, architects and machine constructors can be summed up that the main achievement of the project has been that an awareness of the project has been created which was non-existent before the project started. The quantification of that awareness is intrinsic in the fact that all the interviewees, whether the owners, leasers, brokers or government officials are in unequivocal agreement that the project has been an eye opener and has given the incentive to do things together. None of the participants had realised before that their involvement could be rationalised and interacting groups could be formed.

Contacts With Quarry Operators At Several Quarry Sites Site Interview with Mr. Peter Mutua - Mr. Mutua is a concession holder of one the largest quarries in Ololua. The information obtained included:

Top soil .excavation Drilling Kshs. 12/- per foot 24 ft depth + Ammonium nitratesldetonation

4' x 4' x 12' at KShs 250/-

6 kg explosives required at Kshs 40/- per kg. drilling takes four hours Kshs 7/- Revenue per running meter (paid to forestry department)

License expenses per year KShS. 1 O,OOO/-

In addition the following observations were made:-

Overburden As far as overburden removal is concerned, it seems to be a hazardous, accident prone operation that can easily be avoided by bulldozing the overburden over a large area and thus prepare the quarry surface for quarry development over several years. Of the problems observed during the visit, overburden removal seems to be an important time taking and costly operation besides problematic safety aspects.

Since the trees, densely covering the overburden, are being removed by the forest authority anyway, it would make sense if the forest authority would participate or even provide the bulldozing operation. It would also alleviate the moving of the overburden and store it for eventual refill when rehabilitating the excavation.

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Drilling The drilling is the most costly of all the quarry operations besides being physically very hard on the operator. The drilling speed can be increased by using an abrasive like sand (preferably sharp silica river sand) or rejects from garnet mining and crushed discarded grinding wheels. Water is added to the abrasive material to form a slurry and applied to the bottom of the hole. Another problem with the present method of using the long drilling rods with metal tips is that even with the holes made to hold the blasting material at 2 metres distance provide a jagged quarry face, produces in turn this rough building stones leaving an unsightly face which will then have to be straightened to reduce the unevenness of the next batch of stone extracted .

Blasting The blasting procedure should be re-investigated. Formerly black powder which has a lesser blasting effect on adjacent housing was used and said to be more effective but was stopped because of the cost. The comparative cost of black powder (Kshs 2,000.00 per kg.) and the ammonium nitrate used presently ( at Kshs 40.00) has to be considered in terms of effectiveness. Cost saving could in fact be found in the relative result comparison provided that the quarrying method is changed as discussed under Improvements. While on the subject of blasting, the use and cost of an expansive and non-explosive "white powder" (marketed as Britex etc) to be investigated especially in areas where there are complaints from neighbouring settlers.

The quarry floor When the bottom of the quarry is reached, to facilitate removal of the material, pay material is wasted. The last quarryable layers are being covered up to provide a more convenient quarrying surface and thus quarryable material is not extracted.

Recovery Of Pay Material The waste is estimated at more than 45%. It is expected with the introduction of an extraction system, the waste will be reduced considerably. In the conversation with the operator, it was evident that because of project activities he is aware of the issues but has not the means and resources to implement the proposals and a way should be found to help him.

MEETING WITH HARRY NDUNG'U - DEPARTMENT OF MINES AND GEOLOGY Apparently there is no location map of available tuff deposits suitable for building stones. However a report "Geology of the Nairobi Area" (Report No. 98 of 1991) was obtained to

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enable the checking up of more information on the geology data of the quarries visited at Ngong.

Mr. Ndung'u, a geologist, gave one of the reasons for the unavailability of the location maps as no organised survey being done on such deposits because under the Ministry Act the deposits for dimension stone are considered a 'kommon" mineral as distinct from other minerals.

VISIT TO 2 MECHANISED QUARRIES IN JUJA

Rock Masters The three tuff cutting machines probably manufactured by Pellegrini (Italy) are able to saw with two vertical blades and one smaller horizontal blade. However, only one horizontal blade is being used on each of the machines. The blades are tipped with tungsten carbide inserts. Most of the teeth checked required sharpening since the cutting edge were rounded.

Smoky Hill The quarry is half the size of that of the Rock Masters quarry. The dimension of the product conform to the cutting capacity of the machines which are smaller and slower than those at Rock Masters. The teeth (tungsten carbids) were checked closely and appeared very irregularly welded and of irregular sharpness proving that when the blades rotate only a few of the teeth actually cut.

After sharpening, the wheels should be mounted on a jig to ensure that all the teeth edges touch the periphery of the diameters of the circle formed by the wheels in rotation. Output may be 50% less due to the bluntness.

Normally stone of this kind should be air dried to various extents, depending on the demands of the purchaser. However, this practice does not seem to exist in Kenya although looking at buildings humidity stains appear commonly and the use of stones with water or quarry sap in then may be a possible cause.

All the quarry managers agreed that the cutting of stone while wet increases speed of activity so there is no reason why they should not wet the stone days before cutting. The only reason for not doing so would be that when wet the arises may become chipped and in this case, it is not advisable to wet the pay material.

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MEETING WITH DAVID NG'ANG'A KURIA - DISTRICT FORESTRY OFFICER (DFO), KAJIADO DISTRICT

The Forestry Department in Kajiado District has participated in two workshops and one meeting convened by ITDG to discuss issues surrounding quarrying and possibilities of better practices. They are keen that the proposal improvements are carried out. The DFO find particularly useful the association of quarry operators which on his part has made communication of ideas easier and facilitated action. The DFO felt that the current quarrying practices in his district cause much wastage. He attributed this to:

lack of efficient methods of stone extraction; uncertainty of access to the quarries especially because licensing is annual and not automatic. This discourages operators that may want to invest more on technology.

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It was noted that of the forestry activities his department is engaged in saw milling, poles and fuelwood together account for 90% of all revenue with minor forest produce (which includes quarrying) accenting for the remaining 10%.

It was also interesting to note that concessions are granted more on the basis of the nature of forest cover as opposed to the rock below.

TECHNOLOGIES In addition to the suggestions under "interviews" , the use of simple portable guillotines of various sizes would speed up shaping of the stones considerably. Some of the lighter guillotines can be built locally - heavier ones up to 200 tonnes can be made by adapting hydraulic presses as used in garages. The guillotines besides reducing shaping costs are found to reduce 30- 40% "waste" obtained during shaping and turnings the "waste" at the same time into a by-product in the form of bigger chips.

SOCIAL WORKER IMPROVEMENT

Make self help low cost housing scheme available for quarry workers etc especially when sales are low, with reduced prices for the stone blocks and at the same time teaching them building and construction skill.

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The extraction operation provides various types of waste which could be turned into by- products, depending on the physical and chemical properties of the waste. The impure overburden which is mixed up with organic matter not inert, and thus useless for conversion, can be used in the rehabilitation of the excavated workings. The chips from shaping the stone can be used as cobbles or aggregates and the smaller scabs, depending on size for application in the rendering of facades in building. The mechanised quarries "produce" a large percentage of highly siliceous fines which can be pressed into bricks or tiles with the addition of binders like lime and cement. The pozzolanic qualities of the dust should be reassessed as technologies have in this field progressed since the 80's when research on the pozzolanic properties of the tuff was at its peak. The dust may also be considered for waterproofing basins and excavations with a mixture of bentonite.

INTERVIEW WITH JOHNSON MJARIA - CONSULTANT HELD ON gTH MAY 1999 Mr. Mjaria has been involved with IT since 1996 but has long experience of appropriate technology work gained through assignments at ApproTec who deal with appropriate technology. In 1997, he conducted a baseline survey for ITDG's KISWOP Project. Specifically he documented the following:

Characteristics of quarry workers;

The state of quarry technologies; a Safety in quarries; a Environmental issues surrounding quarrying.

Mjaria's work concentrated on quarrying in Nairobi which he-divided inta, two zones for purposes of the study - East and West. The baseline surveys establishes a lot of otherwise unrecorded facts about the state of the quarrying industry in Nairobi at the onset of KISWOP which include:-

the socio-economic situation of quarry workers the dynamics of quarrying as a business in Nairobi.

In summary, Mjaria's assessment of what has been achieved by IT'S efforts since the carrying out of the baseline survey is:

a Institutions have been created for quarry operatives - a previously an organised group.

of improvements. Awareness has been created within quarry communities of the possibilities

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L

Some questions remain though, according to Mjaria. These include the crucial question of what to do now that an association has been created. Is the association an end in itself? Maybe suggestions to this end should come from the people themselves.

INTERVIEW WITH QUARRY OWNERS ASSOCIATION - OLOOLUA This was a meeting with the following members of the Quarry Owners Associations namely Mary Gachau (Assistant Secretary), Wanjiku Ndegwa (Committee Member), Paramuat Dedan (Chairman), Robert Mwangi (Secretary), Gerald Mayoli (Committee Member) .

The Association was founded two years ago following the initiative advice of ITDG. Initially, quarry operators had problems with the Forest Department which they had tried to face up to individually without any success. However, when they addressed the same problems as a group, in the process of forming their association, the results were quick and practical. This encouraged them to formalize the association. The next step was to pay attention to the urgent need for technological improvement basic to the economics of extraction with the main factors of concern:-

1. Environmental compliance 2. Enhanced competitiveness 3. Increased production capacity

The quarry operators said the educational seminars were useful. However, their feeling is that time is running out due to the pressures of the problems bearing on them. They would therefore prefer emphasis on operational activities with visible results in the field, having a direct bearing on their most immediate problems. In particular they are looking for a demonstration of equipment that meets the following criteria:-

(a) reduces wastage; (b) reduces costs of operation (c) improves quality of finished product (d) saves time

There followed a discussion on systems used in the past on tuffs similar to these quarried in Kenya and an example from the Philippines was explained. The tendency of those present from the association was to consider mechanization rather than manual methods

20

manually extracted stone. The possibility r the Juja quarries will cut out the market for of using chain saws, carbide discs and wire

saws came up in the discussion. It was though it would be best to receive a demonstration from a chain saw dealer or representative, and the possibility to be investigated by ITDG. It was pointed out that any system will require for the trial a flat surface, which will have to be prepared before the demonstration.

Considering what has been said above, it seems the main present concern is to mechanize the quarry. In fact the owners indicated that once they get the product right, the issue of marketing may even be automatic.

The meeting was closed with a statement from the chairman that ITDG has been instrumental in raising their standards of living, and future possibilities, and they are now looking forward to make their ideas operational.

21

' INSTITUTIONALISATION THE STONE CENTRE Now that the project has achieved awareness of the tasks and problems facing artisanal quarrying, the lack of a central organisation to co-ordinate all the elements brought up in the meetings, conferences, workshops, guidelines and literature requires is felt and requires to be established.

A "stone centre" will provide a one-stop facility to deal with the stone requirement of quarry operators, brokers, workers, processors and consumers. The aims and objectives of such a centre would be along lines introduced some decades ago as a concept by UNDP for its stone development projects and which progresses along the following lines:

1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9.

Make an inventory of existing and potential quarry areas Include the inventory in national planning with attention to environmental issues and proper use of the non-renewable stone resources Introduce appropriate technologies and improve current practices. Establish testing procedures and information on testing facilities. Initiate training courses on all manpower levels and skills. Introduce stone products into local low-cost and self-help housing schemes, road paving and other development projects. Introduce upgrading techniques particularly to meet export acceptance. Develop new stone products especially urban "furniture" and artifacts of the cottage industry type. Establish documentation facilities with a library on stone topics. Institutionalisation is essential as stone deposits are: a. national assets b. non renewable and require conservation c. requiring environmental control

in addition to a host of other regulatory and legislative factors like standardisation of terminology, statistics, definitions and specifications.

10. 1 1.

Keep a statistical database on stone Provision of consultancy services

The Stone Centre is proposed as a national collaborative programme involving stakeholders in dimension quarrying. The Centre is to be established with the aim of helping those interested in stone development as by quarrying operations and consumers

22

(as e.g., architects, builders) to achieve environmental regulation and technological innovation.

PROMOTIONS Promotion required besides for sale of the product, to attract investments and sponsors; and for this the provision of infrastructures to be undertaken by the national or local government is essential to create a right climate that attracts investors. Who arrive on the scene when the positive results of the inventory works becomes known. To open a quarry is relatively easy - hence the proliferation of "blots on the landscape" b d more difficult to ensure its development in economic and environmental terms.

Environmental promotion too is important to create the right climate for quarry development and the basics are included under Environmental Quarry Issues in Annex.

To sum up the major promotional drawbacks include: I. 2.

3.

No public image of the industry exist - except for the environmental aspects. "Stone" has received no publicity in the national economy and potential is not realised. Little understanding for the use of stone material in construction and for economic housing especially in areas where stone is available and often is the last expensive material within an economic distant range.

4. No systematic inventory exist of the quarry material to provide the optimum quarry material for cost and quality grading.

5. No systematic marketing information 6. Production is not always continuous and is according to demand qualitative and

quantitative, and not planned. 7. Lack of agreed nomenclature and quality description

The Stone Centre will be promotedlmanaged by a board of : 0 Builderslconstructors Associations 0 Quarry Owners Association 0 Stone Trade Associations 0 Institute of Engineers 0 Architectural Associations of Kenya 0

0

0

Department of Geology, University of Nairobi. Housing and Building Research Institute, University of Nairobi Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

23

0 Ministry of Trade and Commerce 0 Ministry of Public Works and Housing 0 Institute of Engineers of Kenya 0 Intermediate Technology Development Group 0 Kenya Bureau of Standards

With an active supervising committee to run the daily business consisting of : 0 Geologist 0 Mining Engineer 0 Civil Engineer 0 Arch it ec t 0 Economist 0 Social Worker

The budget is to be provided by the Board membership with a right to appoint a director, a building/premise should be canvassed from one or more international development or funding agencies foundations and the stone for the walls, furniture etc could be donated by the industry involved. A running budget for at least 3 years should be quaranteed and will provide for a

0 One professional person e Two administrative persons 0 One librarian e Books e Subscription for journals e Overheads

A catalogue of Kenya stone will be an important promoter of the stone industry in addition to adding respectability from an environmental angle. Presently, a "Stone in the World" series is being published by UNESCO and the possibility of a Kenyan input through the UNESCO participation programme should be investigated with the national UNESCO Committee.

A promotional catalogue comprising of data on the state of the market and a producer database should be produced.

24

’ FUTURE

MARKETING

Marketing of building stone or for that matter of any stone product follows accepted promotional principles, with the difference, because of its dependence or natural stone sources, the stone cannot always be matched or produced to quality, aesthetic and safety specifications. The fact came up again and again when talking to the architects. Parameters in the production, hauling and handling, labour, processing overheads can be adjusted.

However, raw materials availability is restricted by nature and sales depends on market demand which has to be foreseen although to a certain extend they can be changed and adjusted to the demand by proper promotion, If marketing targets cannot be met then there is no need to quarry, and if the quarry costs are too high, there is no point in looking for a market. The quarry costs are affected by:

Work organisations at the quarry and accessibility The recovery at the quarry face The size and shapes of the stone attainable The workability of the stone

m

m

m Harmonisation of the tools and machines with the properties of the stone i.e. the choice of working system and equipment used.

also a promotional function to increase the demand for a product that is favourable for the quarrier.

Grading of the stone is important as it will increase the market price and is

EXPORT POTENTIAL The possibility to export tufTs to Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries seems feasible and likewise to Uganda, Central and Southern Africa and contact should be established with the Kenya Export Promotion Council especially with regards to compiling promotional catalogue

25

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Savery, S.P.A.; ITDG/ University of Bath/ ODA Working Paper 4 - Training and Policy Guidelines for Artisanal Quarrying: Report on field study research in the Nairobi region of Kenya; February 1997.

2.Savery, S.P.A.; Comments on "Stone Quarrying in Kenya" by Agevi, E. and Ogero, B.B. (May 1990); December 1996.

3. Noronha, L.; The Small-scale Indian Laterite Stone Quarry and Working Sector: A case study of Goa; Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi, June 1998.

4. Wells, J.; Artisanal Stone Quarrying in Kenya: A market study; November 1996.

5. Mutharia, L.; The Kenya Stone (Kiswop) Project: A review of the project document and literature search on environmental aspects of quarrying; September 1996.

6. Dhar, B. €3.; Environmental Scenario of Indian Small Scale Mines: an overview; Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad, India, 1997.

7. N'gang'a, A.; Improved Stone Workers' Project, Kenya, Status Report - April 1997 to March 1998; 1998.

8. Agevi, E. & Ogero, B.B.; Stone Quarrying in Kenya: A socio-economic and institutional survey; May 1990.

9. Savery, S.P.A.; Artisanal Quarrying in Kenya: Towards a health and safety policy; March 1998.

10. Mjaria, J. & N'gang'a, A.; Kenya Improved Stone Workers Project: Quarry operators reference manual; May 1998.

11. N'gang'a, A.; Report of the Artisanal Quarrying Stakeholders' Workshop, Nairobi, December 1997.

12. N'gang'a, A. & Agevi, E.; An Executive Summary of Workshop Proceedings on Maximising the Production and Use of Dimension Stone for Small Scale Quarry Workers in Ngong, May 1994.

13. N'gang'a; Building the Synergies of Experience in Artisanal Quarrying, A Case Study of Kenya; Proceedings of Workshop, 18 to 20 March 1998, Nairobi, Kenya.

14. Ruskulis, 0.; Notes of Project Team Meeting, Bath University, 26 October, 1998.

15. Thomas, R.; Notes of Project Team Meeting, Bath University, 2 November 1997

16. Mjaria, J.; The Artisanal Stone Quarry Workers in Nairobi Region: Baseline survey report; April 1997.

26

IT - KENYA 1. Elijah Agevi - Country Director 2. Josiah Omotto - Programme Social Scientist

3. Amon Ng'ang'a - Project Officer 4. Edward Marona - Project Officer 5. Johnson Mjaria - Consultant

Quarry Operatior - Olooluas 6. Peter Mutua 7. Mary Gachau 8. Wanjiku Ndegwa 9. Paramuat Dedan 10. Robert Mwangi 11. Gerald Mayoli

Quarry Managers - Mechanised 12 Tom Amelo - Smoky Hill 13. Mr. Gatheru - Rock Masters

Governmet of Kenya 14. Harry Ndungu - Geologist, Department of Mines and Geology 15. David Kuria - District Forestry Officer, Kajiado 16. Geoffrey Mwangi - District Environment Conservation Officer, Kajiado

Owner Rehabilitated Quarry 17. Johnson Njenga

University of Nairobi 18. Erastus Abonyo (also secretary, Architectural Association of Kenya) 19. Tom Anyamba (Chairman, Architecture, Nairobi University 20. Prof. Saad Yahya Saad Yahya and Associates 21. E. Mathu - University of Nairobi, Geology Department

Makiga Engineering 22. Fred Mwangi - Managing Director 23. J. Githinji - Engineer

27

. .,.. ., ...._..... _. . . ,,.,. . . -

Participants at Workshop of 11 May, 1999 in the Meeting Room of ITDG Kenya

1. Johnson Mjaria 2. E. Mathu 3. Fred Mwangi 4. J. Githinji 5. Robin Short 6. Kamau Kuria 7. J. Ngari

ITDG - KENYA STAFF 8. Elijah Agevi 9. Josiah Omotto 10. Edward Marona 11. Ezekiel Esipisu 12. M. Kenyagia 13. L. Muchiri 14. S. Gitonga 15. D. Mbithi 16. D. Orito 17. F. Kinoti 18. Amon Ng'ang'a

ABTEC Consultants University of Nairobi, Geology Department Managing Director, Makiga Engineering Engineer , Makiga Engineering Gauf lngenieure Architect, Nairobi City Council Ngari and Associates

Country Director BMSHEL BMSHEL Shelter Forum Resource Centre E nerg y P rog ram me Energy Programme Finance RAAP Administration BMSHEL

CONSU LTANTS/FACI LITATORS 19. AsherShadmon - Stone Technology International 20. Sam Gakunga - Development Associates

t

i

f ..

28

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Stone and the environment

With the world turnover of dimension stone increasing more than 30 times over the past 70 years and with the corresponding spread of sources, it has become more important than ever to be aware of the environmental impacts of quarrying the stone and its use. Quarrying is considered not as an end-use but only as a temporary utilization of land. An essential part of the planning process must therefore be consideration of environmental impacts both during the quarry's working life and after production has ended.

A reclamation and rehabilitation plan should be prepared at the same time as the extraction plan. Reclamation refers to the preparation of a site, including the creation of level surfaces or softening of quarry faces, while rehabilitation means returning the land to utility (which may be as building land or turning it into recreational, industrial or agricultural areas), though the terms tend to be used interchangeably. It is important that it should not be cosmetic treatment but integral to the quarrying process.

Apart from the need to plan the quarry sites and rehabilitate them after use, there are waste products which require attention. Enormous quantities of sludge are generated, which in marble and limestone production can reach 20-30 per cent of the weight of the stone worked; in the Apuanian marble-working regions this can be 2000 tonnes per day. The sludge can take oxygen from water, killing flora and fauna, and coastlines become dirty when the sludge is deposited by rivers. There is also potential pollution from silicon carbide used in grinding and from lead used in polishing, which are not biodegradable.

Of course, cement plants, brick kilns, and steel plants all cause pollution and consume amounts of energy in processing building materials, and in this context, the use of stone is worth considering, particularly for am within a 10-mile radius of its source so that transport costs do not outweigh the fin and environmental benefits.

Stone is the natural material par excellence, which has withstood the test of time, and 1 or villages built in stone have a clean look which is difficult to duplicate in manufactured materials. Stone is rot- and termite-proof, with low fire hazard and little likelihood of vermin contamination. In terms of the human environment, are obviously desirable qualities.

Furthermore, in a desert, stone houses can be designed to contribute to water conservation on the dewpond principle used by the ancient to gather water in desert areas. Proper utilization the thermal properties of stone can induce energy savings by reducing the need for air conditioning, cooling and heating requirements, with commensurate decreases in pollution.

29

The effects of quarrying on the environment

In Chapter 4 there are some guidelines to the control and planning of stone extraction so minimize the negative effects on the environment; here the main factors are examine more detail.

Waste control The wastes from stone production can be trolled by using settling tanks, reservoirs holding lagoons. The sludge acts as a filter for heavy metals and, after drying and separation of the harmful materials, forms an inert, non-polluting fill for roads, etc. - as does the v stone itself. The wastes can become a marketable commodity instead of forming unsightly heaps.

A waste site should make good use of topography, with the waste placed true to the landscape, in an area used only for waste disposal. It should not offend the eye or change water regime, or cause undesirable seepages of soil creepage. Repository sites can include shore extensions, swamps, recreational development projects, jetties, dams, and road-building projects.

It has been shown that marble sludge can be used in the manufacture of prefabricated concrete products, for recycling lead from used batteries, and in agriculture. Brickmaking can use up to 40 per cent sludge.

The lime used for preventing rust during granite sawing can be neutralized by filter- pressing the sludge which will react with air and absorb carbon dioxide. The lead used in polishing accounts for less than 2 per cent of the sludge generated and apparently remains bound to the sludge.

Air pollution is controlled by using dust collectors on compressed air equipment to keep silica out of the atmosphere and the quarrymen's lungs. Thermal jets find less use in quarrying nowadays because of the noise, and those used during processing are in sound-proofed cabins with conveyor belts to pass the slabs under the jets. Gang-saws are increasingly located in sound-proof compartments and loaded by automatic trolleys.

Planning The aim of environmental planning must be 'maximum productivity with minimum damage'. Easily accessible stone resources are widely distributed throughout the world and in some countries stone is quantitively the largest mineral resource. It is widely realized now that some sites, where a large proportion of waste may be expected, can constitute unnecessary disruption of an ecosystem.

Location of quarries for optimum use of resources and limited damage requires regional monitoring and control. Relevant steps include keeping an inventory of stone resources on national, regional and local levels. Environmental considerations start at the prospecting level, as stone sources range from flat plateaux to high mountains, from river

30

beds to coastal deposits, and from deep pits to shallow holes in the ground. Well-bedded and well-jointed solid deposits cause the fewest problems and development plan with regular quarrying benches, although an apparently straightforward site can be complicated by tectonic, karstic features or other inherent characteristics. Slate deposits can cause problems, where extraction often follows steep inclines.

The rehabilitation potential of working sites safety and energy-saving factors, markets and conversion facilities for waste and by-products (such as low-cost housing and road- paving projects) in the vicinity all need to be considered in advance.

Inventories are kept by the planning and licensing authorities which also keep land-use maps with geotechnical data. In many countries the renewal of quarry operating licences is conditional on the fulfillment of a reclamation plan, an important principle being that the sites should remain in active use, in one way or another, after quarrying has ceased, and unproductive land returned to productive use. One possible statutory control involves the polluter paying according to the scale of the reclamation problem created, which can be a strong incentives to keep the need for rehabilitation to a minimum.

The land end-use should be decide before the extraction plan is prepared, and the waste repository sites considered. The cardinal rule is that the covering-up of pay material on future development areas is to be avoided.

Proper extraction methods have to be devised and applied, slope control established safety features implemented, noise and dust controlled, and the undesirable effects of controlled blasting minimized. Attention to bedding directions and the size of the beds is of primary importance.

Access roads and haulage are to be designed to enable unrestricted development of the quarry taking into account the proper design slope angles and inclines, curves and banking. The road network is to be planned within the site and extended gradually to the processing plants which will need to be near the site because of the high cost of haulage.

Damage limitation Optimum organization of stone extraction involves working in stages so that the visual impact is diminished and the obsolete parts are restored during the lifetime of the quarry. Ideally, dimension stone should be cut with equipment capable of providing regular geometrical benches and working faces rather than jagged or irregular contours and outlines. Minimization of unsightliness has been achieved to a large extent by the use of wire- and chain-sawing equipment rather than more costly pneumatic or hydraulic drills.

Controllable heights and widths of terraces are important and the resulting topographic form is to be conducive to vegetation growth. Any loose rock can then be within reach, making it easier to check landslides and rock falls, and quarries can be continued underground. This has the advantages of avoiding scars on hillsides, pollution of the atmosphere and noise while obviating the need to clear prohibitive overburden and creat- ing useful space when quarrying is finished.

.

31

c

Rehabilitation and replication Different treatments are possible, according to the quarry type: the landscape can be restored to the way it was before quarrying began (replication) or the area can be reused in some way. A few of the more common approaches are listed below.

Hillside quarry site: landscape sculpturing, camouflage netting, staining of quarry faces.

Pit quarries: landfill, fish farming, paddy fields, artificial lakes, parking areas, olive groves.

Underground quarries: storage, refrigeration, earthfill.

Hillside quarry rehabilitation is relatively simple, but flat areas are more difficult, especially where waste dumps are visible. Inevitably, it makes a difference whether dumps are inside or outside the quarry, on a downhill slope, over drainage routes or crests. Pit quarries tend to fill up with water, which affects end-use. The costs of rehabilitation must be considered at the planning stage as these can be very high.

Steps in rehabilitation include complete infill of slopes, backfilling slopes, selectively placing f i l l along lengths of the quarry face (especially in replication), blasting to fissure the near-vertical faces for natural colonization and vegetation.

32

APPENDIX I DRAFT KENYA STANDARD FOR GRANITE TILES AND SLABS

l.

APPENDIX 1 DKS 1442

DRAXT KENYA STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR GRANITE TILES A i SLABS

~~

1.0 SCOPE

This Kenya Standard specifies the material characteristics, physical requirements, sizes and finish of granite tiles and slabs.

2.0

2.1

2.2

3.0

3.1

3.2

3.3

APPLXCATION

The granite specified in this standard shall be natural stone that is sawed, cut, split or otherwise finished or shaped, and shall specifically exclude molded, cast or othenvise artificially agyegated units composed of fragments, and also crushed and broken stone.

Granite slabs and tiles may be used, for example, in floorin,o, stairs, wall facing, worktops, dados and skirtings.

DEFIMTIONS

GRAiVITE (COMiVERCIAL DEFINITIONS)

A visibly granular, igneous rock generally ranging in colour fiom pink to light grey and consisting mostly of quartz and feldspars, accompanied by one or more dark minerals. The texture is typically homogeneous but may be gneissic or pophyritic. Some dark granular igneous rocks, though not granite proper, are included in the definition.

GIwlyITE (SCIENTIFIC DEFINITIOiN)

A visibly granular, crystalline rock with equigranular or inequigranular texture, normal1y having an essential composition of two feldspars (alkali feldspar plus sodic plagioclase or two alkali felaspars), quartz, micas, hornblende and rarely pyroxine. Quartz may amount to 10 to 60% of the felsic (light coloured) constituents, while alkali feldspars may constitute about 35 to 100% of total feldspars. Feldspar may be present as individual grains, or may be mutually intergrown on megascopic scale.

GNEISS

A foliated crystalline rock composed essentially of silicate minerals with interlocking and visibly granular texture on which the foliation is due primarily to alternating layers, regular or irregular, of contrasting mineralogical composition. A gneiss may correspond to other

crystalline rocks with visibly granular, interlocking texture, such as those inciuded under

definition is subjective and not critical.

\ \ 1 the definition of commercial granite. It then may be known as granite gneiss or granodiorite gneiss, if strongly foliated, and gneissic granite, ifweakIy foliated. This

j

OTHXRGRANTES

Variously coloured igneous rocks defined by geologists as basalt, diabase, gabbro, diorite and anorthosite are quarried as building stone, building facing, monuments and speciality purposes and are commercially referred to as granite. The chemical and mineralogical

! i

i !

compositions of such rocks are quite different tiom those of true granites, but they may be

interlocking crystalline texture but, unlike granites, they contain little or no quartz or alkali i satisfactorily used for some of the same purposes as commercial granite. They possess an

feldspar. Instead, they are composed dominantly of intermediate to caicic plagiociase accompanied by one or more common dark rock-forming minerals such as pyroxenes, hornblende, or biotite. Such rocks, because of their relatively high content of iron and magnesium, are designated as ferromagnesian or mafic. An exception is anorthosite which, though commonly dark, consists mostly or entirely of calcic pla@ocIase.

TEXTURE

I

i i ! :I

A modified appearance of natural stone resulting fiom one or several mechanical treatments that is determined by size, shape and mutual relationships of component grains or crystals.

Textures related to granites include:

Equigranular - grains of approximately the same size.

Inequigranular - grains of markedly unequal sizes.

Purphyritic - A texture defined by relatively large grains (phenocrysts), typically feldspar that are distributed in distinctly fine gained matrix. The phenocrysts of porphrytic granites generally are rectangular or partly rounded in outline and may be as much as several centimeters in maximum dimension.

Foliated - a continuous or discontinuous layer structure in metamorphic rocks formed by the segregation or different minerals in streaks or lenticles, or by alternation of bands of different textures.

SAND OR ABUSIVE FJXISH A flat non-reflective surface.

HONED F3MSH A velvety smooth surface with little or no gross.

3 .8 POLISHED IFJNISH A highly polished glossy surface which brings out the fill colour and character of the granite.

3.9 OTHERFNISHES

3.9.1 Abrasive Finish A flat non-reflective surface finish.

3.9.2 Honed Finish Honed Finish is a super fine smooth finish, though not as fine as a polished finish.

3.9.3 Plucked Finish Obtained by rough-planing the surface of stone, breaking or plucking. out small particles to give out rough texture.

3.9.4 Polished Finish The finest and smoothest finish available in stone characterized by a h i h luster(,oioss) and strong reflection of incident light, generally only possible on hard, dense materials.

3.9.5 Sandblasted Finish A matte-texture surface finish with no gloss, accomplished by exposing the surface to a steady flow of sand under pressure.

3.9.6 Tooled o r Bush-hammered Finish Customarily has four, six, or eight parallel, concave grooves to the inch.

3.9.7 Flamed Finish A rough surface obtained by applying a naked controlled flame to the stones surface.

4.0 COLOUR CLASSIFICATION

Granite occurs in various colours and shades depending upon the source, for example in Kenya currently, the following are colours of granite: 1) Vihiga WhitdGrey 2) VihigaPink 3) Black Ndalani 4) RedNdalani 5) GreenKisii 6) Yellow Kibwezi 7) PinkKibwezi 8) RedMayuni 9) Multi-colour Kabiyet 10) Mumias Black Further additions shall be made when new quarries are developed.

6.1.3

( 4 @>

7.0

TEST REQUIXE'IMENT

0.40

2560

13 1

- 10.34

Skirtings

TEST METHOD

ASTM C 97

ASTM c 97

ASTM C170

ASTM C 241

ASTM C 99

Width Thickness

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Tolerance

+ lm + lmm

The physical properties of ganite stone used for manufacturing tiles and slabs shall conform to the requirements in table 1.

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL RJZQUIRIEMENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTY

Water absorption by mass, Ma.. ., Yo

Density, Min., Kg/m3

Cornpressive Strength, Min., Mpa

Abrasive Resistance, Min.

Modulus of rupture, Min., Mpa

Flextural Strength Min., Mpa 1 I i - I ASTM C 880 1

8.0 FINISH ?.

8.1 The granite shall be sound, durable and free of imperfections such as starts, cracks, seams, pits or other defects that would impair its strength, durability or appearance.

8.2 The faces of granite slabs and tiles shall be supplied with one of the following finishes as described inparagraphs 3.6 - 3.9

8.3 The edges of the slabs and tiles shll be true and straight but may be profiled, bullnosed or chamfered.

8.4 Machine cut tiles and slabs with square edges may be supplied if so specified by the customer/purchaser.

5.0

5.1

a) b) c>

a) 5.2

b)

5.3

5.3.1 5.3.2

5.4

6.0

6.1

6.1.1

a) b) 4

SIZES

SLABS

The ganite slabs shall be supplied in the sizes given below:

The length shall be 600 to 2500 rnm ( in stages of 100 mm). The width shall be 300 to 1000 mm ( in stages of 100 mm). The thickness shall be 20 to 100 mm ( in stages of 10 mrn).

TILES The granite tiles shall be supplied in sizes given below: 600 x 300 mm, 300 x 300 mm,

500 x 250 mm, 200 x 200 rnrn,

400 x 400 mrn, 100 x 100 mm.

The thickness of tiles shall be 15 to 20 mm in the same piece.

SKIRTINGS

The width of the skirtings per linear metre shall be 100 mm, 125 mm and 150 mm. The thickness of the skirtings shall be 15 mm and 20 mm.

CUSTOM SIZES

Sizes and shapes other than those specified may be supplied as agreed between the supplier and the purchaser depending on the design requirements. However, thickness should not be below 15 mm for tiles and 20 rnm for slabs.

TOLERANCE

The following tolerance shall be allowed on tiles, slabs and skirtings whether they are standard sizes or custom sizes:

Slabs

Length Width Thickness

Tolerance

+ 2 m m - + 2 m - +lRlII l

6.1.2 Tiles Tolerance

a) Linear Dimension - + l m m b) Thickness - + 1 rnm

6.1.3 Skirtings Tolerance

PHYSICAL PROPERTY

(a) Width (b) Thickness

TEST REQVoREMENT TEST METHOD

- + lmm lm

-~

Density, Min., Kgm3 2560 ASmf c 97

Compressive Strength, 13 1 ASTM C170 Min., Mpa

Abrasive Resistance, kEn. - ASTM C 241

iModulus of rupture, 10.34 ASTM C 99 Min., Mpa

Flextural Strength Min., Mpa - ASTM C 850

7.0 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The physical properties of granite stone used for manufacturing tiles and slabs shall conform to the requirements in table 1.

TABLE 1: PffYSICAL REQUCREMENTS

Water absorption by mass, M a x , Yo I 97

8.0

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

FINISH h

The granite shall be sound, durable arid free of imperfections such as st ItS. racks, seam pits or other defects that would impair its strength, durability or appearance.

The faces of granite slabs arid tiles shall be supplied with one of the following finishes as described inparagraphs 3.6 - 3.9

The edges of the slabs and tiles shll be true and straight but may be profiled, bullnosed or chamfered.

Machine cut tiles and slabs with square edges may be supplied if so specified by the customer/purchaser.

9.0 SAiiPLING

9.1 In any consignment all the slabs or tiles of the same goup, size and finish shall be grouped together to constitute a lot.

Samples shall be selected and tested separately for each lot for determining its confimity or otherwise to the requirements of the specification.

The number of slabs ortiles to be selected for the sample shall depend uon the size of the lot and shall be in accordance with table 2.

The slabs or tiles in the sample shall be selected at random and in order to ensure the randomness of selection, randon numbe tables many be used.

9.1.1

9.2

9.2.1

TABLE 2: S&YIPLES SIZE AiW CRITERML

NUMBER OF SLABS TO BE SELECTED IN SAMPLES

(2)

3 5 8 13 20

~~

NUMBER OF SLABYTTLES N THE LOT

PERMISSIBLE NUMBER OF DEFECTrVES

(3 1 0 0 0 0 1

u p to 25 26 to 100 101 to 200 201 to 500 501 to 1000

9.3

10.0

10.1

10.2

11.0

12.0

All the slabs or tiles selected in the sample shall be examined for dimensions, finish and general requirements. Any slab or tile failing in any one or more of the above requirements shall be considered as defective. A lot shall be considered as conforming to these requirements if the number of defective obtained is not more than the permissible number of defectives given in column 3 of table 2.

INSPECTION T.

The purchasedCustomer or his authorized representative shall if he so desires be granted facilities for inspection of finished slabs or tiles prior to-despatch from the supplier’s works. The supplier shall supply a certificate stating that the granite stone used for manufacturing slabs and tiles supplied, comply with this standard.

TESTING

The manufacturer shall prepare and supply specimens for testing from each source.

Each type of granite slabs and tiles should be marked in a suitable manner with the manufacturer’s name or trade mark.

APPENDIX 2 DRAFT KENYA STANDARD FOR MARBLE TILES AND SLABS

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DRAFT KENYA STAINBARD

SPECIFICATION FOR fiMRBLE TILES AivD SLABS

1. SCOPE

This Kenya Standard specifies the materials characteristics. physical requireme:it. sizes ar1J finish of marble tiles and slabs.

.O APPLICATION

I The marble specified in this standard shall be natural stone that i s s a n d . cut. split or othenvise hiislied or shaped. and sIiaII specifically exclude. riioldrd, cast 01- otlienvise ar-tilicially asgcgated units composed of liagnients, and also crusiied or broken stone.

1 hlarble tiles and slabs may be used, Tor esaiiiple, in Hooring. stairs. wall lclciny ~ n d work tops, Jados and skirtings.

I\ 1 :11-b le iiiost coinniotily by heat and pressure during rnetmiorpliism, arid is composed priiicipally of the carbonate minerals calcite and dolomite and serpentine. singly or in combination and A carboiinle rock t1i:it has acquired ;I disiinctivc crystalline texture by rccrysrallization. capable ol'takiiiy a polish.

Limestone Marble Compact, dense limestone that will take a polish is classified as marblc in trade prx!icc and may be sold as limestone or 3s marble.

Dolorni te A sedimentaiy carbonate rock ( a variety of limestone) that consists largely or entirely oi' the mineral doloiiii[c.

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D I G 1433 c

3.4

3.5

2.6

3.7

3.8

5.9

3.10

3.1 1

Ouyx Marble A translucent, generally layered, crystalline calcite with colours in pastel shades, particularly yellow, brown, and green.

NOTE 2 Ony;u niarble is fornied by slow precipitation Gorn generally cold s o l u ~ i o ~ ~ s of carbonated spring water.

NOTE 3 The term “01zyr” to designate o n p marble is a misnomer. Tme onyx is nearly pure crystalline silica closely related to agate. a semi-precious stone.

Travertine Marble A porous or cellulxly layered, partly crystalline calci te of chemical origin.

NOTE 4 Travertine is fumed by precipitation froin genercllly hot solutions of carboriated spring water. irsudly at the bottom of diallow pools.

Ser-peii tiiie M;iri)k A rock corisisliiiy mostly or entirely o f serpentine (hydrated m3gnesiuni silicate, green to - wxnisli black in colour, coriinionly veined with calcite. and dolomite or niagnesi te. or both (niagnesiuni carbonate).

Honed Finish Honed tiriisli is a supc: line smooth finish, tlioii~h 1101 as tine 3s a polislied finish.

Y 1 u cked Fi 11 is 11 Obtained b y rough-planing the surface o f stone. breaking or plucking out small psrticles to give rough [exture.

PO 1 is 11 etl Fi ti is 11 The lincst uiid siiiwtliest linish available in s t o w churactcrizcd by a high luster (gloss) and strong re11ection of incident light. yenerally only possible on hard, dense materials.

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D KS 1433

A rnatte-texture surfxe finish with no gloss, xcornplished by exposing the surhce tu a steady flow of sand under pressure.

3.12 Tooled or Bush-hammered Finish Custornarily has four, six or eight parallel, concave grooves to the inch.

3.13 FImied Finish A rough surface obtained by applyin3 a naked controlled flame to the stones sur fxe .

4.0 CLASSXFICATIOH

4.1 C CO I o g i c:i I C I :iss i 11 c:i ti U 11

a) Calcite b) Dvloiiiitc c ) Serperitiries d) Travertine

4.2 Colour C1:issific~tion blnrble occurs i I i vanoils colours and sliadcs depending upon tlic source. for csumplc. in Kenya- see the appendi.u.

5 . I SLrIUS The marble slabs shall be supplied in sizes given below:

i l )

b) c )

5.2 TILES

The leiigtli shall be G O 0 to 1500 in111 ( in stages of I00 inm) The width shall be 200 to 1000 Rim ( in stases of' 1 U0 min) The thickness sliall be 20 to 100 mrn (in stages of 10 mm) ,.

The marble shall be supplied in sizes given below:

a) The length and width of tiles shall be:

600 x 300 mm. 500 x 250 mm, 400 x 400 mm. 200 x 300 mm. 200 x 200 n m and 100 x 100 111117.

11) The thickness of tiles shall be 15 to 70 mni in the same piece.

5.3 SKIRTINGS

DKS 1433

P 1 - 6 IC A L P ROD ERTY Water absorption by mass, 0.45 kl as. $6 Dcnsity, Min. Kg/ni’ I 2 m 1

TEST REQUIREMENT

5.4 CUSTOM SIZES

TEST METHOD ASTM C 97

ASTM C 97

Sizes and sliapes other than those specified niny be s u p p k i 2s a g e d between tlie supplier and the purcliaser depending on the desiLm requirements. However, thickness should not be below 15 mm for tiles and 70 mm for slabs.

Cumpressive strengtli. Min, 5 2 bI pa Modt~lus nipture, min., 7 k1 I73 . ~ ~ ~ r a s i o n resistance. LlIininium I i o

6.0 TOLERANCE

ASTM C 70

ASTM C 99

ASTM c 741

The foliowing tolerance shall be allowed on tiles. slabs ~ n d skirtings whether they are standard or custom sizes:

6.1.1 s1:lbs To 1 er a n ce

31 Length b ) Width c) Thickness

= I 111111

-1 1 I17111

O. I .3 Sliir-tirigs To le r n n cc

a ) Width 11) Thickness

= 1 nirn = I 171111

7.0 P r-w ~ C X L P R O PERTIES

The physical properries of marble stone used !or manufacturing tiles and slabs shall conform to tlie requirements yiven in table I .

L' D K S 1433

FlexLual strength, Min., hlpa I 7 I ASTM (3 850 1

FINISH

The marble sliall be sound, free of spalls, cracks, open semis, pils or other dekcts that would impair its strenytli, diirabili ty, or appearance.

following firiislics; !.-- 1;

Honed li nish; Polished linish.

The d y e s ol'tlie slabs and tiles sliall be true and straight but may be profiled, bullnoscd or c 11 am fe red, bIachine cut tiles and slabs wit11 square edges may be- supplied if so specified by the c us to 111 t3 rip u rc I1 ;is er.

I i i aily coiisigririient, nli tiic slaiis or tiles o f r ~ i c same group. size and linisfi sliall be grouped together to constitute a IUL. The number ot'slabs or tiles to be selected [or the saniple shall depend upon the size o f the lot :uid sliall be in xcor-dance with table 2 .

I IN THE LOT SLMS'TILES SELECTED ON SAMPLE 1

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10.0 INSPECTION

DIG 1433

10.1 T]ie purchaser/ customer or his authorized representative shall if he so desires be granted facilities for inspection of finished slabs or tiles prior to despatch bom the supplier's works.

10.2 The supplier.s11all supply a certificate stating that the marble stone used for manufacturing tiles arid slabs supplied comply with this standard.

11.0 TESTIIUG The 111arlLlf'ncturer sI1all prepare and supply specimens for testing liom each source.

Each type 01- marble slabs and tilcs sliould bc inarkcd in a siiirabla iiiaiincr wi l l1 l l ~ e inuiufacture's name or trade mark.

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APPENDIX

Marbles occur in various colours and sliadcs. for example, in I h y a currently. tllc

Followin,o are the colours of marble:

White h j i : i d o - White marble with large crystals slight g e y and brown veining. KaloIeui Grey - Greyfirown limestone with dark and light pattern. L\.I;ic113lios IVli i tc - Grcyiwliite marble with dark grey veining. iklacli~ltos 131aclc - BlacWyrey niarble with dark veinin,o. 1iiIii:i Grey - Grey marble with liylit veining. Gmze Bro\rrn - B r o w d g o l d limestone with dark and light partem Garize Ulacli - Blac!dwliite limestone with dark atid light partem. Pink Kerio - Pink/white marble with dark veining.

APPENDIX 3 KENYA SUBSIDIARY LEGISLATION, 1992

AMENDMENT TO MINING ACT

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THE M I N I N G A C T

(Cil!J. 306)

++a1 Noiicc No. 32 of i966 is revoked.

Ijated the 11th Seprcmber, 1992.

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P. LEAKEY, M i i k t c r for Eiiviranment arid Namral Resources.

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