European Union - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
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Transcript of European Union - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
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Flag
Motto:"Unitedindiversity"[1][2][3]
Anthem:"OdetoJoy"(orchestral)[2]
Capital Brussels(defacto)[4]5051N421E
Largestcities LondonandParis
Officiallanguages
Demonym European[5]
Type Politicoeconomicunion
Memberstates
LeadersPresidentoftheEuropeanCommission
JeanClaudeJuncker
PresidentoftheEuropeanCouncil
DonaldTusk
EuropeanUnionFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
"EU"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeEU(disambiguation).
TheEuropeanUnion(EU)isapoliticoeconomicunionof28memberstatesthatarelocatedprimarilyinEurope.[12][13]TheEUoperatesthroughasystemofsupranationalinstitutionsandintergovernmentalnegotiateddecisionsbythememberstates.[14][15]Theinstitutionsare:theEuropeanCommission,theCounciloftheEuropeanUnion,theEuropeanCouncil,theCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion,theEuropeanCentralBank,theEuropeanCourtofAuditors,andtheEuropeanParliament.TheEuropeanParliamentiselectedeveryfiveyearsbyEUcitizens.
TheEUtracesitsoriginsfromtheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC)andtheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC),formedbytheInnerSixcountriesin1951and1958,respectively.Intheinterveningyears,thecommunityanditssuccessorshavegrowninsizebytheaccessionofnewmemberstatesandinpowerbytheadditionofpolicyareastoitsremit.TheMaastrichtTreatyestablishedtheEuropeanUnionunderitscurrentnamein1993andintroducedEuropeancitizenship.[16]ThelatestmajoramendmenttotheconstitutionalbasisoftheEU,theTreatyofLisbon,cameintoforcein2009.
TheEUhasdevelopedasinglemarketthroughastandardisedsystemoflawsthatapplyinallmemberstates.WithintheSchengenArea,passportcontrolshavebeenabolished.[17]EUpoliciesaimtoensurethefreemovementofpeople,goods,services,andcapital,[18]enactlegislationinjusticeandhomeaffairs,andmaintaincommonpoliciesontrade,[19]agriculture,[20]fisheries,andregionaldevelopment.[21]
Themonetaryunionwasestablishedin1999andcameintofullforcein2002.Itiscurrentlycomposedof19memberstatesthatusetheeuroastheirlegaltender.ThroughtheCommonForeignandSecurityPolicy,theEUhasdevelopedaroleinexternalrelationsanddefence.TheunionmaintainspermanentdiplomaticmissionsthroughouttheworldandrepresentsitselfattheUnitedNations,theWTO,theG8,andtheG20.
Withacombinedpopulationofover508millioninhabitants,[7]or7.3%oftheworldpopulation,[22]theEUin2014generatedanominalgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)of18.495trillionUSdollars,constitutingapproximately24%ofglobalnominalGDPand17%whenmeasuredintermsofpurchasingpowerparity.Asof2014theEUhasthelargesteconomyintheworld,generatingaGDPbiggerthananyothereconomicunionorcountry.[23]Additionally,26outof28EUcountrieshaveaveryhighHumanDevelopmentIndex,accordingtotheUNDP.In2012,theEUwasawardedtheNobelPeacePrize.[24]
Contents
1History1.1Preliminary1.2TreatyofRomeandgrowth1.3MaastrichtTreatyandafter1.4Structuralevolution
2Geography2.1Memberstates2.2Environment
3Politics3.1Constitutionalnature3.2Governance3.3Budget3.4Competences
4Legalsystem4.1CourtsofJustice
EuropeanUnion
24languages
28states
0:00 MENU
-
Legislature CounciloftheEUParliament
Formation[6]TreatyofRome 1January1958TreatyofMaastricht 1November1993
AreaTotal 4,324,782km2(7tha)
1,669,808sqmiWater(%) 3.08
Population2015estimate 508,191,116[7](3rda)Density 115.8/km2
300.9/sqmi
GDP(PPP) 2015estimateTotal $19.035trillion[8](1sta)Percapita $37,607[8](19tha)
GDP(nominal) 2015estimateTotal $16.449trillion[8](2nda)Percapita $32,498[9](16tha)
Gini(2010) 30.4[10]medium
HDI(2011) 0.876[11]
veryhigh13th/25tha
CurrencyEuro(EUREurozone)
Timezone WET(UTC)[a]CET(UTC+1)EET(UTC+2)
Summer(DST) WEST(UTC+1)CEST(UTC+2)EEST(UTC+3)
InternetTLD .eu[b]
Websiteeuropa.eu(http://europa.eu)
Ifconsideredasasingleentity.
4.1CourtsofJustice4.2Fundamentalrights4.3Acts
5Areaoffreedom,securityandjustice6Foreignrelations
6.1Military6.2Humanitarianaid
7Economy7.1Internalmarket7.2Competition7.3Monetaryunion7.4Energy7.5Infrastructure7.6Agriculture
8Demographics8.1Languages8.2Religion8.3Educationandscience8.4Healthcare
9Culture9.1Sport9.2Symbols
10Seealso11Notes12References13Furtherreading14Externallinks
History
Mainarticles:HistoryoftheEuropeanUnionandHistoryofEurope
Preliminary
AfterWorldWarII,Europeanintegrationwaseyedasanescapefromtheextremenationalismthathaddevastatedthecontinent.[25]The1948HagueCongresswasapivotalmomentinEuropeanfederalhistory,asitledtothecreationoftheEuropeanMovementInternationalandoftheCollegeofEurope,whereEurope'sfutureleaderswouldliveandstudytogether.[26]1952sawthecreationoftheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity,whichwasdeclaredtobe"afirststepinthefederationofEurope.".[27]ThesupportersoftheCommunityincludedAlcideDeGasperi,JeanMonnet,RobertSchuman,andPaulHenriSpaak.[28]
TreatyofRomeandgrowth
In1957,Belgium,France,Italy,Luxembourg,theNetherlands,andWestGermanysignedtheTreatyofRome,whichcreatedtheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)andestablishedacustomsunion.TheyalsosignedanotherpactcreatingtheEuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunity(Euratom)forcooperationindevelopingnuclearenergy.Bothtreatiescameintoforcein1958.[28]
TheEECandEuratomwerecreatedseparatelyfromECSC,althoughtheysharedthesamecourtsandtheCommonAssembly.TheEECwasheadedbyWalterHallstein(HallsteinCommission)andEuratomwasheadedbyLouisArmand(ArmandCommission)andthentienneHirsch.EuratomwastointegratesectorsinnuclearenergywhiletheEECwoulddevelopacustomsunionamongmembers.[29][30]
10others
a.
-
RobertSchumanproposingtheCoalandSteelCommunityon9May1950.
ThecontinentalterritoriesofthememberstatesoftheEuropeanUnion(EuropeanCommunitiespre1993),colouredinorderofaccession.
In1989,theIronCurtainfell,enablingtheuniontoexpandfurther(BerlinWallpictured).
Theeurowasintroducedin2002,replacing12nationalcurrencies.Sevencountrieshavesincejoined.
2009,theLisbonTreatyenteredintoforce.
Throughthe1960s,tensionsbegantoshow,withFranceseekingtolimitsupranationalpower.Nevertheless,in1965anagreementwasreachedandon1July1967theMergerTreatycreatedasinglesetofinstitutionsforthethreecommunities,whichwerecollectivelyreferredtoastheEuropeanCommunities.[31][32]JeanReypresidedoverthefirstmergedCommission(ReyCommission).[33]
In1973,theCommunitiesenlargedtoincludeDenmark(includingGreenland,whichlaterlefttheCommunityin1985,followingadisputeoverfishingrights),Ireland,andtheUnitedKingdom.[34]Norwayhadnegotiatedtojoinatthesametime,butNorwegianvotersrejectedmembershipinareferendum.In1979,thefirstdirect,democraticelectionstotheEuropeanParliamentwereheld.[35]
Greecejoinedin1981PortugalandSpainin1986.[36]In1985,theSchengenAgreementledthewaytowardthecreationofopenborderswithoutpassportcontrolsbetweenmostmemberstatesandsomenonmemberstates.[37]In1986,theEuropeanflagbegantobeusedbytheCommunity[38]andtheSingleEuropeanActwassigned.
In1990,afterthefalloftheEasternBloc,theformerEastGermanybecamepartoftheCommunityaspartofareunitedGermany.[39]Withfurtherenlargementplannedforformercommuniststates,Cyprus,andMalta,theCopenhagencriteriaforcandidatememberstojointheEUwereagreeduponinJune1993.
MaastrichtTreatyandafter
TheEuropeanUnionwasformallyestablishedwhentheMaastrichtTreatywhosemainarchitectswereHelmutKohlandFranoisMitterrandcameintoforceon1November1993.[16]ThetreatyalsogavethenameEuropeancommunitytotheEEC,evenifitwasreferredassuchbeforethetreaty.In1995,Austria,Finland,andSwedenjoinedtheEU.In2002,eurobanknotesandcoinsreplacednationalcurrenciesin12ofthememberstates.Sincethen,theeurozonehasincreasedtoencompass19countries.In2004,theEUsawitsbiggestenlargementtodatewhenCyprus,theCzechRepublic,Estonia,Hungary,Latvia,Lithuania,Malta,Poland,Slovakia,andSloveniajoinedtheUnion.[40]
On1January2007,RomaniaandBulgariabecameEUmembers.Inthesameyear,Sloveniaadoptedtheeuro,[40]followedin2008byCyprusandMalta,bySlovakiain2009,byEstoniain2011,byLatviain2014andbyLithuaniain2015.InJune2009,theEuropeanParliamentelectionswereheld,leadingtothesecondBarrosoCommission,andbyJuly,Icelandformally
appliedforEUmembership,buthassincesuspendednegotiations.
On1December2009,theLisbonTreatyenteredintoforceandreformedmanyaspectsoftheEU.Inparticular,itchangedthelegalstructureoftheEuropeanUnion,mergingtheEUthreepillarssystemintoasinglelegalentityprovisionedwithalegalpersonality,createdapermanentPresidentoftheEuropeanCouncil,thefirstofwhichwasHermanVanRompuy,andstrengthenedtheHighRepresentative,CatherineAshton.[41]
In2012theUnionreceivedtheNobelPeacePrizeforhaving"contributedtotheadvancementofpeaceandreconciliation,democracy,andhumanrightsinEurope."[42][43]On1July2013,Croatiabecamethe28thEUmember.[44][45][46]
Structuralevolution
Mainarticle:TreatiesoftheEuropeanUnion
Thefollowingtimelineillustratestheintegrationthathasledtotheformationofthepresentunion,intermsofstructuraldevelopmentdrivenbyinternationaltreaties:
Signed 1948 1951 1954 1957 1965 1975 1985 1986 1992 1997 2001 2007
-
The65,993km(41,006mi)coastlinedominatestheEuropeanclimate(Cyprus).
MontBlancintheAlpsisthehighestpeakintheunion.
InforceDocument
1948BrusselsTreaty
1952ParisTreaty
1955ModifiedBrusselsTreaty
1958Rometreaties
1967MergerTreaty
N/AEuropeanCouncilconclusion
1985SchengenTreaty
1987SingleEuropeanAct
1993MaastrichtTreaty
1999AmsterdamTreaty
2003NiceTreaty
2009LisbonTreaty
ThreepillarsoftheEuropeanUnion: EuropeanCommunities:
EuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunity(EURATOM) EuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC) Treatyexpiredin2002
EuropeanUnion(EU)
EuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)
SchengenRules EuropeanCommunity(EC)
TREVI JusticeandHomeAffairs(JHA)
PoliceandJudicialCooperationinCriminalMatters(PJCC)
EuropeanPoliticalCooperation(EPC) CommonForeignandSecurityPolicy(CFSP)
Unconsolidatedbodies WesternEuropeanUnion(WEU)
Treatyterminatedin2011
Geography
Mainarticle:GeographyoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEU'smemberstatescoveranareaof4,423,147squarekilometres(1,707,787sqmi).[c]TheEU'shighestpeakisMontBlancintheGraianAlps,4,810.45metres(15,782ft)abovesealevel.[47]Thelowestpoint(s)intheEUisLammefjorden,DenmarkandZuidplaspolder,Netherlands,at7m(23ft)belowsealevel.[48]Thelandscape,climate,andeconomyoftheEUareinfluencedbyitscoastline,whichis65,993kilometres(41,006mi)long.
IncludingtheoverseasterritoriesofFrancewhicharelocatedoutsidethecontinentofEurope,butwhicharemembersoftheunion,theEUexperiencesmosttypesofclimatefromArctic(NorthEastEurope)totropical(FrenchGuyana),renderingmeteorologicalaveragesfortheEUasawholemeaningless.Themajorityofthepopulationlivesinareaswithatemperatemaritimeclimate(NorthWesternEuropeandCentralEurope),aMediterraneanclimate(SouthernEurope),orawarmsummercontinentalorhemiborealclimate(NorthernBalkansandCentralEurope).[49]
TheEU'spopulationishighlyurbanised,withsome75%ofinhabitants(andgrowing,projectedtobe90%insevenmemberstatesby2020)livinginurbanareas.CitiesarelargelyspreadoutacrosstheEU,althoughwithalargegroupinginandaroundtheBenelux.Anincreasingpercentageofthisisduetolowdensityurbansprawlwhichisextendingintonaturalareas.Insomecases,thisurbangrowthhasbeenduetotheinfluxofEUfundsintoaregion.[50]
Memberstates
Mainarticle:MemberstateoftheEuropeanUnion
Thefollowing28sovereignstates(ofwhichthemaponlyshowsterritoriessituatedinandaroundEurope)constitutetheunion:[51]
-
Ireland UnitedKingdom
France
NetherlandsGermany
Denmark
Poland
LithuaniaLatviaEstonia
Finland
Sweden
CzechRepublic
Austria Hungary Romania
Bulgaria
Greece
Slovakia
SloveniaCroatia
Italy
BelgiumLuxembourg
Portugal Spain
MaltaCyprus
-
Name Capital Accession Population[7] Area(km2)Austria Vienna 1January1995 8,584,926 83,855Belgium Brussels Founder 11,258,434 30,528Bulgaria Sofia 1January2007 7,202,198 110,994Croatia Zagreb 1July2013 4,225,316 56,594Cyprus Nicosia 1May2004 847,008 9,251CzechRepublic Prague 1May2004 10,538,275 78,866Denmark Copenhagen 1January1973 5,659,715 43,075Estonia Tallinn 1May2004 1,313,271 45,227Finland Helsinki 1January1995 5,471,753 338,424France Paris Founder 66,352,469 640,679Germany Berlin Founder[d] 81,174,000 357,021Greece Athens 1January1981 10,812,467 131,990Hungary Budapest 1May2004 9,849,000 93,030Ireland Dublin 1January1973 4,625,885 70,273Italy Rome Founder 60,795,612 301,338Latvia Riga 1May2004 1,986,096 64,589Lithuania Vilnius 1May2004 2,921,262 65,200Luxembourg Luxembourg Founder 562,958 2,586Malta Valletta 1May2004 429,344 316Netherlands Amsterdam Founder 16,900,726 41,543Poland Warsaw 1May2004 38,005,614 312,685Portugal Lisbon 1January1986 10,374,822 92,390Romania Bucharest 1January2007 19,861,408 238,391Slovakia Bratislava 1May2004 5,421,349 49,035Slovenia Ljubljana 1May2004 2,062,874 20,273Spain Madrid 1January1986 46,439,864 504,030Sweden Stockholm 1January1995 9,747,355 449,964UnitedKingdom London 1January1973 64,767,115 243,610
Throughsuccessiveenlargements,theUnionhasgrownfromthesixfoundingstatesBelgium,France,WestGermany,Italy,Luxembourg,andtheNetherlandstothecurrent28.Countriesaccedetotheunionbybecomingpartytothefoundingtreaties,therebysubjectingthemselvestotheprivilegesandobligationsofEUmembership.Thisentailsapartialdelegationofsovereigntytotheinstitutionsinreturnforrepresentationwithinthoseinstitutions,apracticeoftenreferredtoas"poolingofsovereignty".[52][53]
Tobecomeamember,acountrymustmeettheCopenhagencriteria,definedatthe1993meetingoftheEuropeanCouncilinCopenhagen.Theserequireastabledemocracythatrespectshumanrightsandtheruleoflawafunctioningmarketeconomyandtheacceptanceoftheobligationsofmembership,includingEUlaw.Evaluationofacountry'sfulfilmentofthecriteriaistheresponsibilityoftheEuropeanCouncil.[54]NomemberstatehaseverlefttheUnion,althoughGreenland(anautonomousprovinceofDenmark)withdrewin1985.[55]TheLisbonTreatynowcontainsaclauseprovidingforamembertoleavetheEU.[56]
-
MapoftheEuropeanUnionintheworldwithoverseascountriesandterritoriesandoutermostregions.
TheexclusiveeconomiczoneoftheEuropeanUnion. EUmemberstates. TerritoriesunderthesovereigntyofanEUmemberstate. Recognisedcandidatecountries.
ViruBoginLahemaaNationalParkinEstonia,aprotectedhabitatundertheHabitatsDirective
Ablackstork,anAnnexAprotectedspeciesunderRegulation(EC)No.338/97
Therearesixcountrieswhicharerecognizedascandidatesformembership:Albania,Iceland,Macedonia,[e]Montenegro,Serbia,andTurkey.[57]However,on13June2013,Iceland'sForeignMinister,GunnarBragiSveinsson,informedtheEuropeanCommissionthatthenewlyelectedgovernmentintendedto"putnegotiationsonhold".[58]BosniaandHerzegovinaandKosovoareofficiallyrecognisedaspotentialcandidates,[57]buthavenotsubmittedmembershipapplications.Duetothelackofrecognitionbyfiveofthe28EUmemberstates,theEuropeanCommissionrefersonlyto"Kosovo*",withanasteriskedfootnotecontainingthetextagreedtobytheBelgradePristinanegotiations:"Thisdesignationiswithoutprejudicetopositionsonstatus,andisinlinewithUNSCR1244andtheICJOpinionontheKosovoDeclarationofIndependence."
FourcountriesformingtheEuropeanFreeTradeAssociation(EFTA)(thatarenotEUmembers)havepartlycommittedtotheEU'seconomyandregulations:Iceland,LiechtensteinandNorway,whichareapartofthesinglemarketthroughtheEuropeanEconomicArea,andSwitzerland,whichhassimilartiesthroughbilateraltreaties.[59][60]
TherelationshipsoftheEuropeanmicrostates,Andorra,Monaco,SanMarino,andtheVaticanincludetheuseoftheeuroandotherareasofcooperation.[61]
Environment
Furtherinformation:EuropeanCommissionerfortheEnvironmentandEuropeanClimateChangeProgramme
In1957,whentheEUwasfounded,ithadnoenvironmentalpolicy,noenvironmentalbureaucracy,andnoenvironmentallaws.[62]Today,theEUhassomeofthemostprogressiveenvironmentalpoliciesofanystateintheworld.TheenvironmentalpolicyoftheEUhasthereforedevelopedinremarkablefashioninthepastfourdecades.Anincreasinglydensenetworkoflegislationhasemerged,whichnowextendstoallareasofenvironmentalprotection,including:airpollutioncontrol,waterprotection,wastemanagement,natureconservation,andthecontrolofchemicals,biotechnologyandotherindustrialrisks.[63]TheInstituteforEuropeanEnvironmentalPolicyestimatesthebodyofEUenvironmentallawamountstowellover500Directives,RegulationsandDecisions.[64]EnvironmentalpolicyhasthusbecomeacoreareaofEuropeanpolitics.
Suchdynamicdevelopmentsaresurprisinginlightofthelegalandinstitutionalconditionswhichexistedinthelate1950sand60s.[65]Actingwithoutanylegislativeauthority,EuropeanpolicymakersinitiallyincreasedtheEU'scapacitytoactbydefiningenvironmentalpolicyasatradeproblem.ThemostimportantreasonfortheintroductionofacommonenvironmentalpolicywasthefearthattradebarriersandcompetitivedistortionsintheCommonMarketcouldemergeduetothedifferentenvironmentalstandards.[66]However,inthecourseoftime,EUenvironmentalpolicyemergedasaformalpolicyarea,withitsownpolicyactors,policyprinciplesand
procedures.ThelegalbasisofEUenvironmentalpolicywasnotmoreexplicitlyestablisheduntiltheintroductionoftheSingleEuropeanActin1987.[64]
Initially,EUenvironmentalpolicywasratherintrospective.Morerecently,however,theUnionhasdemonstratedagrowingleadershipinglobalenvironmentalgovernance.TheroleoftheEUinsecuringtheratificationandentryintoforceoftheKyotoProtocolinthefaceofUSoppositionisanexampleinthisregard.ThisinternationaldimensionisreflectedintheEU'sSixthEnvironmentalActionProgramme,whichrecognisesthatitsstrategicobjectivescanonlybeachievedifaseriesofkeyinternationalenvironmentalagreementsareactivelysupportedandproperlyimplementedbothatanEUlevelandworldwide.TheentryintoforceoftheLisbonTreatyfurtherstrengthenstheEU'sglobalenvironmentalleadershipambitions.[67]ThevastbodyofEUenvironmentallawwhichnowexistshasplayedavitalroleinimprovinghabitatandspeciesprotectioninEuropeaswellascontributedtoimprovementsinairandwaterqualityandwastemanagement.[64]However,significantchallengesremain,bothtomeetexistingEUtargetsandaspirationsandtoagreenewtargetsandactionsthatwillfurtherimprovetheenvironmentandthequalityoflifeinEuropeandbeyond.
OneofthetopprioritiesofEUenvironmentalpolicyiscombattingclimatechange.In2007,memberstatesagreedthattheEUistouse20%renewableenergyinthefutureandthatithastoreducecarbondioxideemissionsin2020byatleast20%comparedto1990levels.[68]Thisincludesmeasuresthatin2020,10%oftheoverallfuelquantityusedbycarsandtrucksinEU27shouldberunningonrenewableenergysuchasbiofuels.Thisisconsideredtobeoneofthemostambitiousmovesofanimportantindustrialisedregiontofightclimatechange.[69]
TheEUadoptedanemissionstradingsystemtoincorporatecarbonemissionsintotheeconomy.[70]
TheEuropeanGreenCapitalisanannualawardthatisgiventocitiesthatfocusesontheenvironment,energyefficiencyandqualityoflifeinurbanareastocreatesmartcity.
Politics
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PoliticalsystemoftheEuropeanUnion
Mainarticle:PoliticsoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEUoperateswithinthosecompetenciesconferredonitbythetreatiesandaccordingtotheprincipleofsubsidiarity(whichdictatesthatactionbytheEUshouldonlybetakenwhereanobjectivecannotbesufficientlyachievedbythememberstatesalone).LawsmadebytheEUinstitutionsarepassedinavarietyofforms.Generallyspeaking,theycanbeclassifiedintotwogroups:thosewhichcomeintoforcewithoutthenecessityfornationalimplementationmeasuresandthosewhichspecificallyrequirenationalimplementationmeasures.[71]
Constitutionalnature
Furtherinformation:TreatiesoftheEuropeanUnion
TheclassificationoftheEuropeanUnionintermsofinternationalorconstitutionallawhasbeenmuchdebated,ofteninthelightofthedegreeofintegrationthatisperceived,desired,orexpected.Historically,atleast,theEUisaninternationalorganisation,andbysomecriteria,itcouldbeclassifiedasaconfederationbutitalsohasmanyattributesofafederation,sosomewouldclassifyitasa(defacto)federationofstates.[72][73][74]Forthisreason,theorganisationhas,inthepast,beentermedsuigeneris(incomparable,oneofakind),thoughitisalsoarguedthatthisdesignationisnolongertrue.[75][76]
Theorganisationitselfhastraditionallyusedtheterms"community",andlater"union".Thedifficultiesofclassificationinvolvethedifferencebetweennationallaw(wherethesubjectsofthelawincludenaturalpersonsandcorporations)andinternationallaw(wherethesubjectsincludesovereignstatesandinternationalorganisations)theycanalsobeseeninthelightofdifferingEuropeanandAmericanconstitutionaltraditions.[75]EspeciallyintermsoftheEuropeanconstitutionaltradition,thetermfederationisequatedwithasovereignfederalstateininternationallawsotheEUcannotbecalledafederalstateorfederationatleast,notwithoutqualification.Thoughnot,strictly,afederation,itismorethanafreetradeassociation.[77]Itis,however,describedasbeingbasedonafederalmodelorfederalinnature.WalterHallstein,intheoriginalGermaneditionofEuropeintheMakingcalledit"anunfinishedfederalstate".[78]TheGermanConstitutionalCourtreferstotheEuropeanUnionasanassociationofsovereignstatesandaffirmsthatmakingtheEUafederationwouldrequirereplacementoftheGermanconstitution.[79]Othersclaimthatitwillnotdevelopintoafederalstatebuthasreachedmaturityasaninternationalorganisation.[80]
Governance
Mainarticles:InstitutionsoftheEuropeanUnionandLegislatureoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEuropeanUnionhasseveninstitutions:theEuropeanParliament,theCounciloftheEuropeanUnion,theEuropeanCommission,theEuropeanCouncil,theEuropeanCentralBank,theCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionandtheEuropeanCourtofAuditors.CompetenciesinscrutinisingandamendinglegislationaredividedbetweentheEuropeanParliamentandtheCounciloftheEuropeanUnionwhileexecutivetasksarecarriedoutbytheEuropeanCommissionandinalimitedcapacitybytheEuropeanCouncil(nottobeconfusedwiththeaforementionedCounciloftheEuropeanUnion).ThemonetarypolicyoftheeurozoneisgovernedbytheEuropeanCentralBank.TheinterpretationandtheapplicationofEUlawandthetreatiesareensuredbytheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion.TheEUbudgetisscrutinisedbytheEuropeanCourtofAuditors.TherearealsoanumberofancillarybodieswhichadvisetheEUoroperateinaspecificarea.
EuropeanCouncil
TheEuropeanCouncilgivesdirectiontotheEU,andconvenesatleastfourtimesayear.ItcomprisesthePresidentoftheEuropeanCouncil,thePresidentoftheEuropeanCommissionandonerepresentativepermemberstateeitheritsheadofstateorheadofgovernment.TheEuropeanCouncilhasbeendescribedbysomeastheUnion's"supremepoliticalauthority".[81]ItisactivelyinvolvedinthenegotiationofthetreatychangesanddefinestheEU'spolicyagendaandstrategies.
TheEuropeanCouncilusesitsleadershiproletosortoutdisputesbetweenmemberstatesandtheinstitutions,andtoresolvepoliticalcrisesanddisagreementsovercontroversialissuesandpolicies.Itactsexternallyasa"collectiveheadofstate"andratifiesimportantdocuments(forexample,internationalagreementsandtreaties).[82]
On19November2009,HermanVanRompuywaschosenasthefirstpermanentPresidentoftheEuropeanCouncil.On1December2009,theTreatyofLisbonenteredintoforceandheassumedoffice.EnsuringtheexternalrepresentationoftheEU,[83]drivingconsensusandsettlingdivergencesamongmembersaretasksforthePresidentbothduringtheconvocationsoftheEuropeanCouncilandinthetimeperiodsbetweenthem.TheEuropeanCouncilshouldnotbemistakenfortheCouncilofEurope,aninternationalorganisationindependentfromtheEU.
-
ThePresidentoftheEuropeanCouncil,DonaldTusk
TheCommissionPresident,JeanClaudeJuncker
ThehemicycleoftheEuropeanParliamentinStrasbourg
EuropeanCommission
TheEuropeanCommissionactsastheEU'sexecutivearmandisresponsibleforinitiatinglegislationandthedaytodayrunningoftheEU.TheCommissionisalsoseenasthemotorofEuropeanintegration.Itoperatesasacabinetgovernment,with28Commissionersfordifferentareasofpolicy,onefromeachmemberstate,thoughCommissionersareboundtorepresenttheinterestsoftheEUasawholeratherthantheirhomestate.
Oneofthe28istheCommissionPresident(currentlyJeanClaudeJuncker)appointedbytheEuropeanCouncil.AfterthePresident,themostprominentCommissioneristheHighRepresentativeoftheUnionforForeignAffairsandSecurityPolicywhoisexofficioVicePresidentoftheCommissionandischosenbytheEuropeanCounciltoo.[84]Theother26CommissionersaresubsequentlyappointedbytheCounciloftheEuropeanUnion(alsoknownastheCouncilofMinisters)inagreementwiththenominatedPresident.The28CommissionersasasinglebodyaresubjecttoavoteofapprovalbytheEuropeanParliament.
EuropeanParliament
TheEuropeanParliamentformsonehalfoftheEU'slegislature(theotherhalfistheCounciloftheEuropeanUnion).The751MembersoftheEuropeanParliament(MEPs)aredirectlyelectedbyEUcitizenseveryfiveyearsonthebasisofproportionalrepresentation.AlthoughMEPsareelectedonanationalbasis,theysitaccordingtopoliticalgroupsratherthantheirnationality.Eachcountryhasasetnumberofseatsandisdividedintosubnationalconstituencieswherethisdoesnotaffecttheproportionalnatureofthevotingsystem.[85]
TheParliamentandtheCounciloftheEuropeanUnionpasslegislationjointlyinnearlyallareasundertheordinarylegislativeprocedure.ThisalsoappliestotheEUbudget.Finally,theCommissionisaccountabletoParliament,requiringitsapprovaltotakeoffice,havingtoreportbacktoitandsubjecttomotionsofcensurefromit.ThePresidentoftheEuropeanParliamentcarriesouttheroleofspeakerinparliamentandrepresentsitexternally.TheEPPresidentandVicePresidentsareelectedbyMEPseverytwoandahalfyears.[86]
CounciloftheEuropeanUnion
-
The2011EUbudget(141.9bn.intotalcommitmentappropriations):[90]
Cohesionandcompetitivenessforgrowthandemployment(45%) Citizenship,freedom,
securityandjustice(1%) TheEUasaglobalpartner
(6%) Ruraldevelopment(11%)
Directaidsandmarketrelatedexpenditures(31%) Administration(6%)
TheCounciloftheEuropeanUnion(alsocalledthe"Council"[87]andsometimesreferredtoasthe"CouncilofMinisters")[88]formstheotherhalfoftheEU'slegislature.Itconsistsofagovernmentministerfromeachmemberstateandmeetsindifferentcompositionsdependingonthepolicyareabeingaddressed.Notwithstandingitsdifferentconfigurations,itisconsideredtobeonesinglebody.[89]Inadditiontoitslegislativefunctions,theCouncilalsoexercisesexecutivefunctionsinrelationstotheCommonForeignandSecurityPolicy.
Budget
Mainarticle:BudgetoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEUhadanagreedbudgetof120.7billionfortheyear2007and864.3billionfortheperiod20072013,[91]representing1.10%and1.05%oftheEU27'sGNIforecastfortherespectiveperiods.Bycomparison,theUnitedKingdom'sexpenditurefor2004wasestimatedtobe759billion,andFrancewasestimatedtohavespent801billion.In1960,thebudgetofthethenEuropeanEconomicCommunitywas0.03%ofGDP.[92]
Inthe2010budgetof141.5billion,thelargestsingleexpenditureitemis"cohesion&competitiveness"witharound45%ofthetotalbudget.[93]Nextcomes"agriculture"withapproximately31%ofthetotal.[93]"Ruraldevelopment,environmentandfisheries"takesuparound11%.[93]"Administration"accountsforaround6%.[93]The"EUasaglobalpartner"and"citizenship,freedom,securityandjustice"bringuptherearwithapproximately6%and1%respectively.[93]
TheCourtofAuditorsaimstoensurethatthebudgetoftheEuropeanUnionhasbeenproperlyaccountedfor.ThecourtprovidesanauditreportforeachfinancialyeartotheCouncilandtheEuropeanParliament.TheParliamentusesthistodecidewhethertoapprovetheCommission'shandlingofthebudget.TheCourtalsogivesopinionsandproposalsonfinanciallegislationandantifraudactions.[94]
TheCourtofAuditorsislegallyobligedtoprovidetheParliamentandtheCouncilwith"astatementofassuranceastothereliabilityoftheaccountsandthelegalityandregularityoftheunderlyingtransactions".[95]TheCourthasrefusedtodosoeveryyearsince1993,qualifyingtheirreportoftheUnion'saccountseveryyearsincethen.[96]Intheirreporton2009theauditorsfoundthatfiveareasofUnionexpenditure,agricultureandthecohesionfund,weremateriallyaffectedbyerror.[97]TheEuropeanCommissionestimatedthatthefinancialimpactofirregularitieswas1,863million.[98]
Competences
EUmemberstatesretainallpowersnotexplicitlyhandedtotheEuropeanUnion.InsomeareastheEUenjoysexclusivecompetence.Theseareareasinwhichmemberstateshaverenouncedanycapacitytoenactlegislation.InotherareastheEUanditsmemberstatessharethecompetencetolegislate.Whilebothcanlegislate,memberstatescanonlylegislatetotheextenttowhichtheEUhasnot.InotherpolicyareastheEUcanonlycoordinate,supportandsupplementmemberstateactionbutcannotenactlegislationwiththeaimofharmonisingnationallaws.[99]
Thataparticularpolicyareafallsintoacertaincategoryofcompetenceisnotnecessarilyindicativeofwhatlegislativeprocedureisusedforenactinglegislationwithinthatpolicyarea.Differentlegislativeproceduresareusedwithinthesamecategoryofcompetence,andevenwiththesamepolicyarea.
ThedistributionofcompetencesinvariouspolicyareasbetweenMemberStatesandtheUnionisdividedinthefollowingthreecategories:
AsoutlinedinTitleIofPartIoftheconsolidatedTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion
Exclusivecompetence Sharedcompetence Supportingcompetence
"TheUnionhasexclusivecompetencetomakedirectivesandconcludeinternationalagreementswhenprovidedforina
Unionlegislativeact."
thecustomsuniontheestablishingofthecompetitionrulesnecessaryfor
"MemberStatescannotexercisecompetenceinareaswheretheUnionhasdoneso."
theinternalmarketsocialpolicy,fortheaspectsdefinedinthisTreatyeconomic,socialandterritorialcohesion
"UnionexerciseofcompetenceshallnotresultinMemberStatesbeingpreventedfromexercisingtheirsin"
research,technologicaldevelopmentand(outer)spacedevelopmentcooperation,humanitarianaid
"TheUnioncancarryoutactionstosupport,coordinateorsupplementMemberStates'actionsin"
theprotectionandimprovementofhumanhealthindustryculture
-
TheCourtofJustice,seatedinLuxembourg.
thefunctioningoftheinternalmarketmonetarypolicyfortheMemberStateswhosecurrencyistheeurotheconservationofmarinebiologicalresourcesunderthecommonfisheriespolicycommoncommercialpolicyconclusionofcertaininternationalagreements
agricultureandfisheries,excludingtheconservationofmarinebiologicalresourcesenvironmentconsumerprotectiontransporttransEuropeannetworksenergytheareaoffreedom,securityandjusticecommonsafetyconcernsinpublichealthmatters,fortheaspectsdefinedinthisTreaty
"TheUnioncoordinatesMemberStatespoliciesorimplementssupplementaltotheirscommonpolicies,not
coveredelsewhere"
coordinationofeconomic,employmentandsocialpoliciescommonforeign,securityanddefencepolicies
tourismeducation,youth,sportandvocationaltrainingcivilprotection(disasterprevention)administrativecooperation
Legalsystem
Furtherinformation:EuropeanUnionlaw,TreatiesoftheEuropeanUnionandCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEUisbasedonaseriesoftreaties.ThesefirstestablishedtheEuropeanCommunityandtheEU,andthenmadeamendmentstothosefoundingtreaties.[100]Thesearepowergivingtreatieswhichsetbroadpolicygoalsandestablishinstitutionswiththenecessarylegalpowerstoimplementthosegoals.Theselegalpowersincludetheabilitytoenactlegislation[f]whichcandirectlyaffectallmemberstatesandtheirinhabitants.[g]TheEUhaslegalpersonality,withtherighttosignagreementsandinternationaltreaties.[101]
Undertheprincipleofsupremacy,nationalcourtsarerequiredtoenforcethetreatiesthattheirmemberstateshaveratified,andthusthelawsenactedunderthem,evenifdoingsorequiresthemtoignoreconflictingnationallaw,and(withinlimits)evenconstitutionalprovisions.[h]
CourtsofJustice
ThejudicialbranchoftheEUformallycalledtheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionconsistsofthreecourts:theCourtofJustice,theGeneralCourt,andtheEuropeanUnionCivilServiceTribunal.TogethertheyinterpretandapplythetreatiesandthelawoftheEU.[102]
TheCourtofJusticeprimarilydealswithcasestakenbymemberstates,theinstitutions,andcasesreferredtoitbythecourtsofmemberstates.[103]TheGeneralCourtmainlydealswithcasestakenbyindividualsandcompaniesdirectlybeforetheEU'scourts,[104]andtheEuropeanUnionCivilServiceTribunaladjudicatesindisputesbetweentheEuropeanUnionanditscivilservice.[105]DecisionsfromtheGeneralCourtcanbeappealedtotheCourtofJusticebutonlyonapointoflaw.[106]
Fundamentalrights
ThetreatiesdeclarethattheEUitselfis"foundedonthevaluesofrespectforhumandignity,freedom,democracy,equality,theruleoflawandrespectforhumanrights,includingtherightsofpersonsbelongingtominorities...inasocietyinwhichpluralism,nondiscrimination,tolerance,justice,solidarityandequalitybetweenwomenandmenprevail."[107]
In2009theLisbonTreatygavelegaleffecttotheCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion.ThecharterisacodifiedcatalogueoffundamentalrightsagainstwhichtheEU'slegalactscanbejudged.ItconsolidatesmanyrightswhichwerepreviouslyrecognisedbytheCourtofJusticeandderivedfromthe"constitutionaltraditionscommontothememberstates."[108]TheCourtofJusticehaslongrecognisedfundamentalrightsandhas,onoccasion,invalidatedEUlegislationbasedonitsfailuretoadheretothosefundamentalrights.[109]TheCharterofFundamentalRightswasdrawnupin2000.AlthoughoriginallynotlegallybindingtheCharterwasfrequentlycitedbytheEU'scourtsasencapsulatingrightswhichthecourtshadlongrecognisedasthefundamentalprinciplesofEUlaw.AlthoughsigningtheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(ECHR)isaconditionforEUmembership,[i]previously,theEUitselfcouldnotaccedetotheConventionasitisneitherastate[j]norhadthecompetencetoaccede.[k]TheLisbonTreatyandProtocol14totheECHRhavechangedthis:theformerbindstheEUtoaccedetotheConventionwhilethelatterformallypermitsit.
-
Theawardingceremonyofthe1990SakharovPrizeawardedtoAungSanSuuKyi(herebyMartinSchulz)insidetheParliament'sStrasbourghemicycle,in2013.
ThebordersinsidetheSchengenAreabetweenGermanyandAustria
Although,theEUisindependentfromCouncilofEurope,theysharepurposeandideasespeciallyonruleoflaw,humanrightsanddemocracy.FurtherEuropeanConventiononHumanRightsandEuropeanSocialCharter,thesourceoflawofCharterofFundamentalRightsarecreatedbyCouncilofEurope.TheEUalsopromotedhumanrightsissuesinthewiderworld.TheEUopposesthedeathpenaltyandhasproposeditsworldwideabolition.AbolitionofthedeathpenaltyisaconditionforEUmembership.[110]
Acts
ThemainlegalactsoftheEUcomeinthreeforms:regulations,directives,anddecisions.Regulationsbecomelawinallmemberstatesthemomenttheycomeintoforce,withouttherequirementforanyimplementingmeasures,[l]andautomaticallyoverrideconflictingdomesticprovisions.[f]Directivesrequirememberstatestoachieveacertainresultwhileleavingthemdiscretionastohowtoachievetheresult.Thedetailsofhowtheyaretobeimplementedarelefttomemberstates.[m]Whenthetimelimitforimplementingdirectivespasses,theymay,undercertainconditions,havedirecteffectinnationallawagainstmemberstates.
Decisionsofferanalternativetothetwoabovemodesoflegislation.Theyarelegalactswhichonlyapplytospecifiedindividuals,companiesoraparticularmemberstate.Theyaremostoftenusedincompetitionlaw,oronrulingsonStateAid,butarealsofrequentlyusedforproceduraloradministrativematterswithintheinstitutions.Regulations,directives,anddecisionsareofequallegalvalueandapplywithoutanyformalhierarchy.[111]
Areaoffreedom,securityandjustice
Furtherinformation:Areaoffreedom,securityandjustice
SincethecreationoftheEUin1993,ithasdevelopeditscompetenciesintheareaoffreedom,securityandjustice,initiallyatanintergovernmentallevelandlaterbysupranationalism.Tothisend,agencieshavebeenestablishedthatcoordinateassociatedactions:Europolforcooperationofpoliceforces,[112]Eurojustforcooperationbetweenprosecutors,[113]andFrontexforcooperationbetweenbordercontrolauthorities.[114]TheEUalsooperatestheSchengenInformationSystem[17]whichprovidesacommondatabaseforpoliceandimmigrationauthorities.ThiscooperationhadtoparticularlybedevelopedwiththeadventofopenbordersthroughtheSchengenAgreementandtheassociatedcrossbordercrime.
Furthermore,theUnionhaslegislatedinareassuchasextradition,[115]familylaw,[116]asylumlaw,[117]andcriminaljustice.[118]Prohibitionsagainstsexualandnationalitydiscriminationhavealongstandinginthetreaties.[n]Inmorerecentyears,thesehavebeensupplementedbypowerstolegislateagainstdiscriminationbasedonrace,religion,disability,age,andsexualorientation.[o]Byvirtueofthesepowers,theEUhasenactedlegislationonsexualdiscriminationintheworkplace,agediscrimination,andracialdiscrimination.[p]
Foreignrelations
Mainarticles:ForeignrelationsoftheEuropeanUnion,CommonForeignandSecurityPolicyandEuropeanExternalActionService
ForeignpolicycooperationbetweenmemberstatesdatesfromtheestablishmentoftheCommunityin1957,whenmemberstatesnegotiatedasablocininternationaltradenegotiationsundertheCommonCommercialpolicy.[119]Stepsforamorewiderangingcoordinationinforeignrelationsbeganin1970withtheestablishmentofEuropeanPoliticalCooperationwhichcreatedaninformalconsultationprocessbetweenmemberstateswiththeaimofformingcommonforeignpolicies.Itwasnot,however,until1987whenEuropeanPoliticalCooperationwasintroducedonaformalbasisbytheSingleEuropeanAct.EPCwasrenamedastheCommonForeignandSecurityPolicy(CFSP)bytheMaastrichtTreaty.[120]
TheaimsoftheCFSParetopromoteboththeEU'sowninterestsandthoseoftheinternationalcommunityasawhole,includingthefurtheranceofinternationalcooperation,respectforhumanrights,democracy,andtheruleoflaw.[121]TheCFSPrequiresunanimityamongthememberstatesontheappropriatepolicytofollowonanyparticularissue.TheunanimityanddifficultissuestreatedundertheCFSPsometimesleadtodisagreements,suchasthosewhichoccurredoverthewarinIraq.[122]
ThecoordinatorandrepresentativeoftheCFSPwithintheEUistheHighRepresentativeoftheUnionforForeignAffairsandSecurityPolicy(currentlyFedericaMogherini)whospeaksonbehalfoftheEUinforeignpolicyanddefencematters,andhasthetaskofarticulatingthepositionsexpressedbythememberstatesonthesefieldsofpolicyintoacommonalignment.TheHighRepresentativeheadsuptheEuropeanExternalActionService(EEAS),auniqueEUdepartment[123]thathasbeenofficiallyimplementedandoperationalsince1December2010ontheoccasionofthefirstanniversaryoftheentryintoforceoftheTreatyofLisbon.[124]TheEEASwillserveasaforeignministryanddiplomaticcorpsfortheEuropeanUnion.[125]
-
TheHighRepresentativeoftheUnionforForeignAffairsandSecurityPolicy,FedericaMogherini.
TheEUparticipatesinallG8andG20summits.(G20summitinSeoul)
NATOSummit2006inRiga,Latvia.
AnA400MmilitarytransportaircraftbuiltbyAirbusGroupSE(societasEuropaeaLatin:Europeancompany)
Collectively,theEUisthelargestcontributorofforeignaidintheworld.[139][140]
BesidestheemerginginternationalpolicyoftheEuropeanUnion,theinternationalinfluenceoftheEUisalsofeltthroughenlargement.TheperceivedbenefitsofbecomingamemberoftheEUactasanincentiveforbothpoliticalandeconomicreforminstateswishingtofulfiltheEU'saccessioncriteria,andareconsideredanimportantfactorcontributingtothereformofEuropeanformerlyCommunistcountries.[126]Thisinfluenceontheinternalaffairsofothercountriesisgenerallyreferredtoas"softpower",asopposedtomilitary"hardpower".[127]
Military
Mainarticle:MilitaryoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEuropeanUniondoesnothaveoneunifiedmilitary.ThepredecessorsoftheEuropeanUnionwerenotdevisedasastrongmilitaryalliancebecauseNATOwaslargelyseenasappropriateandsufficientfordefencepurposes.[128]22EUmembersaremembersofNATO[129]whiletheremainingmemberstatesfollowpoliciesofneutrality.[130]TheWesternEuropeanUnion,amilitaryalliancewithamutualdefenceclause,wasdisbandedin2010asitsrolehadbeentransferredtotheEU.[131]
AccordingtotheStockholmInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute(SIPRI),Francespentmorethan44billion($59bn)ondefencein2010,placingitthirdintheworldaftertheUSandChina,whiletheUnitedKingdomspentalmost38billion($58bn),thefourthlargest.[132]Together,FranceandtheUnitedKingdomaccountfor45percentofEurope'sdefencebudget,50percentofitsmilitary
capacityand70percentofallspendinginmilitaryresearchanddevelopment.[133]BritainandFrancearealsoofficiallyrecognisednuclearweaponstatesandaretheonlytwoEuropeannationstoholdpermanentseatsontheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.In2000,theUnitedKingdom,France,Spain,andGermanyaccountedfor97%ofthetotalmilitaryresearchbudgetofthethen15EUmemberstates.[134]
FollowingtheKosovoWarin1999,theEuropeanCouncilagreedthat"theUnionmusthavethecapacityforautonomousaction,backedbycrediblemilitaryforces,themeanstodecidetousethem,andthereadinesstodoso,inordertorespondtointernationalcriseswithoutprejudicetoactionsbyNATO".Tothatend,anumberofeffortsweremadetoincreasetheEU'smilitarycapability,notablytheHelsinkiHeadlineGoalprocess.Aftermuchdiscussion,themostconcreteresultwastheEUBattlegroupsinitiative,eachofwhichisplannedtobeabletodeployquicklyabout1500personnel.[135]
EUforceshavebeendeployedonpeacekeepingmissionsfrommiddleandnorthernAfricatothewesternBalkansandwesternAsia.[136]EUmilitaryoperationsaresupportedbyanumberofbodies,includingtheEuropeanDefenceAgency,EuropeanUnionSatelliteCentreandtheEuropeanUnionMilitaryStaff.[137]InanEUconsistingof28members,substantialsecurityanddefencecooperationisincreasinglyrelyingoncooperationofthegreatpowers.[138]
Humanitarianaid
Furtherinformation:ECHO(EuropeanCommission)
TheEuropeanCommission'sHumanitarianAidandCivilProtectiondepartment,or"ECHO",provideshumanitarianaidfromtheEUtodevelopingcountries.In2012,itsbudgetamountedto874million,51%ofthebudgetwenttoAfricaand20%toAsia,LatinAmerica,theCaribbeanandPacific,and20%totheMiddleEastandMediterranean.[141]
Humanitarianaidisfinanceddirectlybythebudget(70%)aspartofthefinancialinstrumentsforexternalactionandalsobytheEuropeanDevelopmentFund(30%).[142]TheEU'sexternalactionfinancingisdividedinto'geographic'instrumentsand'thematic'instruments.[142]The'geographic'instrumentsprovideaidthroughtheDevelopmentCooperationInstrument(DCI,16.9billion,20072013),whichmustspend95%ofitsbudgetonoverseasdevelopmentassistance(ODA),andfromtheEuropeanNeighbourhoodandPartnershipInstrument(ENPI),whichcontainssomerelevantprogrammes.[142]TheEuropeanDevelopmentFund(EDF,22.7bn,20082013)ismadeupofvoluntarycontributionsbymemberstates,butthereispressuretomergetheEDFintothebudgetfinancedinstrumentstoencourageincreasedcontributionstomatchthe0.7%targetandallowtheEuropeanParliamentgreateroversight.[142]
However,fivecountrieshavereachedthe0.7%target:Sweden,Luxembourg,theNetherlands,DenmarkandtheUnitedKingdom.[143][144]In2011,EUaidwas0.42%oftheEU'sGNImakingittheworld'smostgenerousaiddonor.[145]ThepreviousCommissionerforAid,LouisMichel,hascalledforaidtobedeliveredmorerapidly,togreatereffect,andonhumanitarianprinciples.[146]
-
ThefivelargesteconomiesintheworldaccordingtotheIMFbyGDPin2011.[147]
GDP(inPPS)perinhabitantbyNUTS2regionsin2009.
Economy
Mainarticles:EconomyoftheEuropeanUnionandRegionalpolicyoftheEuropeanUnion
TheEUhasestablishedasinglemarketacrosstheterritoryofallitsmembers.19memberstateshavealsojoinedamonetaryunionknownastheeurozone,whichusestheEuroasasinglecurrency.[148]In2012,theEUhadacombinedGDPof16.073trillionsinternationaldollars,a20%shareoftheglobalgrossdomesticproduct(intermsofpurchasingpowerparity).[149]AccordingtoCreditSuisseGlobalWealthReport2012,theEUownsthelargestnetwealthintheworlditisestimatedtoequal30%ofthe$223trillionglobalwealth.
Ofthetop500largestcorporationsmeasuredbyrevenue(FortuneGlobal500in2010),161havetheirheadquartersintheEU.[150]In2007,unemploymentintheEUstoodat7%[151]whileinvestmentwasat21.4%ofGDP,inflationat2.2%,andcurrentaccountbalanceat0.9%ofGDP(i.e.,slightlymoreimportthanexport).In2012,unemploymentintheEUstood,perAugust2012,at11.4%[151]
ThereisasignificantvarianceforGDP(PPP)percapitawithinindividualEUstates,theserangefrom11,300to69,800(aboutUS$15,700toUS$97,000).[152]Thedifferencebetweentherichestandpoorestregions(271NUTS2regionsoftheNomenclatureofTerritorialUnitsforStatistics)ranged,in2009,from27%oftheEU27averageintheregionofSeverozapadeninBulgaria,to332%oftheaverageinInnerLondonintheUnitedKingdom.Onthehighend,InnerLondonhas78,000PPPpercapita,Luxembourg62,500,andBruxellesCap52,500,whilethepoorestregions,areSeverozapadenwith6,400PPPpercapita,NordEstwith6,900PPPpercapita,Severentsentralenwith6,900andYuzhentsentralenwith7,200.[152]
StructuralFundsandCohesionFundsaresupportingthedevelopmentofunderdevelopedregionsoftheEU.SuchregionsareprimarilylocatedinthestatesofcentralandsouthernEurope.[153][154]Severalfundsprovideemergencyaid,supportforcandidatememberstotransformtheircountrytoconformtotheEU'sstandard(Phare,ISPA,andSAPARD),andsupporttotheformerUSSRCommonwealthofIndependentStates(TACIS).TACIShasnowbecomepartoftheworldwideEuropeAidprogramme.EUresearchandtechnologicalframeworkprogrammessponsorresearchconductedbyconsortiafromallEUmemberstoworktowardsasingleEuropeanResearchArea.[155]
Internalmarket
Mainarticle:Internalmarket
TwooftheoriginalcoreobjectivesoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunitywerethedevelopmentofacommonmarket,subsequentlyrenamedthesinglemarket,andacustomsunionbetweenitsmemberstates.Thesinglemarketinvolvesthefreecirculationofgoods,capital,people,andserviceswithintheEU,[148]andthecustomsunioninvolvestheapplicationofacommonexternaltariffonallgoodsenteringthemarket.Oncegoodshavebeenadmittedintothemarkettheycannotbesubjectedtocustomsduties,discriminatorytaxesorimportquotas,astheytravelinternally.ThenonEUmemberstatesofIceland,Norway,LiechtensteinandSwitzerlandparticipateinthesinglemarketbutnotinthecustomsunion.[59]HalfthetradeintheEUiscoveredbylegislationharmonisedbytheEU.[156]
Freemovementofcapitalisintendedtopermitmovementofinvestmentssuchaspropertypurchasesandbuyingofsharesbetweencountries.[157]Untilthedrivetowardseconomicandmonetaryunionthedevelopmentofthecapitalprovisionshadbeenslow.PostMaastrichttherehasbeenarapidlydevelopingcorpusofECJjudgementsregardingthisinitiallyneglectedfreedom.Thefreemovementofcapitalisuniqueinsofarasitisgrantedequallytononmemberstates.
ThefreemovementofpersonsmeansthatEUcitizenscanmovefreelybetweenmemberstatestolive,work,studyorretireinanothercountry.Thisrequiredtheloweringofadministrativeformalitiesandrecognitionofprofessionalqualificationsofotherstates.[158]
Thefreemovementofservicesandofestablishmentallowsselfemployedpersonstomovebetweenmemberstatestoprovideservicesonatemporaryorpermanentbasis.Whileservicesaccountfor6070%ofGDP,legislationintheareaisnotasdevelopedasinotherareas.ThislacunahasbeenaddressedbytherecentlypassedDirectiveonservicesintheinternalmarketwhichaimstoliberalisethecrossborderprovisionofservices.[159]AccordingtotheTreatytheprovisionofservicesisaresidualfreedomthatonlyappliesifnootherfreedomisbeingexercised.
Competition
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Astandardisedpassportdesign,displayingthenameofthememberstate,thenationalarmsandthewords"EuropeanUnion"givenintheirofficiallanguage(s).(Irishmodel)
TheseatoftheCentralBankinFrankfurt.19ofthe28memberstatesoftheunionhaveadoptedtheeuroastheirlegaltender.
Furtherinformation:EuropeanUnioncompetitionlawandEuropeanCommissionerforCompetition
TheEUoperatesacompetitionpolicyintendedtoensureundistortedcompetitionwithinthesinglemarket.[q]TheCommissionasthecompetitionregulatorforthesinglemarketisresponsibleforantitrustissues,approvingmergers,breakingupcartels,workingforeconomicliberalisationandpreventingstateaid.[160]
TheCompetitionCommissioner,currentlyJoaqunAlmunia,isoneofthemostpowerfulpositionsintheCommission,notablefortheabilitytoaffectthecommercialinterestsoftransnationalcorporations.[161]Forexample,in2001theCommissionforthefirsttimepreventedamergerbetweentwocompaniesbasedintheUnitedStates(GEandHoneywell)whichhadalreadybeenapprovedbytheirnationalauthority.[162]AnotherhighprofilecaseagainstMicrosoft,resultedintheCommissionfiningMicrosoftover777millionfollowingnineyearsoflegalaction.[163]
Monetaryunion
Mainarticles:EurozoneandEconomicandMonetaryUnionoftheEuropeanUnion
ThecreationofaEuropeansinglecurrencybecameanofficialobjectiveoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunityin1969.In1992,afterhavingnegotiatedthestructureandproceduresofacurrencyunion,thememberstatessignedtheMaastrichtTreatyandwerelegallyboundtofulfilltheagreedonrulesincludingtheconvergencecriteriaiftheywantedtojointhemonetaryunion.ThestateswantingtoparticipatehadfirsttojointheEuropeanExchangeRateMechanism.
In1999thecurrencyunionstarted,firstasanaccountingcurrencywithelevenmemberstatesjoining.In2002,thecurrencywasfullyputintoplace,wheneuronotesandcoinswereissuedandnationalcurrenciesbegantophaseoutintheeurozone,whichbythenconsistedof12memberstates.Theeurozone(constitutedbytheEUmemberstateswhichhaveadoptedtheeuro)hassincegrownto19countries,themostrecentbeingLithuaniawhichjoinedon1January2015.Denmark,theUnitedKingdom,andSwedendecidednottojointheeuro.[164][r]
Sinceitslaunchtheeurohasbecomethesecondreservecurrencyintheworldwithaquarterofforeignexchangesreservesbeingineuro.[165]Theeuro,andthemonetarypoliciesofthosewhohaveadopteditinagreementwiththeEU,areunderthecontroloftheEuropeanCentralBank(ECB).[166]
TheECBisthecentralbankfortheeurozone,andthuscontrolsmonetarypolicyinthatareawithanagendatomaintainpricestability.ItisatthecentreoftheEuropeanSystemofCentralBanks,whichcomprehendsallEUnationalcentralbanksandiscontrolledbyitsGeneralCouncil,consistingofthePresidentoftheECB,whoisappointedbytheEuropeanCouncil,theVicePresidentoftheECB,andthegovernorsofthenationalcentralbanksofall28EUmemberstates.[167]
TheEuropeanSystemofFinancialSupervisionisaninstitutionalarchitectureoftheEU'sframeworkoffinancialsupervisioncomposedbythreeauthorities:theEuropeanBankingAuthority,theEuropeanInsuranceandOccupationalPensionsAuthorityandtheEuropeanSecuritiesandMarketsAuthority.Tocomplementthisframework,thereisalsoaEuropeanSystemicRiskBoardundertheresponsibilityoftheECB.TheaimofthisfinancialcontrolsystemistoensuretheeconomicstabilityoftheEU.[168]
Topreventthejoiningstatesfromgettingintofinancialtroubleorcrisisafterenteringthemonetaryunion,theywereobligedintheMaastrichttreatytofulfillimportantfinancialobligationsandprocedures,especiallytoshowbudgetarydisciplineandahighdegreeofsustainableeconomicconvergence,aswellastoavoidexcessivegovernmentdeficitsandlimitthegovernmentdebttoasustainablelevel.
Somestatesjoinedtheeurobutviolatedtheserulesandcontractstoanextentthattheyslidintoadebtcrisisandhadtobefinanciallysupportedwithemergencyrescuefunds.ThesestateswereGreece,Ireland,Portugal,CyprusandSpain.
EventhoughtheMaastrichttreatyforbidseurozonestatestoassumethedebtsofotherstates("bailout"),variousemergencyrescuefundshadbeencreatedbythememberstosupportthedebtcrisisstatestomeettheirfinancialobligationsandbuytimeforreformsthatthosestatescangainbacktheircompetitiveness.
Energy
Mainarticle:EnergypolicyoftheEuropeanUnion
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Consumedenergy(2012)[169]
Renewable(dom.prod.)(7%) Nuclear[s](dom.prod.)
(13%) Coalandlignite(dom.prod.)
(10%) Gas(dom.prod.)(9%)
Gas(import)(14%)
Oil(dom.prod.)(6%)
Oil(import)(33%)
Other(dom.prod.)(1%)
Other(import)(7%)TheresundBridgebetweenDenmarkandSwedenispartoftheTransEuropeanNetworks.
In2006,theEU27hadagrossinlandenergyconsumptionof1,825milliontonnesofoilequivalent(toe).[170]Around46%oftheenergyconsumedwasproducedwithinthememberstateswhile54%wasimported.[170]Inthesestatistics,nuclearenergyistreatedasprimaryenergyproducedintheEU,regardlessofthesourceoftheuranium,ofwhichlessthan3%isproducedintheEU.[171]
TheEUhashadlegislativepowerintheareaofenergypolicyformostofitsexistencethishasitsrootsintheoriginalEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity.TheintroductionofamandatoryandcomprehensiveEuropeanenergypolicywasapprovedatthemeetingoftheEuropeanCouncilinOctober2005,andthefirstdraftpolicywaspublishedinJanuary2007.[172]
TheEUhasfivekeypointsinitsenergypolicy:increasecompetitionintheinternalmarket,encourageinvestmentandboostinterconnectionsbetweenelectricitygridsdiversifyenergyresourceswithbettersystemstorespondtoacrisisestablishanewtreatyframeworkforenergycooperationwithRussiawhileimprovingrelationswithenergyrichstatesinCentralAsia[173]
andNorthAfricauseexistingenergysuppliesmoreefficientlywhileincreasingrenewableenergycommercialisationandfinallyincreasefundingfornewenergytechnologies.[172]
TheEUcurrentlyimports82%ofitsoil,57%ofitsnaturalgas[174]and97.48%ofitsuranium[171]demands.ThereareconcernsthatEurope'sdependenceonRussianenergyisendangeringtheUnionanditsmembercountries.TheEUisattemptingtodiversifyitsenergysupply.[175]
Infrastructure
Furtherinformation:EuropeanCommissionerforTransport,EuropeanCommissionerforIndustryandEntrepreneurshipandEuropeanInvestmentBank
TheEUisworkingtoimprovecrossborderinfrastructurewithintheEU,forexamplethroughtheTransEuropeanNetworks(TEN).ProjectsunderTENincludetheChannelTunnel,LGVEst,theFrjusRailTunnel,theresundBridge,theBrennerBaseTunnelandtheStraitofMessinaBridge.In2001itwasestimatedthatby2010thenetworkwouldcover:75,200kilometres(46,700mi)ofroads78,000kilometres(48,000mi)ofrailways330airports270maritimeharboursand210internalharbours.[176][177]
ThedevelopingEuropeantransportpolicieswillincreasethepressureontheenvironmentinmanyregionsbytheincreasedtransportnetwork.Inthepre2004EUmembers,themajorproblemintransportdealswithcongestionandpollution.Aftertherecentenlargement,thenewstatesthatjoinedsince2004addedtheproblemofsolvingaccessibilitytothetransportagenda.[178]ThePolishroadnetworkinparticularwasinpoorcondition:atPoland'saccessiontotheEU,anumberofroadsneededtobeupgraded,particularlytheA4autostrada,requiringapproximately13billion.[179][180]
TheGalileopositioningsystemisanotherEUinfrastructureproject.GalileoisaproposedSatellitenavigationsystem,tobebuiltbytheEUandlaunchedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA),andistobeoperationalby2012.TheGalileoprojectwaslaunchedpartlytoreducetheEU'sdependencyontheUSoperatedGlobal
PositioningSystem,butalsotogivemorecompleteglobalcoverageandallowforfargreateraccuracy,giventheagednatureoftheGPSsystem.[181]Ithasbeencriticisedbysomeduetocosts,delays,andtheirperceptionofredundancygiventheexistenceoftheGPSsystem.[182]
Agriculture
Mainarticle:CommonAgriculturalPolicy
TheCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)isoneoftheoldestpoliciesoftheEuropeanCommunity,andwasoneofitscoreaims.[183]Thepolicyhastheobjectivesofincreasingagriculturalproduction,providingcertaintyinfoodsupplies,ensuringahighqualityoflifeforfarmers,stabilisingmarkets,andensuringreasonablepricesforconsumers.[t]Itwas,untilrecently,operatedbyasystemofsubsidiesandmarketintervention.Untilthe1990s,thepolicyaccountedforover60%ofthethenEuropeanCommunity'sannualbudget,andstillaccountsforaround34%.[184]
Thepolicy'spricecontrolsandmarketinterventionsledtoconsiderableoverproduction,resultinginsocalledbuttermountainsandwinelakes.ThesewereinterventionstoresofproductsboughtupbytheCommunitytomaintainminimumpricelevels.Todisposeofsurplusstores,theywereoftensoldontheworldmarketatpricesconsiderablybelowCommunityguaranteedprices,orfarmerswereofferedsubsidies(amountingtothedifferencebetweentheCommunityandworldprices)toexporttheirproductsoutsidetheCommunity.ThissystemhasbeencriticisedforundercuttingfarmersoutsideEurope,especiallythoseinthedevelopingworld.[185]
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VineyardsinRomaniaEUfarmsaresupportedbytheCAP,thelargestbudgetaryexpenditure.
Theoverproductionhasalsobeencriticisedforencouragingenvironmentallyunfriendlyintensivefarmingmethods.[185]SupportersofCAPsaythattheeconomicsupportwhichitgivestofarmersprovidesthemwithareasonablestandardofliving,inwhatwouldotherwisebeaneconomicallyunviablewayoflife.However,theEU'ssmallfarmersreceiveonly8%ofCAP'savailablesubsidies.[185]
Sincethebeginningofthe1990s,theCAPhasbeensubjecttoaseriesofreforms.Initially,thesereformsincludedtheintroductionofsetasidein1988,whereaproportionoffarmlandwasdeliberatelywithdrawnfromproduction,milkquotas(bytheMcSharryreformsin1992)and,morerecently,the'decoupling'(ordisassociation)ofthemoneyfarmersreceivefromtheEUandtheamounttheyproduce(bytheFischlerreformsin2004).Agricultureexpenditurewillmoveawayfromsubsidypaymentslinkedtospecificproduce,towarddirectpaymentsbasedonfarmsize.Thisisintendedtoallowthemarkettodictateproductionlevels,whilemaintainingagriculturalincomelevels.[183]OneofthesereformsentailedtheabolitionoftheEU'ssugarregime,whichpreviouslydividedthesugarmarketbetweenmemberstatesandcertainAfricanCaribbeannationswithaprivilegedrelationshipwiththeEU.[152]
Demographics
Mainarticles:DemographicsoftheEuropeanUnionandLargestpopulationcentresintheEuropeanUnion
Asof1January2015,thepopulationoftheEUisabout508.2millionpeople.[7]
TheEUcontains16citieswithpopulationsofoveronemillion,thelargestbeingLondon.
Besidesmanylargecities,theEUalsoincludesseveraldenselypopulatedregionsthathavenosinglecorebuthaveemergedfromtheconnectionofseveralcitesandnowencompasslargemetropolitanareas.ThelargestareRhineRuhrhavingapproximately11.5millioninhabitants(Cologne,Dortmund,Dsseldorfetal.),Randstadapprox.7million(Amsterdam,Rotterdam,TheHague,Utrechtetal.),FrankfurtRhineMainMetropolitanRegionapprox.5.8million(Frankfurt,Wiesbadenetal.),theFlemishDiamondapprox.5.5million(urbanareainbetweenAntwerp,Brussels,LeuvenandGhent),KatowiceanditsUpperSilesianmetropolitanareaapprox.5.3millionandtheresundRegionapprox.3.7million(Copenhagen,DenmarkandMalm,Sweden).[188]
In2010,47.3millionpeoplelivedintheEU,whowerebornoutsidetheirresidentcountry.Thiscorrespondsto9.4%ofthetotalEUpopulation.Ofthese,31.4million(6.3%)werebornoutsidetheEUand16.0million(3.2%)wereborninanotherEUmemberstate.ThelargestabsolutenumbersofpeoplebornoutsidetheEUwereinGermany(6.4million),France(5.1million),theUnitedKingdom(4.7million),Spain(4.1million),Italy(3.2million),andtheNetherlands(1.4million).[189]
Vitalstatisticsinrecentyears[190][191](inthousands)
Year Population Livebirths Deaths Naturalchange
Netmigration
Totalchange
2012 505730.5 5231,1 10.4 5013,9 9.9 217,3 0.4 882,2 1099,52013 507416.6 5075,7 10.0 4999,2 9.9 76,5 0.1 653,1 729,6
Languages
Mainarticle:LanguagesoftheEuropeanUnion
AmongthemanylanguagesanddialectsusedintheEU,ithas24officialandworkinglanguages:Bulgarian,Croatian,Czech,Danish,Dutch,English,Estonian,Finnish,French,German,Greek,Hungarian,Italian,Irish,Latvian,Lithuanian,Maltese,Polish,Portuguese,Romanian,Slovak,Slovene,Spanish,andSwedish.[195][196]Importantdocuments,suchaslegislation,aretranslatedintoeveryofficiallanguage.
-
Language Nativespeakers Total
English 13% 51%German 16% 27%French 12% 24%Italian 13% 16%Spanish 8% 15%Polish 8% 9%Romanian 5% 5%Dutch 4% 5%Greek 3% 4%Hungarian 3% 3%Portuguese 2% 3%Czech 2% 3%Swedish 2% 3%Bulgarian 2% 2%Slovak 1% 2%Danish 1% 1%Finnish 1% 1%Lithuanian 1% 1%Croatian 1% 1%Slovenian
-
SelfdescribedreligionintheEuropeanUnion(2012)[206]
Catholic(48%)
Protestant(12%)
Orthodox(8%)
OtherChristian(4%)
Nonbeliever/Agnostic(16%)
Atheist(7%)
Muslim(2%)
Otherreligion/Nonestated(3%)
ErasmusProgrammelogo,representingthehumanistDesideriusErasmusofRotterdam.
EuropeanHealthInsuranceCard.(Frenchversionpictured)
AcropolisandColosseum,symbolsoftheGraecoRomanworld
BasiceducationisanareawheretheEU'sroleislimitedtosupportingnationalgovernments.Inhighereducation,thepolicywasdevelopedinthe1980sinprogrammessupportingexchangesandmobility.ThemostvisibleofthesehasbeentheErasmusProgramme,auniversityexchangeprogrammewhichbeganin1987.Initsfirst20years,ithassupportedinternationalexchangeopportunitiesforwellover1.5millionuniversityandcollegestudentsandhasbecomeasymbolofEuropeanstudentlife.[214]
Therearenowsimilarprogrammesforschoolpupilsandteachers,fortraineesinvocationaleducationandtraining,andforadultlearnersintheLifelongLearningProgramme20072013.TheseprogrammesaredesignedtoencourageawiderknowledgeofothercountriesandtospreadgoodpracticesintheeducationandtrainingfieldsacrosstheEU.[215][216]ThroughitssupportoftheBolognaProcess,theEUissupportingcomparablestandardsandcompatibledegreesacrossEurope.
ScientificdevelopmentisfacilitatedthroughtheEU'sFrameworkProgrammes,thefirstofwhichstartedin1984.TheaimsofEUpolicyinthisareaaretocoordinateandstimulateresearch.TheindependentEuropeanResearchCouncilallocatesEUfundstoEuropeanornationalresearchprojects.[217]EUresearchandtechnologicalframeworkprogrammesdealinanumberofareas,forexampleenergywhereitaimstodevelopadiversemixofrenewableenergyfortheenvironmentandtoreducedependenceonimportedfuels.[218]
Healthcare
Furtherinformation:HealthcareinEurope
AlthoughtheEUhasnomajorcompetencesinthefieldofhealthcare,Article35oftheCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnionaffirmsthat"AhighlevelofhumanhealthprotectionshallbeensuredinthedefinitionandimplementationofallUnionpoliciesandactivities".Allthememberstateshaveeitherpubliclysponsoredandregulateduniversalhealthcareorpubliclyprovideduniversalhealthcare.TheEuropeanCommission'sDirectorateGeneralforHealthandConsumersseekstoalignnationallawsontheprotectionofpeople'shealth,ontheconsumers'rights,onthesafetyoffoodandotherproducts.[219][220][221]
HealthcareintheEUisprovidedthroughawiderangeofdifferentsystemsrunatthenationallevel.Thesystemsareprimarilypubliclyfundedthroughtaxation(universalhealthcare).Privatefundingforhealthcaremayrepresentpersonalcontributionstowardsmeetingthenontaxpayerrefundedportionofhealthcareormayreflecttotallyprivate(nonsubsidised)health
careeitherpaidoutofpocketormetbysomeformofpersonaloremployerfundedinsurance.
AllEUandmanyotherEuropeancountriesoffertheircitizensafreeEuropeanHealthInsuranceCardwhich,onareciprocalbasis,providesinsuranceforemergencymedicaltreatmentinsurancewhenvisitingotherparticipatingEuropeancountries.[222]AdirectiveoncrossborderhealthcareaimsatpromotingcooperationonhealthcarebetweenmemberstatesandfacilitatingaccesstosafeandhighqualitycrossborderhealthcareforEuropeanpatients.[223][224][225]
Culture
Mainarticles:CultureofEurope,WesterncultureandCulturalpoliciesoftheEuropeanUnion
CulturalcooperationbetweenmemberstateshasbeenaconcernoftheEUsinceitsinclusionasacommunitycompetencyintheMaastrichtTreaty.[226]ActionstakenintheculturalareabytheEUincludetheCulture20007year
programme,[226]theEuropeanCulturalMonthevent,[227]theMEDIAProgramme,[228]orchestrassuchastheEuropeanUnionYouthOrchestra[229]andtheEuropeanCapitalofCultureprogrammewhereoneormorecitiesintheEUareselectedforoneyeartoassisttheculturaldevelopmentofthatcity.[230]
Sport
Mainarticles:SportpoliciesoftheEuropeanUnionandSportinEurope
-
Clockwisefromtopleft:TheEuropeanflagseenattheoccasionofthe2004enlargementthereliquarybustofCharlemagne(c.1350)Europaandthebull,depictedasthepersonificationofEuropeina1700mapbyFredericusdeWit.
SportismainlytheresponsibilityofanindividualmemberstatesorotherinternationalorganisationsratherthanthatoftheEU.However,therearesomeEUpoliciesthathavehadanimpactonsport,suchasthefreemovementofworkerswhichwasatthecoreoftheBosmanruling,whichprohibitednationalfootballleaguesfromimposingquotasonforeignplayerswithEuropeancitizenship.[231]TheTreatyofLisbonrequiresanyapplicationofeconomicrulestotakeintoaccountthespecificnatureofsportanditsstructuresbasedonvoluntaryactivity.[232]ThisfollowedlobbyingbygoverningorganisationssuchastheInternationalOlympicCommitteeandFIFA,duetoobjectionsovertheapplicationsoffreemarketprinciplestosportwhichledtoanincreasinggapbetweenrichandpoorclubs.[233]TheEUdoesfundaprogrammeforIsraeli,Jordanian,Irish,andBritishfootballcoaches,aspartoftheFootball4Peaceproject.[234]
Symbols
Mainarticle:SymbolsofEurope
Theflagoftheunionconsistsofacircleof12goldenstarsonabluefield.Thebluerepresentsthewest,whilethenumberandpositionofthestarsrepresentcompletenessandunity,respectively.[235]Originallydesignedin1955fortheCouncilofEurope,theflagwasadoptedbytheEuropeanCommunities,thepredecessorsofthepresentunion,in1986.UnitedinDiversitywasadoptedasthemottooftheunionintheyear2000,havingbeenselectedfromproposalssubmittedbyschoolpupils.[236]Since1985,theflagdayoftheunionhasbeenEuropeDay,on9May,i.e.thedateofthe1950Schumandeclaration.TheanthemoftheunionisaninstrumentalversionofthepreludetotheOdetoJoy,the4thmovementofLudwigvanBeethoven'sninthsymphony.TheanthemwasadoptedbyEuropeanCommunityleadersin1985andhassincebeenplayedonofficialoccasions.[237]
Besidesnamingthecontinent,theGreekmythologicalfigureofEuropahasfrequentlybeenemployedasapersonificationofEurope.KnownfromthemythinwhichZeusseducesherintheguiseofawhitebull,Europahasalsobeenreferredtoinrelationtothepresentunion.StatuesofEuropaandthebulldecorateseveraloftheUnion'sinstitutions,andaportraitofherisseenonthe2013seriesofEurobanknotes.Thebullisforitspartdepictedonallresidencepermitcards.[238]
CharlestheGreat,alsoknownasCharlemagne(Latin:CarolusMagnus),establishedanempirethatrepresentedthemostexpansiveEuropeanunificationsincetheRomanera,andtherebyfoundedwhatbecametheFrenchandGermanmonarchies.[239][239][240][241][242]KnownasPaterEuropae(FatherofEurope),[239][243]heenjoyedanimportantafterlifeinEuropeanculture.ThepresentsymbolicrelevanceofCharlemagnepertainstohisembodimentofFrancoGermanrelations,onwhichEuropeanintegrationrelies.TheCommissionhasnamedoneofitscentralbuildingsinBrusselsafterCharlemagne,andtheGermancityofAachenhassince1949awardedtheCharlemagnePrizetochampionsofEuropeanunification.[244]Since2008,theorganisersofthisprize,inconjunctionwiththeEuropeanParliament,haveawardedtheCharlemagneYouthPrizeinrecognitionofsimilareffortsbyyoungpeople.[245]
ReligioussymbolsofEuropeanditsintegrationincludeSaintBenedict,whoin1964wasnamedpatronsaintofEuropebyPopePaulVI,andSaintHedwig,whoin1997wascanonisedaspatronsaintofEuropeanunificationbyPopeJohnPaulII.[246][247]
Seealso
OutlineoftheEuropeanUnionEuropeanUnionWikipediabook
Notesa. Notincludingoverseasterritoriesb. .euisrepresentativeofthewholeoftheEUmemberstatesalsohavetheirownTLDs.c. ThisfigureincludestheextraEuropeanterritoriesofmemberstateswhicharepartoftheEuropeanUnionandexcludestheEuropeanterritoriesofmemberstateswhicharenotpartoftheUnion.FormoreinformationseeSpecialmemberstate
territoriesandtheEuropeanUnion.d. OnOctober3,1990,theconstituentstatesoftheformerGermanDemocraticRepublicaccededtotheFederalRepublicofGermany,automaticallybecomingpartoftheEU.e. ReferredtobytheEUasthe"formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia".f. SeeArticle288(exArticle249TEC)oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion,oneurlex.europa.eu(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)
-
g. AccordingtotheprincipleofDirectEffectfirstinvokedintheCourtofJustice'sdecisioninVanGendenLoosvNederlandseAdministratiederBelastingen,EurLex(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:NOT)(EuropeanCourtofJustice1963).See:CraiganddeBrca,ch.5.
h. AccordingtotheprincipleofSupremacyasestablishedbytheECJinCase6/64,FalminioCostav.ENEL[1964]ECR585.SeeCraiganddeBrca,ch.7.Seealso:Factortamelitigation:FactortameLtd.v.SecretaryofStateforTransport(No.2)[1991]1AC603,SolangeII(ReWuenscheHandelsgesellschaft,BVerfGdecisionof22October1986[1987]3CMLR225,265)andFrontiniv.MinisterodelleFinanze[1974]2CMLR372RaoulGeorgeNicolo[1990]1CMLR173.
i. ItiseffectivelytreatedasoneoftheCopenhagencriteria,Assembly.coe.int.(http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1610.htm)Itshouldbenotedthatthisisapoliticalandnotalegalrequirementformembership.
j. TheEuropeanConventiononHumanRightswaspreviouslyonlyopentomembersoftheCouncilofEurope(Article59.1oftheConvention(http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm)),andevennowonlystatesmaybecomememberoftheCouncilofEurope(Article4oftheStatuteoftheCouncilofEurope(http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/001.htm)).
k. Opinion(2/92)oftheEuropeanCourtofJusticeon"AccessionbytheCommunitytotheEuropeanConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms"1996E.C.R.I1759(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61994V0002:FR:NOT)(inFrench),ruledthattheEuropeanCommunitydidnothavethecompetencetoaccedetotheECHR.
l. See:Case34/73,Variolav.AmministrazionedelleFinanze[1973]ECR981(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61973J0034:EN:NOT).m. Todootherwisewouldrequirethedraftingoflegislationwhichwouldhavetocopewiththefrequentlydivergentlegalsystemsandadministrativesystemsofallofthenow28memberstates.SeeCraiganddeBrca,p.115n. SeeArticles157(exArticle141)oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion,oneurlex.europa.eu(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0013:0046:EN:PDF)o. SeeArticle2(7)oftheAmsterdamTreatyoneurlex.europa.eu(http://eurlex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11997D/htm/11997D.html#0001010001)p. CouncilDirective2000/43/ECof29June2000implementingtheprincipleofequaltreatmentbetweenpersonsirrespectiveofracialorethnicorigin(OJL180,19July2000,p.2226)CouncilDirective2000/78/ECof27November2000
establishingageneralframeworkforequaltreatmentinemploymentandoccupation(OJL303,2December2000,p.1622).q. Article3(1)(g)oftheTreatyofRomer. InordertomeettheeuroconvergencecriteriaitisnecessaryfirsttojointheEuropeanExchangeRateMechanism,somethingSwedenhasdeclinedtodo:"ERMII".DanishFinanceMinistry.20March2009.Retrieved26December2009.s. NotethatalthoughalmostallUraniumisimported,
NuclearPowerisconsideredprimaryenergyproducedintheEUt. Article39(exArticle33)oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion,oneurlex.europa.eu(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)u. SeeArticles165and166(exArticles149and150)oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion,oneurlex.europa.eu(http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)
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