EUROPE IN UPHEAVAL, EUROPE IN UPHEAVAL,

1850-19141850-1914

After the Revolutionary changes/idealism of the early 19th After the Revolutionary changes/idealism of the early 19th century, Europe began to follow a more pragmatic century, Europe began to follow a more pragmatic (practical) course…Congress of Vienna… (practical) course…Congress of Vienna… determined by both Conservative politicians and reformersdetermined by both Conservative politicians and reformers

to varying degrees, they would play a key role in one to varying degrees, they would play a key role in one of the period’s more significant developments: the of the period’s more significant developments: the Rise of the Rise of the Nation-StateNation-State

the force behind this was the force behind this was nationalismnationalism, especially as it was , especially as it was harnessed by individual philosophers and politiciansharnessed by individual philosophers and politicians

““new” new” nationsnations would be created, and eventually would be created, and eventually the forces that would lead to World War I would be the forces that would lead to World War I would be unleashedunleashed– the nationalism of this period would incorporate not the nationalism of this period would incorporate not

only territory, population, and military capacity; it would only territory, population, and military capacity; it would also include an economic dimension…brought on by also include an economic dimension…brought on by imperialismimperialism

FRANCEFRANCE

No longer a monarchy, but a republic No longer a monarchy, but a republic – but – but Louis-Napoleon Louis-Napoleon (Bonaparte) (Bonaparte) was an autocratic figure whose use was an autocratic figure whose use of nationalism threatened this of nationalism threatened this balancebalance

Louis-Napoleon had emerged as a Louis-Napoleon had emerged as a compromise figure in the ongoing compromise figure in the ongoing dispute between the monarchists dispute between the monarchists and the republicansand the republicans– he served as president (in the he served as president (in the

Second RepublicSecond Republic) and later took ) and later took the title of emperor, ruling as the title of emperor, ruling as Napoleon IIINapoleon III over the over the Second Second EmpireEmpire

As president of the 2nd Republic, Louis- As president of the 2nd Republic, Louis- Napoleon had to contend with being limited to Napoleon had to contend with being limited to one 4 year term…one 4 year term…he and the monarchists wanted to extend his he and the monarchists wanted to extend his rule, leading to a coup d’etatrule, leading to a coup d’etat

– the Assembly was dissolved, the Assembly was dissolved, –universal male suffrage was introduced (with universal male suffrage was introduced (with

a property qualification), a property qualification), – leading radicals were arrested, and the army leading radicals were arrested, and the army

occupied Paris, killing 200 rioters in the occupied Paris, killing 200 rioters in the process…process…

–Louis then proclaimed himself emperor and Louis then proclaimed himself emperor and promised to restore democratic rights, promised to restore democratic rights, including a series of including a series of plebiscitesplebiscites where the where the people supported himpeople supported him

– He was able to do this as the He was able to do this as the economy was prosperous, with …economy was prosperous, with …

– railroad constructionrailroad construction– high employmenthigh employment– available creditavailable credit– government assistance/planning government assistance/planning

(seen in the re-design of Paris by (seen in the re-design of Paris by HaussmanHaussman))

– By the 1860s, discontent was on By the 1860s, discontent was on the rise, because of political the rise, because of political scandals; scandals;

– Napoleon III responded with Napoleon III responded with democratic reforms (responsible democratic reforms (responsible government, free speech, government, free speech, unions…) unions…)

– that kept his popularity highthat kept his popularity high

Napoleon III did have military Napoleon III did have military ambitions: ambitions: in 1854, he sought to protect in 1854, he sought to protect Christians in the Ottoman Christians in the Ottoman Empire, challenging Russia in Empire, challenging Russia in the process…the process…the main thing the the main thing the Crimean WarCrimean War did was to presage what future did was to presage what future wars would become…please wars would become…please checkout the poem I’ve included.checkout the poem I’ve included.it also showed the influence of it also showed the influence of war correspondents and the war correspondents and the need for better medicine…need for better medicine…Florence NightingaleFlorence Nightingale; ; and since Russia fared poorly, and since Russia fared poorly, France was able to re-establish France was able to re-establish itself as the center of European itself as the center of European diplomacy.diplomacy.

ITALYITALY

one of the “new” nations one of the “new” nations united in this period – it united in this period – it combined idealistic combined idealistic nationalism, population, nationalism, population, uprising, uprising, realpolitikrealpolitik and and took place in spite of took place in spite of opposition from the opposition from the pope and Austriapope and Austriathis movement, known this movement, known as the as the RisorgimentoRisorgimento, , had been around since had been around since the early 19th c. and the early 19th c. and had been kept alive by had been kept alive by secret societies known secret societies known as as carbonaricarbonari

– their early uprisings failed, their early uprisings failed, leading to the rise of leading to the rise of Giuseppe MazziniGiuseppe Mazzini – he – he founded a Young Italy founded a Young Italy society and dreamed of a society and dreamed of a unified Italy based on unified Italy based on nationalism and liberalismnationalism and liberalism

after a series of uprisings, after a series of uprisings, Mazzini est. himself as pres. of Mazzini est. himself as pres. of a republic in Rome: when a republic in Rome: when Austrian and Fr. troops tried to Austrian and Fr. troops tried to intervene to restore the pope, intervene to restore the pope, Giuseppe GaribaldiGiuseppe Garibaldi and his and his Red ShirtsRed Shirts tried to defend the tried to defend the city (they had to surrender in city (they had to surrender in 1849)1849)

the more seasoned politician the more seasoned politician Camillo CavourCamillo Cavour stepped forward, stepped forward, using using realpolitikrealpolitik to secure Italy to secure Italy unity – he cheated in elections, unity – he cheated in elections, made and unmade foreign alliances, made and unmade foreign alliances, and put It. unification on the agenda and put It. unification on the agenda of the of the 1856 Paris Peace Conference1856 Paris Peace Conference (he was partially successful)(he was partially successful)

at this point, Garibaldi and his at this point, Garibaldi and his remaining 1000 Red Shirts (remaining 1000 Red Shirts (i millei mille) ) captured Sicily and s. Italy, meeting captured Sicily and s. Italy, meeting w/ Cavour in 1861 to secure the w/ Cavour in 1861 to secure the Kingdom of Italy under Kingdom of Italy under King VictorKing Victor--Emmanuel IIEmmanuel II (constitutional (constitutional monarchy) in 1866 Venice was monarchy) in 1866 Venice was added (It. supported Pr. in its war w/ added (It. supported Pr. in its war w/ Aus.) and in 1870 Rome was added Aus.) and in 1870 Rome was added when Nap. III removed Fr. troops to when Nap. III removed Fr. troops to fight Pr….Rome then became the fight Pr….Rome then became the capitalcapital

GERMANYGERMANY

RomanticismRomanticism + + RealpolitikRealpolitik Liberal nationalists had worked for a unified Germany since Liberal nationalists had worked for a unified Germany since

18151815 The nation states under Prussia created an economic union in The nation states under Prussia created an economic union in

1834 – the 1834 – the ZollvereinZollverein (customs union) – led to economic (customs union) – led to economic independence, and railroad expansion; the belief that a unified state independence, and railroad expansion; the belief that a unified state

was needed began to be recognizedwas needed began to be recognized

The debate was The debate was between the “between the “Greater Greater GermansGermans” (who wanted ” (who wanted Austria included) and Austria included) and the “the “Lesser GermansLesser Germans” ” (who were pro-Prussia) (who were pro-Prussia)

at this point, at this point, Count Otto Count Otto von Bismarckvon Bismarck established himself as established himself as the leading Prussian the leading Prussian politician – known for politician – known for his use of his use of realpolitikrealpolitik in in achieving his political achieving his political goals (“goals (“blood and ironblood and iron”)”)

– All Bismarck needed was an All Bismarck needed was an excuse: Denmark gave him one excuse: Denmark gave him one when it put a claim on the when it put a claim on the regions of regions of Schleswig and Schleswig and HolsteinHolstein – both Austria and – both Austria and Prussia quickly defeated them Prussia quickly defeated them (and the Prussian army, armed (and the Prussian army, armed by by Krupp,Krupp, established its established its reputation)reputation)

– He then proposed the re-org. of He then proposed the re-org. of the German Confederation the German Confederation based on universal suffrage; he based on universal suffrage; he knew this would be rejected in knew this would be rejected in Austria and that it would Austria and that it would probably lead to war between probably lead to war between Prussia and Austria.Prussia and Austria.

The Prussian army, with its The Prussian army, with its weaponry and led by Gen. weaponry and led by Gen. Helmuth von MoltkeHelmuth von Moltke, won , won the Austria-Prussian. War in the Austria-Prussian. War in 7 wks….Bismarck. 7 wks….Bismarck. negotiated a lenient peace negotiated a lenient peace and created a new German and created a new German Confederation under Confederation under Prussian leadership Prussian leadership (Prussian (Prussian Kaiser Wilhelm IKaiser Wilhelm I acted as king)acted as king)Other southern German Other southern German states, such as Bavaria, states, such as Bavaria, signed a military alliance signed a military alliance with Prussia and went on to with Prussia and went on to develop closer economic develop closer economic and political relations and political relations (Austria was pushed out)(Austria was pushed out)The main threat to emerging The main threat to emerging German unity was France, German unity was France, where Nap. III had won a key where Nap. III had won a key plebiscite in 1870plebiscite in 1870

– this would lead to the this would lead to the Franco-Franco-Prussian WarPrussian War

it began as a diplomatic it began as a diplomatic dispute over succession to dispute over succession to the Spanish throne (Prussia the Spanish throne (Prussia and Spain still had family and Spain still had family connections)…the France connections)…the France feared being surrounded feared being surrounded and newspapers in both and newspapers in both Prussia and France Prussia and France inflamed nationalist inflamed nationalist emotionsemotions

– Prussia did remove Prussia did remove their candidate to the their candidate to the Spanish throne, but the Spanish throne, but the French made additional French made additional demands (that Prussia demands (that Prussia wouldn’t try this again), wouldn’t try this again), which Bismarck edited which Bismarck edited and released to the and released to the press…with France press…with France “honour” sullied, Nap. “honour” sullied, Nap. III declared war in 1870III declared war in 1870

– Prussia won within Prussia won within months…1/2 million months…1/2 million troops were moved to troops were moved to the front by train and at the front by train and at SedanSedan they captured they captured 100,000 French troops 100,000 French troops and Napoleon III…and Napoleon III…

– this, combined with the this, combined with the brutal siege of Paris, led brutal siege of Paris, led to the collapse of the to the collapse of the 2nd Empire2nd Empire

In the 1871 In the 1871 Treaty of Treaty of FrankfurtFrankfurt, France , France ceded ceded Alsace-Alsace-LorraineLorraine, paid , paid reparations, and reparations, and dealt with Prussian dealt with Prussian occupation for 3 occupation for 3 years.years.HUMILIATING!!!HUMILIATING!!!

LATE VICTORIAN BRITAIN, 1867-1914: LATE VICTORIAN BRITAIN, 1867-1914: DISRAELI AND GLADSTONEDISRAELI AND GLADSTONE

democracy has been democracy has been entrenched by this time, and entrenched by this time, and the extension of the franchise the extension of the franchise was an accepted part of the was an accepted part of the processprocess– in 1867, the in 1867, the 2nd Reform Bill2nd Reform Bill

was passed by the was passed by the government of the government of the Conservative (Tory) Conservative (Tory) Benjamin DisraeliBenjamin Disraeli

with this, working class with this, working class male householders were male householders were given suffragegiven suffrage

– in 1884, a in 1884, a 3rd Reform Bill3rd Reform Bill went through under the went through under the Liberal Liberal William GladstoneWilliam Gladstone, , extending the franchise to extending the franchise to male rural householdersmale rural householders

late 19th century Great Britain still late 19th century Great Britain still saw the same ongoing conflict saw the same ongoing conflict though: though: reform vs. traditionreform vs. traditionDisraeli tried to profit from this by Disraeli tried to profit from this by creating a new conservatism that creating a new conservatism that appealed to established appealed to established landowners and the working classlandowners and the working class– emphasized tradition, emphasized tradition,

patriotism, and reform, patriotism, and reform, working with working with Queen VictoriaQueen Victoria, , who emerged as key symbol who emerged as key symbol of his visionof his vision

– Disraeli also emerged as a Disraeli also emerged as a leading imperialist: leading imperialist:

– he made Victoria the he made Victoria the Empress Empress of Indiaof India

– and bought shares in the and bought shares in the Suez Suez CanalCanal, ,

– and fought colonial wars in and fought colonial wars in Asia and AfricaAsia and Africa

– At home, his social reforms At home, his social reforms recognized unions, public recognized unions, public housing, consumer housing, consumer protection, workplaceprotection, workplace safetysafety……

Gladstone and the Liberals followed “Gladstone and the Liberals followed “Peace, Peace, Retrenchment, and ReformRetrenchment, and Reform”, favoring free trade ”, favoring free trade and fewer colonial wars/adventuresand fewer colonial wars/adventures– They also favoured a They also favoured a laissez fairelaissez faire approach approach

and the eradication of outdated laws and the eradication of outdated laws – In this respect, they reformed the army, civil In this respect, they reformed the army, civil

service, and educational institutions, doing service, and educational institutions, doing away with away with patronagepatronage

– after ongoing Balkan conflict saw the after ongoing Balkan conflict saw the slaughter of 1000’s of Christians by the slaughter of 1000’s of Christians by the Ottomans (and Disraeli backed the Ottomans Ottomans (and Disraeli backed the Ottomans because of his concerns over Russia), because of his concerns over Russia), Gladstone was back in officeGladstone was back in office

Gladstone was not successful in his own foreign Gladstone was not successful in his own foreign policy initiatives – conflict with the policy initiatives – conflict with the Boers in South Boers in South AfricaAfrica and the Irish showed that peace was elusive; with and the Irish showed that peace was elusive; with his introduction of the his introduction of the Irish Home Rule BillIrish Home Rule Bill he split he split his own partyhis own partywith these developments and those in other with these developments and those in other European nations, a new type of rivalry had European nations, a new type of rivalry had emerged, based on emerged, based on industrialization, imperialism industrialization, imperialism and economic competitionand economic competitionnationalism in the Balkans…where is this… was nationalism in the Balkans…where is this… was especially complex because of the number of ethno-especially complex because of the number of ethno-cultural groups in close proximity; cultural groups in close proximity; they were stuck in the collapsing Ottoman and they were stuck in the collapsing Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and the Balkan Wars of Austro-Hungarian Empires, and the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 only inflamed emotions1912-13 only inflamed emotions

the “spark” that ignited World War One the “spark” that ignited World War One would thus occur in this region, creating would thus occur in this region, creating the total war that would transform the the total war that would transform the 20th century20th centuryGermany and G.B. emerged as the key Germany and G.B. emerged as the key powers in this period often called “powers in this period often called “The The Road to WarRoad to War” – both identified their ” – both identified their dominance as a natural outcome of dominance as a natural outcome of earlier history: earlier history: the difference was that in Germany the the difference was that in Germany the old aristocracy retained its influence old aristocracy retained its influence without much trouble, while in G.B. the without much trouble, while in G.B. the dispute between the landed interests dispute between the landed interests and the people led to constitutional and the people led to constitutional crises and reformscrises and reforms

SOCIALISMSOCIALISMsocialism had appeal for the growing trade socialism had appeal for the growing trade union movement. as well as those who union movement. as well as those who gravitated to Marxgravitated to Marx– several attempts at real socialist organization several attempts at real socialist organization

had been made and had not succeededhad been made and had not succeeded– subsequent attempts took a different approach: subsequent attempts took a different approach: – gradualism replaced revolution for many gradualism replaced revolution for many

socialistssocialiststhis approach came to be known as this approach came to be known as revisionismrevisionism, and it , and it divided the socialist Worlddivided the socialist Worldeven so, even so, Social DemocraticSocial Democratic parties did begin to parties did begin to appear and had success in Germany and France.appear and had success in Germany and France.

– in G.B. the in G.B. the Labour PartyLabour Party arose during this period to arose during this period to represent the working classrepresent the working class

– from its inception, the Labour Party was divided from its inception, the Labour Party was divided between the trade unionists and intellectuals ( the between the trade unionists and intellectuals ( the FabiansFabians))

the entrenchment of socialist the entrenchment of socialist ideals had created a sense of ideals had created a sense of crisis in Europe – it was more crisis in Europe – it was more pronounced in the repressive pronounced in the repressive conditions of Eastern Europeconditions of Eastern Europe– Russia in 1905 saw the beginning Russia in 1905 saw the beginning

of profound change as revolution of profound change as revolution began to grip the country (during began to grip the country (during the time of the time of Czar Nicholas IICzar Nicholas II, , 1894-1917)1894-1917)

– Russia was in the midst of an Russia was in the midst of an identity crisis: identity crisis:

– czarist repression + czarist repression + industrialization (much of which industrialization (much of which was financed by foreign capital; it was financed by foreign capital; it created the Russian working class created the Russian working class and the demand for revolutionary and the demand for revolutionary change)change)

The principal Marxist Party, The principal Marxist Party, and the Social Democratic and the Social Democratic Party, had been exiled to Party, had been exiled to Switzerland – they were Switzerland – they were caught in the revisionist caught in the revisionist debate along with other debate along with other Euro. SocialistsEuro. Socialists

Vladimir LeninVladimir Lenin authored authored What Is to Be Done?,What Is to Be Done?, defending the Marxist defending the Marxist concept of revolution and concept of revolution and advancing the ideal of a advancing the ideal of a vanguardvanguard

– the majority agreed with him = the majority agreed with him = Bolsheviks Bolsheviks (while the minority (while the minority were called the Mensheviks)were called the Mensheviks)

– as events in Russia as events in Russia deteriorated (economic deteriorated (economic slump, defeat in the 1904-5 slump, defeat in the 1904-5 Russo-Japanese WarRusso-Japanese War), a ), a real revolution unfoldedreal revolution unfolded

the spark was the spark was Bloody Bloody SundaySunday, when the , when the czar’s troops opened czar’s troops opened fire on peaceful fire on peaceful demonstrators - this demonstrators - this led to crises across led to crises across Russia, leading Russia, leading Nicholas II to create the Nicholas II to create the DumaDuma in an effort to in an effort to reach a settlementreach a settlementthe Duma’s powers the Duma’s powers were limited and the were limited and the radicals and radicals and conservatives were at conservatives were at odds over the pace and odds over the pace and direction of reform: direction of reform: Nicholas continued as Nicholas continued as an autocratan autocrat